Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Term used to refer to the atmosphere and outer space}} [1] => {{Distinguish|Airspace}} [2] => {{For|the corporation|The Aerospace Corporation}} [3] => [[File:Top of Atmosphere.jpg|thumb|upright=1.35|A view of the Earth's atmosphere with the Moon beyond]] [4] => '''Aerospace''' is a term used to collectively refer to the [[atmosphere]] and [[outer space]]. Aerospace activity is very diverse, with a multitude of commercial, industrial, and military applications. [[Aerospace engineering]] consists of [[aeronautics]] and [[astronautics]]. Aerospace organizations research, design, manufacture, operate, or maintain both [[aircraft]] and [[spacecraft]].{{Cite web|title=Aerospace|url=https://www.cranfield.ac.uk/themes/aerospace|access-date=2022-02-09|website=www.cranfield.ac.uk}} [5] => [6] => The beginning of space and the ending of the [[air]] are proposed as 100km (62mi) above the ground according to the physical explanation that the air pressure is too low for a lifting body to generate meaningful lift force without exceeding orbital velocity.{{Cite web|title = Where does space begin? - Aerospace Engineering, Aviation News, Salary, Jobs and Museums|url = http://aerospaceengineering.aero/where-does-space-begin/|website = Aerospace Engineering, Aviation News, Salary, Jobs and Museums|access-date = 2015-11-10|url-status = dead|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20151117034012/http://aerospaceengineering.aero/where-does-space-begin/|archive-date = 2015-11-17}} [7] => [8] => == Overview == [9] => In most industrial countries, the aerospace industry is a cooperation of the public and private sectors. For example, several states have a civilian [[space program]] funded by the [[government]], such as [[NASA|National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] in the United States, [[European Space Agency]] in Europe, the [[Canadian Space Agency]] in Canada, [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] in India, [[JAXA|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] in Japan, [[Roscosmos|Roscosmos State Corporation for Space Activities]] in Russia, [[China National Space Administration]] in China, [[Space and Upper Atmosphere Research Commission|SUPARCO]] in Pakistan, [[Iranian Space Agency]] in Iran, and [[Korea Aerospace Research Institute]] in South Korea. [10] => [11] => Along with these public space programs, many companies produce technical tools and components such as [[spacecraft]] and [[satellite]]s. Some known companies involved in space programs include [[Boeing]], [[Cobham plc|Cobham]], [[Airbus]], [[SpaceX]], [[Lockheed Martin]], [[United Technologies]], [[MDA (company)|MDA]] and [[Northrop Grumman]]. These companies are also involved in other areas of aerospace, such as the construction of aircraft. [12] => [13] => == History == [14] => {{Main|History of aviation|Timeline of space exploration}} [15] => [16] => [[File:Governableparachute.jpg|thumb|right|Glider proposed by Cayley in an 1852 magazine.]] [17] => Modern aerospace began with Engineer [[George Cayley]] in 1799. Cayley proposed an aircraft with a "fixed wing and a horizontal and vertical tail," defining characteristics of the modern aeroplane.{{cite book|last=Anderson|first=John D. Jr.|title=Introduction to flight|year=2008|publisher=[[McGraw-Hill]]|location=Boston|isbn=978-0-07-352939-4|edition=6th}} [18] => [19] => The 19th century saw the creation of the [[Aeronautical Society of Great Britain]] (1866), the American Rocketry Society, and the [[Institute of Aeronautical Sciences]], all of which made aeronautics a more serious scientific discipline. Airmen like [[Otto Lilienthal]], who introduced [[Camber (aerodynamics)|cambered]] [[airfoil]]s in 1891, used gliders to analyze [[aerodynamic force]]s. The [[Wright brothers]] were interested in Lilienthal's work and read several of his publications. They also found inspiration in [[Octave Chanute]], an [[airman]] and the author of ''Progress in Flying Machines'' (1894). It was the preliminary work of Cayley, Lilienthal, Chanute, and other early aerospace engineers that brought