Array ( [0] => {{other uses}} [1] => {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} [2] => {{good article}} [3] => {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2016}} [4] => [5] => {{Infobox aluminium}} [6] => [7] => '''Aluminium''' ('''Aluminum''' in [[North American English]]) is a [[chemical element]]; it has [[chemical symbol|symbol]] '''Al''' and [[atomic number]] 13. Aluminium has a density lower than that of other common [[metal]]s, about one-third that of [[steel]]. It has a great affinity towards [[oxygen]], [[passivation (chemistry)|forming a protective layer]] of [[aluminium oxide|oxide]] on the surface when exposed to air. Aluminium visually resembles [[silver]], both in its color and in its great ability to reflect light. It is soft, [[magnetism|nonmagnetic]], and [[ductility|ductile]]. It has one stable isotope, 27Al, which is highly abundant, making aluminium the [[abundance of the chemical elements|twelfth-most common element]] in the universe. The [[radioactive decay|radioactivity]] of [[aluminium-26|26Al]], a more unstable isotope, leads to it being used in [[radiometric dating]]. [8] => [9] => Chemically, aluminium is a [[post-transition metal]] in the [[boron group]]; as is common for the group, aluminium forms compounds primarily in the +3 [[oxidation state]]. The aluminium [[cation]] Al3+ is [[Fajans' rules|small and highly charged]]; as such, it has more [[chemical polarity|polarizing power]], and [[chemical bond|bonds]] formed by aluminium have a more [[covalent bond|covalent]] character. The strong affinity of aluminium for oxygen leads to the common occurrence of its oxides in nature. Aluminium is found on Earth primarily in rocks in the [[Earth's crust|crust]], where it is the [[abundance of elements in Earth's crust|third-most abundant element]], after [[oxygen]] and [[silicon]], rather than in the [[mantle (geology)|mantle]], and virtually never as the [[free element|free metal]]. It is obtained industrially by mining [[bauxite]], a [[sedimentary rock]] rich in aluminium minerals. [10] => [11] => The discovery of aluminium was announced in 1825 by Danish physicist [[Hans Christian Ørsted]]. The first industrial production of aluminium was initiated by French chemist [[Henri Étienne Sainte-Claire Deville]] in 1856. Aluminium became much more available to the public with the [[Hall–Héroult process]] developed independently by French engineer [[Paul Héroult]] and American engineer [[Charles Martin Hall]] in 1886, and the mass production of aluminium led to its extensive use in industry and everyday life. In the [[World War I|First]] and [[World War II|Second]] World Wars, aluminium was a crucial [[strategic resource]] for [[aviation]]. In 1954, aluminium became the most produced [[non-ferrous metal]], surpassing [[copper]]. In the 21st century, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging in the United States, Western Europe, and Japan. [12] => [13] => Despite its prevalence in the environment, no living organism is known to [[Metabolism|metabolize]] aluminium [[salts]], but this aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals. Because of the abundance of these salts, the potential for a biological role for them is of interest, and studies are ongoing. [14] => [15] => == Physical characteristics == [16] => === Isotopes === [17] => {{Main|Isotopes of aluminium}} [18] => [19] => Of aluminium isotopes, only {{SimpleNuclide|Aluminium}} is stable. This situation is common for elements with an odd atomic number.{{efn|No elements with odd atomic numbers have more than two stable isotopes; even-numbered elements have multiple stable isotopes, with tin (element 50) having the highest number of stable isotopes of all elements, ten. The single exception is [[beryllium]] which is even-numbered but has only one stable isotope. See [[Even and odd atomic nuclei]] for more details.}} It is the only [[primordial nuclide|primordial]] aluminium isotope, i.e. the only one that has existed on Earth in its current form since the formation of the planet. It is therefore a [[mononuclidic element]] and its [[standard atomic weight]] is virtually the same as that of the isotope. This makes aluminium very useful in [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] (NMR), as its single stable isotope has a high NMR sensitivity.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=242–252}} The standard atomic weight of aluminium is low in comparison with many other metals.{{efn|Most other metals have greater standard atomic weights: for instance, that of iron is {{val|55.845}}; copper {{val|63.546}}; lead {{val|207.2}}.