about the first powered sustained flight at Kitty Hawk, North Carolina on December 17, 1903, by the Wright brothers. [20] => [21] => War and science fiction inspired scientists and engineers like [[Konstantin Tsiolkovsky]] and [[Wernher von Braun]] to achieve flight beyond the atmosphere. World War II inspired Wernher von Braun to create the V1 and V2 rockets. [22] => [23] => The launch of [[Sputnik]] 1 in October 1957 started the [[Space Age]], and on July 20, 1969 [[Apollo 11]] achieved the first crewed Moon landing. In April 1981, the [[Space Shuttle Columbia|Space Shuttle ''Columbia'']] launched, the start of regular crewed access to orbital space. A sustained human presence in orbital space started with "[[Mir]]" in 1986 and is continued by the "[[International Space Station]]". [[Commercialization of space|Space commercialization]] and [[space tourism]] are more recent features of aerospace. [24] => [25] => ==Manufacturing== [26] => {{Main|Aerospace manufacturer}} [27] => [[File:Falcon 9 Stages (1).jpg|thumb|alt=Long, cylindrical rocket sections lie in a warehouse|Rocket cores under construction at a SpaceX facility.]] [28] => Aerospace manufacturing is a high-technology industry that produces "aircraft, guided missiles, space vehicles, aircraft engines, propulsion units, and related parts".{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov|title=United States Bureau of Labor Statistics|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130423042046/http://www.bls.gov/|archive-date=2013-04-23}} Most of the industry is geared toward governmental work. For each [[original equipment manufacturer]] (OEM), the US government has assigned a [[Commercial and Government Entity code|Commercial and Government Entity (CAGE) code]]. These codes help to identify each manufacturer, repair facilities, and other critical aftermarket vendors in the aerospace industry. [29] => [30] => In the United States, the [[United States Department of Defense|Department of Defense]] and the [[National Aeronautics and Space Administration]] (NASA) are the two largest consumers of aerospace technology and products. Others include the very large airline industry. The aerospace industry employed 472,000 wage and salary workers in 2006.{{cite web|url=http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/cgs006.htm|title=U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, Aerospace Product and Parts Manufacturing|access-date=2009-07-04| archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090814074317/http://www.bls.gov/oco/cg/cgs006.htm| archive-date= 14 August 2009 | url-status= live}} Most of those jobs were in Washington state and in California, with [[Missouri]], [[New York (state)|New York]] and [[Texas]] also being important. The leading aerospace manufacturers in the U.S. are [[Boeing]], [[United Technologies Corporation]], [[SpaceX]], [[Northrop Grumman]] and [[Lockheed Martin]]. As talented American employees age and retire, these manufacturers face an expanding labor shortfall. In order to supply the industrial sector with fresh workers, apprenticeship programs like the Aerospace Joint Apprenticeship Council (AJAC) collaborate with community colleges and aerospace firms in Washington state. [31] => [32] => Important locations of the civilian aerospace industry worldwide include [[Washington (state)|Washington]] state ([[Boeing]]), [[California]] ([[Boeing]], [[Lockheed Martin]], etc.) and [[Montreal|Montreal, Quebec]], Canada ([[Bombardier Aerospace|Bombardier]], [[Pratt & Whitney Canada]]) in [[North America]]; [[Toulouse]], France ([[Airbus SE]]) and [[Hamburg]], Germany ([[Airbus SE]]) in [[Europe]]; as well as [[São José dos Campos]], Brazil ([[Embraer]]), [[Querétaro]], Mexico (Bombardier Aerospace, General Electric Aviation) and [[Mexicali]], Mexico (United Technologies Corporation, [[Gulfstream Aerospace]]) in [[Latin America]]. [33] => [34] => In the European Union, aerospace companies such as [[Airbus SE]], [[Safran]], [[Thales Group|Thales]], [[Dassault Aviation]], [[Leonardo S.p.A.]] and [[Saab AB]] account for a large share of the global aerospace industry and research effort, with the [[European Space Agency]] as one of the largest consumers of aerospace technology and products. [35] => [36] => In India, [[Bangalore]] is a major center of the aerospace industry, where [[Hindustan Aeronautics Limited]], the [[National Aerospace Laboratories]] and the [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] are headquartered. The [[Indian Space Research Organisation]] (ISRO) launched India's first Moon orbiter, [[Chandrayaan-1]], in October 2008. [37] => [38] => In Russia, large aerospace companies like [[Oboronprom]] and the [[United Aircraft Building Corporation]] (encompassing [[Mikoyan]], [[Sukhoi]], [[Ilyushin]], [[Tupolev]], [[Yakovlev]], and [[Irkut (company)|Irkut]] which includes [[Beriev]]) are among the major global players in this industry. The historic [[Soviet Union]] was also the home of a major aerospace industry. [39] => [40] => The United Kingdom formerly attempted to maintain its own large aerospace industry, making its own [[airline]]rs and warplanes, but it has largely turned its lot over to cooperative efforts with continental companies, and it has turned into a large import customer, too, from countries such as the United States. However, the UK has a very active aerospace sector, with major companies such as [[BAE Systems]], supplying fully assembled aircraft, aircraft components, sub-assemblies and sub-systems to other manufacturers, both in Europe and all over the world. [41] => [42] => Canada has formerly manufactured some of its own designs for jet warplanes, etc. (e.g. the [[CF-100]] fighter), but for some decades, it has relied on imports from the United States and Europe to fill these needs. However Canada still manufactures some military aircraft although they are generally not combat capable. Another notable example was the late 1950s development of the [[Avro Canada CF-105 Arrow]], a supersonic fighter-interceptor whose 1959 cancellation was considered highly controversial. [43] => [44] => France has continued to make its own warplanes for its air force and navy, and Sweden continues to make its own warplanes for the Swedish Air Force—especially in support of its position as a [[Neutrality (international relations)|neutral]] country. (See [[Saab AB]].) Other European countries either team up in making [[Fighter aircraft|fighters]] (such as the [[Panavia Tornado]] and the [[Eurofighter Typhoon]]), or else to import them from the United States. [45] => [46] => [[Pakistan]] has a developing aerospace engineering industry. The [[National Engineering and Scientific Commission]], [[Khan Research Laboratories]] and [[Pakistan Aeronautical Complex]] are among the premier organizations involved in research and development in this sector. Pakistan has the capability of designing and manufacturing guided rockets, missiles and space vehicles. The city of [[Kamra, Pakistan|Kamra]] is home to the [[Pakistan Aeronautical Complex]] which contains several factories. This facility is responsible for manufacturing the [[MFI-17 Mushshak|MFI-17]], [[MFI-395 Super Mushshak|MFI-395]], [[Hongdu JL-8|K-8]] and [[JF-17 Thunder]] aircraft. Pakistan also has the capability to design and manufacture both armed and unarmed [[unmanned aerial vehicles]]. [47] => [48] => In the People's Republic of China, [[Beijing]], [[Xi'an]], [[Chengdu]], [[Shanghai]], [[Shenyang]] and [[Nanchang]] are major research and manufacture centers of the aerospace industry. China has developed an extensive capability to design, test and produce military aircraft, missiles and space vehicles. Despite the cancellation in 1983 of the experimental [[Shanghai Y-10]], China is still developing its civil aerospace industry. [49] => [50] => The [[aircraft parts industry]] was born out of the sale of second-hand or used aircraft parts from the aerospace manufacture sector. Within the United States there is a specific process that parts brokers or resellers must follow. This includes leveraging a certified repair station to [[aircraft maintenance|overhaul]] and "tag" a part. This certification guarantees that a part was repaired or overhauled to meet OEM specifications. Once