{{CIAAW2021}} which has consequences for the element's properties (see [[#Bulk|below]])}} [20] => [21] => All other isotopes of aluminium are [[radioactive decay|radioactive]]. The most stable of these is [[Aluminium-26|26Al]]: while it was present along with stable 27Al in the interstellar medium from which the Solar System formed, having been produced by [[stellar nucleosynthesis]] as well, its [[half-life]] is only 717,000 years and therefore a detectable amount has not survived since the formation of the planet.{{cite web [22] => |url=https://ciaaw.org/aluminium.htm [23] => |title=Aluminium [24] => |publisher=The Commission on Isotopic Abundances and Atomic Weights|access-date=2020-10-20 [25] => |archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923154544/https://www.ciaaw.org/aluminium.htm|url-status=live}} [26] => However, minute traces of 26Al are produced from [[argon]] in the [[Earth's atmosphere|atmosphere]] by [[spallation]] caused by [[cosmic ray]] protons. The ratio of 26Al to [[beryllium-10|10Be]] has been used for [[Radiometric dating|radiodating]] of geological processes over 105 to 106 year time scales, in particular transport, deposition, [[sediment]] storage, burial times, and erosion.{{cite book [27] => |chapter-url=http://www.onafarawayday.com/Radiogenic/Ch14/Ch14-6.htm [28] => |title=Radiogenic Isotope Geology [29] => |last1=Dickin|first1=A.P.|date=2005 [30] => |publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-53017-0|chapter=''In situ'' Cosmogenic Isotopes [31] => |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010805/http://www.onafarawayday.com/Radiogenic/Ch14/Ch14-6.htm|archive-date=6 December 2008|url-status=dead [32] => |df=dmy-all|access-date=16 July 2008}} [33] => Most meteorite scientists believe that the energy released by the decay of 26Al was responsible for the melting and [[planetary differentiation|differentiation]] of some [[asteroids]] after their formation 4.55 billion years ago.{{cite book [34] => |title=Thunderstones and Shooting Stars [35] => |url=https://archive.org/details/thunderstonessho00dodd_673|url-access=limited [36] => |last1=Dodd|first1=R.T.|date=1986 [37] => |publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-89137-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/thunderstonessho00dodd_673/page/n99 89]–90}} [38] => [39] => The remaining isotopes of aluminium, with [[mass number]]s ranging from 22 to 43, all have half-lives well under an hour. Three [[metastable]] states are known, all with half-lives under a minute.{{cite web [40] => |url=https://www-nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML.html [41] => |title=Livechart – Table of Nuclides – Nuclear structure and decay data [42] => |author=IAEA – Nuclear Data Section|year=2017|website=www-nds.iaea.org|publisher=[[International Atomic Energy Agency]]|access-date=31 March 2017 [43] => |archive-date=23 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190323230752/https://www-nds.iaea.org/relnsd/vcharthtml/VChartHTML.html|url-status=live}} [44] => [45] => === Electron shell === [46] => [47] => An aluminium atom has 13 electrons, arranged in an [[electron configuration]] of {{nowrap|{{bracket|[[Neon|Ne]]}} 3s2 3p1}},{{sfn|Dean|1999|p=4.2}} with three electrons beyond a stable noble gas configuration. Accordingly, the combined first three [[ionization energy|ionization energies]] of aluminium are far lower than the fourth ionization energy alone.{{sfn|Dean|1999|p=4.6}} Such an electron configuration is shared with the other well-characterized members of its group, [[boron]], [[gallium]], [[indium]], and [[thallium]]; it is also expected for [[nihonium]]. Aluminium can surrender its three outermost electrons in many chemical reactions (see [[#Chemistry|below]]). The [[electronegativity]] of aluminium is 1.61 (Pauling scale).{{sfn|Dean|1999|p=4.29}} [48] => [[File:Aluminium Atomic lattice.png|alt=M. Tunes & S. Pogatscher, Montanuniversität Leoben 2019 No copyrights =)|left|thumb|upright=1.2|High-resolution [[Scanning transmission electron microscopy|STEM]]-[[Annular dark-field imaging|HAADF]] micrograph of Al atoms viewed along the [001] zone axis.]] [49] => A free aluminium atom has a [[atomic radius|radius]] of 143 [[picometer|pm]].{{sfn|Dean|1999|p=4.30}} With the three outermost electrons removed, the [[ionic radius|radius]] shrinks to 39 pm for a 4-coordinated atom or 53.5 pm for a 6-coordinated atom.{{sfn|Dean|1999|p=4.30}} At [[standard temperature and pressure]], aluminium atoms (when not affected by atoms of other elements) form a [[Cubic crystal system|face-centered cubic crystal system]] bound by [[metallic bonding]] provided by atoms' outermost electrons; hence aluminium (at these conditions) is a metal. This crystal system is shared by many other metals, such as [[lead]] and [[copper]]; the size of a unit cell of aluminium is comparable to that of those other metals.{{cite book [50] => |last=Enghag|first=Per|title=Encyclopedia of the Elements: Technical Data – History – Processing – Applications [51] => |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=fUmTX8yKU4gC|date=2008 [52] => |publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-3-527-61234-5|pages=139, 819, 949|access-date=7 December 2017 [53] => |archive-date=25 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225132056/https://books.google.com/books?id=fUmTX8yKU4gC|url-status=live}} [54] => The system, however, is not shared by the other members of its group; boron has ionization energies too high to allow metallization, thallium has a [[hexagonal close-packed]] structure, and gallium and indium have unusual structures that are not close-packed like those of aluminium and thallium. The few electrons that are available for [[metallic bonding]] in aluminium are a probable cause for it being soft with a low melting point and low [[electrical resistivity]].Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 222–4 [55] => [56] => === Bulk === [57] => [58] => Aluminium metal has an appearance ranging from silvery white to dull gray depending on its [[surface roughness]].{{efn|The two sides of aluminium foil differ in their luster: one is shiny and the other is dull. The difference is due to the small mechanical damage on the surface of dull side arising from the technological process of aluminium foil manufacturing.{{Cite web [59] => |title=Heavy Duty Foil [60] => |url=https://www.reynoldskitchens.com/products/aluminum-foil/heavy-duty-foil/|website=Reynolds Kitchens|language=en|access-date=2020-09-20 [61] => |archive-date=23 September 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200923185810/https://www.reynoldskitchens.com/products/aluminum-foil/heavy-duty-foil/ |url-status=live}} Both sides reflect similar amounts of visible light, but the shiny side reflects a far greater share of visible light [[specular reflection|specularly]] whereas the dull side almost exclusively [[Diffuse reflection|diffuses]] light. Both sides of aluminium foil serve as good [[Reflectance|reflectors]] (approximately 86%) of [[visible light]] and an excellent reflector (as much as 97%) of medium and far [[infrared]] radiation.{{Cite journal [62] => |last1=Pozzobon|first1=V.|last2=Levasseur|first2=W.|last3=Do|first3=Kh.-V.|display-authors=3|last4=Palpant|first4=Bruno|last5=Perré|first5=Patrick|date=2020 [63] => |title=Household aluminum foil matte and bright side reflectivity measurements: Application to a photobioreactor light concentrator design [64] => |journal=Biotechnology Reports|language=en|volume=25|pages=e00399|doi=10.1016/j.btre.2019.e00399|pmc=6906702|pmid=31867227}}}} Aluminium mirrors are the most reflective of all metal mirrors for near [[ultraviolet]] and far [[infrared]] light. It is also one of the most reflective for light in the visible spectrum, nearly on par with silver in this respect, and the two therefore look similar. Aluminium is also good at reflecting [[solar radiation]], although prolonged exposure to sunlight in air adds wear to the surface of the metal; this may be prevented if aluminium is [[anodization|anodized]], which adds a protective layer of oxide on the surface. [65] => [66] => The density of aluminium is 2.70 g/cm3, about 1/3 that of steel, much lower than other commonly encountered metals, making aluminium parts easily identifiable through their lightness.{{sfn|Lide|2004|p=4-3}} Aluminium's low density compared to most other metals arises from the fact that its nuclei are much lighter, while difference in the unit cell size does not compensate for this difference. The only lighter metals are the metals of [[alkali metal|groups 1]] and [[alkaline earth metal|2]], which apart from [[beryllium]] and [[magnesium]] are too reactive for structural use (and beryllium is very toxic).{{cite journal [67] => |title=A brighter beryllium|date=2011|last1=Puchta|first1=Ralph [68] => |journal=Nature Chemistry|volume=3|issue=5|pages=416|pmid=21505503|bibcode=2011NatCh...3..416P|doi=10.1038/nchem.1033|doi-access=free}} [69] => Aluminium is not as strong or stiff as steel, but the low density makes up for this in the [[aerospace]] industry and for many other applications where light weight and relatively high strength are crucial.{{sfn|Davis|1999|pp=1–3}} [70] => [71] => Pure aluminium is quite soft and lacking in strength. In most applications various [[aluminium alloys]] are used instead because of their higher strength and hardness.