a part is overhauled its value is determined from the supply and demand of the aerospace market. When an airline has an [[aircraft on ground|aircraft on the ground]], the part that the airline requires to get the plane back into service becomes invaluable. This can drive the market for specific parts. There are several online marketplaces that assist with the commodity selling of aircraft parts. [51] => [52] => In the aerospace and defense industry, much consolidation has occurred at the end of the 20th century, going into the 21st century. Between 1988 and 2011, more than 6,068 [[Mergers and acquisitions|mergers & acquisitions]] with a total known value of US$678 billion have been announced worldwide.{{cite web|url=http://www.imaa-institute.org/statistics-mergers-acquisitions.html#M&A_Ind_Aerospace&Defense |title=Statistics on Mergers & Acquisitions (M&A) - M&A Courses | Company Valuation Courses | Mergers & Acquisitions Courses |publisher=Imaa-institute.org |access-date=2013-09-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120106045040/http://www.imaa-institute.org/statistics-mergers-acquisitions.html |archive-date=2012-01-06 }} The largest transactions have been: [53] => * The acquisition of [[Rockwell Collins]] by [[United Technologies Corporation]] for 30.0 bil. USD in 2018 [54] => * The acquisition of [[Goodrich Corporation]] by [[United Technologies Corporation]] for 16.2 bil. USD in 2011{{cite web |url=http://utc.com/News/Press+Releases/Archive/2011/United+Technologies+To+Acquire+Goodrich+Corporation+Complements+And+Strengthens+Position+In+Aerospace+And+Defense+Industry |title=United Technologies To Acquire Goodrich Corporation Complements And Strengthens Position In Aerospace And Defense Industry |publisher=UTC |access-date=2013-09-27 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002184546/http://utc.com/News/Press+Releases/Archive/2011/United+Technologies+To+Acquire+Goodrich+Corporation+Complements+And+Strengthens+Position+In+Aerospace+And+Defense+Industry |archive-date=2013-10-02 }} [55] => * The merger of [[Allied Signal]] with [[Honeywell]] in a stock swap valued 15.6 bil. USD in 1999{{cite web |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1999/06/07/business/allied-signal-and-honeywell-to-announce-merger-today.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |title=Allied Signal And Honeywell To Announce Merger Today - New York Times |work=[[Nytimes.com]] |date=1999-06-07 |access-date=2013-09-27 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131002204521/http://www.nytimes.com/1999/06/07/business/allied-signal-and-honeywell-to-announce-merger-today.html?pagewanted=all&src=pm |archive-date=2013-10-02 }} [56] => * The merger of [[Boeing]] with [[McDonnell Aircraft|McDonnell]] valued at 13.4 bil. USD in 1996[http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/mdc/96-317.html] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130615083305/http://www.boeing.com/news/releases/mdc/96-317.html|date=June 15, 2013}} [57] => * The acquisition of [[Marconi Electronic Systems]], a subsidiary of GEC, by [[British Aerospace]] for 12.9 bil. USD in 1999[http://www.baesystems.com/BAEProd/groups/public/documents/bae_publication/bae_pdf_undertakings.pdf] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100825183756/http://www.baesystems.com/BAEProd/groups/public/documents/bae_publication/bae_pdf_undertakings.pdf|date=August 25, 2010}} (now called: [[BAE Systems]]) [58] => * The acquisition of [[Hughes Aircraft]] by [[Raytheon]] for 9.5 bil. USD in 1997 [59] => [60] => ==Technology== [61] => [62] => Multiple [[technologies]] and [[innovation]]s are used in aerospace, many of them pioneered around [[World War II]]:{{cite news |url= https://aviationweek.com/future-aerospace/top-technologies-protecting-pilot-keeping-it-together |title= Top Technologies: 'Protecting the Pilot' to 'Keeping It Together' |date= May 6, 2016 |author1= James R. Asker |author2=John Croft |author3=Guy Norris |author4=Graham Warwick |work= Aviation Week & Space Technology}} [63] => * patented by [[Short Brothers]], [[folding wings]] optimise [[aircraft carrier]] storage from a simple fold to the entire rotating wing of the [[V-22]], and the {{cvt|12|ft}} wingtip fold of the [[Boeing 777X]] for airport compatibility. [64] => * To improve low-speed performance, a [[de Havilland DH4]] was modified by [[Handley Page]] to a monoplane with [[high-lift device]]s: full-span [[leading-edge slat]]s and trailing-edge [[Flap (aeronautics)|flap]]s; in 1924, [[Fowler flaps]] that extend backward and downward were invented in the US, and used on the [[Lockheed Model 10 Electra]] while in 1943 forward-hinged leading-edge [[Krueger flap]]s were invented in Germany and later used on the [[Boeing 707]]. [65] => * The 1927 large Propeller Research Tunnel at NACA [[Langley Research Center|Langley]] confirmed that the [[landing gear]] was a major source of drag, in 1930 the [[Boeing Monomail]] featured a retractable gear. [66] => * The [[flush rivet]] displaced the domed rivet in the 1930s and pneumatic [[rivet gun]]s work in combination with a heavy reaction [[bucking bar]]; not depending on plastic deformation, specialist rivets were developed to improve fatigue life as [[Shear joint|shear fastener]]s like the Hi-Lok, threaded pins tightened until a collar breaks off with enough torque. [67] => * First flown in 1935, the [[Queen Bee (aircraft)|Queen Bee]] was a [[radio-controlled]] target [[Unmanned aerial vehicle|drone]] derived from the [[Tiger Moth]] for [[Flak]] training; the [[Ryan Firebee]] was a jet-powered target drone developed into long-range reconnaissance UAVs: the [[Ryan Model 147]] Fire Fly and Lightning Bug; the Israeli [[IAI Scout]] and [[Tadiran Mastiff]] launched a line of [[unmanned combat aerial vehicle|battlefield UAV]]s including the [[IAI Searcher]]; developed from the [[General Atomics Gnat]] long-endurance UAV for the CIA, the [[MQ-1 Predator]] led to the armed [[MQ-9 Reaper]]. [68] => * At the end of World War I, piston engine power could be boosted by compressing intake air with a compressor, also compensating for decreasing air density with altitude, improved with 1930s [[turbocharger]]s for the [[Boeing B-17]] and the first pressurized airliners. [69] => * The 1937 [[Hindenburg disaster]] ended the era of passenger [[airship]]s but the US Navy used airships for [[anti-submarine warfare]] and [[airborne early warning]] into the 1960s, while small airships continue to be used for aerial advertising, sightseeing flights, surveillance and research, and the [[Airlander 10]] or the [[Lockheed Martin LMH-1]] continue to be developed. [70] => * As US airlines were interested in high-altitude flying in the mid-1930s, the [[Lockheed XC-35]] with a [[pressurized cabin]] was tested in 1937 and the [[Boeing 307 Stratoliner]] would be the first pressurized airliner to enter commercial service. [71] => * In 1933, [[Plexiglas]], a transparent Acrylic plastic, was introduced in Germany and shortly before World War II, was first used for aircraft windshields as it is lighter than glass, and the bubble canopy improved fighter pilots visibility. [72] => * In January 1930, [[Royal Air Force]] pilot and engineer [[Frank Whittle]] filed a patent for a [[gas turbine]] aircraft engine with an inlet, compressor, combustor, turbine and nozzle, while an independent [[turbojet]] was developed by researcher [[Hans von Ohain]] in Germany; both engines ran within weeks in early 1937 and the [[Heinkel HeS 3]]-propelled [[Heinkel He 178]] experimental aircraft made its first flight on Aug 27, 1939 while the [[Whittle W.1]]-powered [[Gloster E.28/39]] prototype flew on May 15, 1941. [73] => * In 1935, Britain demonstrated aircraft [[radio detection and ranging]] and in 1940 the [[Royal Air Force|RAF]] introduced the first [[Very high frequency|VHF]] airborne radars on [[Bristol Blenheim]]s, then higher-resolution [[microwave]]-frequency radar with a [[cavity magnetron]] on [[Bristol Beaufighter]]s in 1941, and in 1959 the radar-homing Hughes [[AIM-4 Falcon]] became the first US [[guided missile]] on the [[Convair F-106]]. [74] => * In the early 1940s, British Hurricane and Spitfire pilots wore [[g-suit]]s to prevent [[G-LOC]] due to blood pooling in the lower body in [[high