{{sfn|Davis|1999|p=2}} The [[yield (engineering)|yield strength]] of pure aluminium is 7–11 [[Pascal (unit)|MPa]], while [[aluminium alloy]]s have yield strengths ranging from 200 MPa to 600 MPa.{{cite book [72] => |last1=Polmear|first1=I.J.|date=1995 [73] => |title=Light Alloys: Metallurgy of the Light Metals [74] => |edition=3|publisher=[[Butterworth-Heinemann]]|isbn=978-0-340-63207-9}} [75] => Aluminium is [[ductility|ductile]], with a percent elongation of 50-70%,{{Cite book [76] => |last=Cardarelli|first=François|title=Materials handbook : a concise desktop reference|date=2008 [77] => |publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-84628-669-8|edition=2nd|location=London|pages=158–163|oclc=261324602}} [78] => and [[malleable]] allowing it to be easily [[drawing (metalworking)|drawn]] and [[extrusion|extruded]].{{sfn|Davis|1999|p=4}} It is also easily [[machining|machined]] and [[casting (metalworking)|cast]].{{sfn|Davis|1999|p=4}} [79] => [80] => Aluminium is an excellent [[Heat conduction|thermal]] and [[electrical conductor]], having around 60% the conductivity of [[copper]], both thermal and electrical, while having only 30% of copper's density.{{sfn|Davis|1999|pp=2–3}} Aluminium is capable of [[superconductor|superconductivity]], with a superconducting critical temperature of 1.2 [[kelvin]] and a critical magnetic field of about 100 [[gauss (unit)|gauss]] (10 [[millitesla]]s). [81] => {{cite journal [82] => |last1=Cochran |first1=J.F. [83] => |last2=Mapother |first2=D.E. [84] => |date=1958 [85] => |title=Superconducting Transition in Aluminum [86] => |journal=[[Physical Review]] [87] => |volume=111 |issue=1 |pages=132–142 [88] => |bibcode=1958PhRv..111..132C [89] => |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.111.132 [90] => }} It is [[paramagnetic]] and thus essentially unaffected by static magnetic fields.{{sfn|Schmitz|2006|p=6}} The high electrical conductivity, however, means that it is strongly affected by alternating magnetic fields through the induction of [[eddy currents]].{{sfn|Schmitz|2006|p=161}} [91] => [92] => == Chemistry == [93] => {{main|Compounds of aluminium}} [94] => Aluminium combines characteristics of pre- and post-transition metals. Since it has few available electrons for metallic bonding, like its heavier [[Group 13 element|group 13]] congeners, it has the characteristic physical properties of a post-transition metal, with longer-than-expected interatomic distances. Furthermore, as Al3+ is a small and highly charged cation, it is strongly polarizing and [[Chemical bond|bonding]] in aluminium compounds tends towards [[Covalent bond|covalency]];{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}} this behavior is similar to that of [[beryllium]] (Be2+), and the two display an example of a [[diagonal relationship]].{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=112–113}} [95] => [96] => The underlying core under aluminium's valence shell is that of the preceding [[noble gas]], whereas those of its heavier congeners [[gallium]], [[indium]], [[thallium]], and [[nihonium]] also include a filled d-subshell and in some cases a filled f-subshell. Hence, the inner electrons of aluminium shield the valence electrons almost completely, unlike those of aluminium's heavier congeners. As such, aluminium is the most electropositive metal in its group, and its hydroxide is in fact more basic than that of gallium.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}}{{efn|In fact, aluminium's electropositive behavior, high affinity for oxygen, and highly negative [[standard electrode potential]] are all better aligned with those of [[scandium]], [[yttrium]], [[lanthanum]], and [[actinium]], which like aluminium have three valence electrons outside a noble gas core; this series shows continuous trends whereas those of group 13 is broken by the first added d-subshell in gallium and the resulting [[d-block contraction]] and the first added f-subshell in thallium and the resulting [[lanthanide contraction]].{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}}}} Aluminium also bears minor similarities to the metalloid boron in the same group: AlX3 compounds are valence [[isoelectronic]] to BX3 compounds (they have the same valence electronic structure), and both behave as [[Lewis acid]]s and readily form [[adduct]]s.{{sfn|King|1995|p=241}} Additionally, one of the main motifs of boron chemistry is [[regular icosahedron|regular icosahedral]] structures, and aluminium forms an important part of many icosahedral [[quasicrystal]] alloys, including the Al–Zn–Mg class.