g]] situations; [[Mayo Clinic]] researchers developed air-filled bladders to replace water-filled bladders and in 1943 the US military began using [[pressure suit]]s from the [[David Clark Company]]. [75] => * The modern [[ejection seat]] was developed during World War II, a seat on rails ejected by rockets before deploying a parachute, which could have been enhanced by the USAF in the late 1960s as a turbojet-powered autogyro with 50 nm of range, the [[Kaman KSA-100 SAVER]]. [76] => * In 1942, [[numerical control]] machining was conceived by machinist [[John T. Parsons]] to cut complex structures from solid blocks of alloy, rather than assembling them, improving quality, reducing weight, and saving time and cost to produce bulkheads or wing skins. [77] => * In World War II, the German [[V-2]] combined [[gyroscope]]s, an [[accelerometer]] and a primitive [[computer]] for real-time [[inertial navigation]] allowing [[dead reckoning]] without reference to landmarks or guide stars, leading to packaged [[Inertial measurement unit|IMU]]s for spacecraft and aircraft. [78] => * The UK [[Miles M.52]] supersonic aircraft was to have an [[afterburner]], augmenting a [[turbojet]] thrust by burning additional fuel in the [[propelling nozzle|nozzle]], but was cancelled in 1946. [79] => * In 1935, German aerodynamicist [[Adolf Busemann]] proposed using [[swept wing]]s to reduce high-speed drag and the [[Messerschmitt P.1101]] fighter prototype was 80% complete by the end of World War II; the later US [[North American F-86]] and [[Boeing B-47]] flew in 1947, as the Soviet [[MiG-15]], and the British [[de Havilland Comet]] in 1949. [80] => * In 1951, the [[Avro Jetliner]] featured an [[ice protection system]] from [[Goodyear Aerospace|Goodyear]] through [[Ice protection system#Electro-thermal|electro-thermal]] resistances in the wing and tail leading edges; [[jet aircraft]] use hot engine [[bleed air]] and lighter aircraft use pneumatic [[deicing boot]]s or [[Weeping wing|weep]] anti-icing fluid on propellers, wing and tail leading edges. [81] => * In 1954, [[Bell Labs]] developed the first transistorized airborne digital computer, Tradic for the US [[Boeing B-52]] and in the 1960s [[Raytheon]] built the [[MIT]]-developed [[Apollo Guidance Computer]]; the [[MIL-STD-1553]] avionics [[digital bus]] was defined in 1973 then first used in the [[General Dynamics F-16]], while the civil [[ARINC 429]] was first used in the [[Boeing 757]]/[[Boeing 767|B767]] and [[Airbus A310]] in the early 1980s. [82] => * After World War II, the initial promoter of [[Photovoltaic power]] for spacecraft, [[Hans K. Ziegler]], was brought to the US under [[Operation Paperclip]] along [[Wernher von Braun]] and [[Vanguard 1]] was its first application in 1958, later enhanced in space-[[System deployment|deployable]] structures like the [[International Space Station]] solar arrays of {{cvt|0.33|hectare}}. [83] => * To board an [[airliner]], [[jet bridge]]s are more accessible, comfortable and efficient than climbing the stairs. [84] => * In the 1950s, to improve thrust and [[fuel efficiency]], the [[jet engine]] airflow was divided into a core stream and a bypass stream with a lower velocity for better propulsive efficiency: the first was the [[Rolls-Royce Conway]] with a 0.3 [[bypass ratio|BPR]] on the [[Boeing 707]] in 1960, followed by the [[Pratt & Whitney JT3D]] with a 1.5 BPR and, derived from the [[J79]], the [[General Electric CJ805]] powered the [[Convair 990]] with a 28% lower cruise fuel burn; bypass ratio improved to the 9.3 BPR [[Rolls-Royce Trent XWB]], the 10:1 BPR [[GE9X]] and the [[Pratt & Whitney GTF]] with high-pressure ratio cores. [85] => [86] => ==Functional safety== [87] => Functional safety relates to a part of the general safety of a system or a piece of equipment. It implies that the system or equipment can be operated properly and without causing any danger, risk, damage or injury. [88] => [89] => Functional safety is crucial in the aerospace industry, which allows no compromises or negligence. In this respect, supervisory bodies, such as the [[European Aviation Safety Agency]] (EASA [90] => ),{{cite web|url=http://www.easa.eu.int/ |title=EASA - European Aviation Safety Agency |access-date=2013-06-03 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130620150922/http://www.easa.eu.int/ |archive-date=2013-06-20 }} European Aviation Safety Agency regulate the aerospace market with strict certification standards. This is meant to reach and ensure the highest possible level of safety. The standards AS 9100 in America, EN 9100 on the European market or JISQ 9100 in Asia particularly address the aerospace and aviation industry. These are standards applying to the functional safety of aerospace vehicles. Some companies are therefore specialized in the certification, inspection verification and testing of the vehicles and spare parts to ensure and attest compliance with the appropriate regulations. [91] => [92] => ==Spinoffs== [93] => Spinoffs refer to any technology that is a direct result of coding or products created by NASA and redesigned for an alternate purpose.{{cite web |url=http://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2015/pdf/Spinoff2015.pdf |title=Spinoff 2015 |access-date=2015-03-12 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151016211503/http://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff2015/pdf/Spinoff2015.pdf |archive-date=2015-10-16 }} These technological advancements are one of the primary results of the aerospace industry, with $5.2 billion worth of revenue generated by spinoff technology, including computers and cellular devices. These spinoffs have applications in a variety of different fields including medicine, transportation, energy, consumer goods, public safety and more. NASA publishes an annual report called "Spinoffs", regarding many of the specific products and benefits to the aforementioned areas in an effort to highlight some of the ways funding is put to use.{{cite web|url=http://www.universetoday.com/37079/benefits-of-space-exploration/|title=What Are The Benefits Of Space Exploration? - Universe Today|date=26 January 2015|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150321111726/http://www.universetoday.com/37079/benefits-of-space-exploration/|archive-date=21 March 2015}} For example, in the most recent edition of this publication, "Spinoffs 2015", endoscopes are featured as one of the medical derivations of aerospace achievement. This device enables more precise and subsequently cost-effective neurosurgery by reducing complications through a minimally invasive procedure that abbreviates hospitalization. "These [[NASA]] technologies are not only giving companies and [[Entrepreneurship|entrepreneurs]] a competitive edge in their own industries, but are also helping to shape budding industries, such as commercial [[lunar lander]]s," said Daniel Lockney.{{Cite web|title=NASA Spinoffs Help Fight Coronavirus, Clean Pollution, Grow Food, More {{!}} NASA Spinoff|url=https://spinoff.nasa.gov/Spinoff-2022-release|access-date=2022-02-10|website=spinoff.nasa.gov}} [94] => [95] => ==See also== [96] => {{Main|Outline of aerospace}} [97] => * [[Aerodynamics]] [98] => * [[Aeronautics]] [99] => * [[Aerospace engineering]] [100] => * [[Aircraft]] [101] => * [[Astronautics]] [102] => * [[NewSpace]] [103] => * [[List of space agencies|Space agencies]] (List of) [104] => * [[Space exploration]] [105] => * [[Spacecraft]] [106] => * [[wikt:Appendix:Aviation, aerospace, and aeronautical terms|Wiktionary: Aviation, aerospace, and aeronautical terms]] [107] => [108] => ==References== [109] => {{Reflist|2}} [110] => ==Further reading== [111] => [112] => * Blockley, Richard, and Wei Shyy. ''Encyclopedia of aerospace engineering'' (American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, Inc., 2010). [113] => * Brunton, Steven L., et al. "Data-driven aerospace engineering: reframing the industry with machine learning." ''AIAA Journal.. 59.8 (2021): 2820-2847. [https://arc.aiaa.org/doi/pdf/10.2514/1.J060131?download=true online] [114] => [115] => * Davis, Jeffrey R., Robert Johnson, and Jan Stepanek, eds. ''Fundamentals of aerospace medicine'' (Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2008) [https://books.google.com/books?id=_6hymYAgC6MC&dq=aerospace&pg=PR3 online]. [116] => [117] => * Mouritz, Adrian P. ''Introduction to aerospace materials'' (Elsevier, 2012) [https://books.google.com/books?id=U5RwAgAAQBAJ&dq=aerospace&pg=PP1 online]. [118] => [119] => * Petrescu, Relly Victoria, et al. "Modern propulsions for aerospace-a review." ''Journal of Aircraft and Spacecraft Technology'' 1.1 (2017). [120] => [121] => * Phero, Graham C., and Kessler Sterne. "The aerospace revolution: development, intellectual property, and value." (2022). [https://www.sternekessler.com/sites/default/files/2022-03/wlt_phero_sterne_stevens.pdf online] [122] => [123] => * Wills, Jocelyn. ''Tug of War: Surveillance Capitalism, Military Contracting, and the Rise of the Security State'' (McGill-Queen's University Press, 2017), scholarly history of [[MDA (company)|MDA]] in Canada. [https://www.h-net.org/reviews/showpdf.php?id=59519 online book review] [124] => [125] => ==External links== [126] => {{Wiktionary|aerospace}} [127] => [128] => [[Category:Aerospace| ]] [] => )
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Aerospace

Aerospace is a branch of engineering that deals with aircraft, spacecraft, and related technologies. It encompasses various disciplines such as aerodynamics, propulsion, flight mechanics, materials science, avionics, and control systems.

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It encompasses various disciplines such as aerodynamics, propulsion, flight mechanics, materials science, avionics, and control systems. The field of aerospace has revolutionized transportation, exploration, and military capabilities. The term aerospace emerged in the 1950s to represent the joint study of aeronautics (the science of flight within Earth's atmosphere) and astronautics (the science of space travel beyond Earth's atmosphere). Aerospace covers a wide range of applications, including the design and manufacturing of aircraft and spacecraft, the development of navigation and communication systems, and the exploration of outer space. The history of aerospace can be traced back to ancient civilizations, where early experiments with kites and hot air balloons laid the foundation for modern flight. The breakthrough came in the 20th century with the invention of powered flight by the Wright brothers and the subsequent development of airplanes and rockets. The aerospace industry grew rapidly during World War II and the Cold War, as nations invested heavily in military aviation and space exploration. Today, the aerospace industry is a major global player, with countries competing to build advanced aircraft and spacecraft. It extends beyond manufacturing, encompassing research and development, testing, maintenance, and support services. The industry is driven by technological advancements, including the use of composite materials, computer-aided design, and additive manufacturing. These advancements have led to the development of supersonic and hypersonic aircraft, unmanned aerial vehicles (drones), and reusable spacecraft like the Space Shuttle. Aerospace is also closely linked to other fields such as astrodynamics, which deals with the motion of objects in space, and astronautical engineering, which focuses on the design of spacecraft. The field has contributed to significant scientific discoveries and advancements, such as the exploration of the Moon, planets, and beyond. It has also led to the development of satellite technology, which enables global communication, navigation, weather forecasting, and Earth observation. In addition to its engineering aspects, aerospace also has economic, societal, and environmental implications. The aerospace industry creates jobs, stimulates economies, and fosters international collaborations. However, it also faces challenges related to cost, safety, sustainability, and geopolitical issues. Overall, aerospace is a dynamic and multidisciplinary field that continues to push the boundaries of human knowledge and technological capabilities in the quest for safer, more efficient, and sustainable air and space travel.

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