{{sfn|King|1995|pp=235–236}} [97] => [98] => Aluminium has a high [[chemical affinity]] to oxygen, which renders it suitable for use as a [[reducing agent]] in the [[thermite]] reaction. A fine powder of aluminium reacts explosively on contact with [[liquid oxygen]]; under normal conditions, however, aluminium forms a thin oxide layer (~5 nm at room temperature){{Cite book [99] => |last=Hatch|first=John E.|title=Aluminum : properties and physical metallurgy|date=1984 [100] => |publisher=American Society for Metals, Aluminum Association |location=Metals Park, Ohio|pages=242 [101] => |oclc=759213422|isbn=978-1-61503-169-6}} [102] => that protects the metal from further corrosion by oxygen, water, or dilute acid, a process termed [[passivation (chemistry)|passivation]].{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}}{{cite book [103] => |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NAABS5KrVDYC&pg=PA81 [104] => |title=Corrosion of Aluminium|last=Vargel|first=Christian|date=2004 [105] => |publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-08-044495-6|orig-year=French edition published 1999 [106] => |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160521212331/https://books.google.com/books?id=NAABS5KrVDYC&pg=PA81|archive-date=21 May 2016|url-status=live}} [107] => Because of its general resistance to corrosion, aluminium is one of the few metals that retains silvery reflectance in finely powdered form, making it an important component of [[silver (color)|silver-colored]] paints.{{cite book [108] => |last1=Macleod|first1=H.A.|title=Thin-film optical filters|date=2001 [109] => |publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-0-7503-0688-1|pages=158159}} [110] => Aluminium is not attacked by oxidizing acids because of its passivation. This allows aluminium to be used to store reagents such as [[nitric acid]], concentrated [[sulfuric acid]], and some organic acids.{{cite book [111] => |last1=Frank|first1=W.B.|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|title-link=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|date=2009 [112] => |publisher=Wiley-VCH|isbn=978-3-527-30673-2|chapter=Aluminum|doi=10.1002/14356007.a01_459.pub2}} [113] => [114] => In hot concentrated [[hydrochloric acid]], aluminium reacts with water with evolution of hydrogen, and in aqueous [[sodium hydroxide]] or [[potassium hydroxide]] at room temperature to form [[aluminates]]—protective passivation under these conditions is negligible. [[Aqua regia]] also dissolves aluminium. Aluminium is corroded by dissolved [[chlorides]], such as common [[sodium chloride]], which is why household plumbing is never made from aluminium.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Askwi3lXdlcC&pg=PA90|title=Engine Coolant Testing : Fourth Volume|last=Beal|first=Roy E.|year=1999|publisher=ASTM International|isbn=978-0-8031-2610-7|page=90|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160424071051/https://books.google.com/books?id=Askwi3lXdlcC&pg=PA90|archive-date=24 April 2016|url-status=live}} The oxide layer on aluminium is also destroyed by contact with [[mercury (element)|mercury]] due to [[Amalgam (chemistry)|amalgamation]] or with salts of some electropositive metals.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}} As such, the strongest aluminium alloys are less corrosion-resistant due to [[galvanic cell|galvanic]] reactions with alloyed [[copper]], and aluminium's corrosion resistance is greatly reduced by aqueous salts, particularly in the presence of dissimilar metals. [115] => [116] => Aluminium reacts with most nonmetals upon heating, forming compounds such as [[aluminium nitride]] (AlN), [[aluminium sulfide]] (Al2S3), and the aluminium halides (AlX3). It also forms a wide range of [[intermetallic compound]]s involving metals from every group on the periodic table.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}} [117] => [118] => === Inorganic compounds === [119] => [120] => The vast majority of compounds, including all aluminium-containing minerals and all commercially significant aluminium compounds, feature aluminium in the oxidation state 3+. The [[coordination number]] of such compounds varies, but generally Al3+ is either six- or four-coordinate. Almost all compounds of aluminium(III) are colorless.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}} [121] => [122] => [[File:AlHydrolysis.png|thumb|upright=1.0|right|Aluminium hydrolysis as a function of pH. Coordinated water molecules are omitted. (Data from Baes and Mesmer)*{{cite book [123] => |last1=Baes|first1=C. F. |last2=Mesmer|first2=R. E. [124] => |title=The Hydrolysis of Cations|year=1986|orig-year=1976 [125] => |publisher=Robert E. Krieger|isbn=978-0-89874-892-5}}]] [126] => In aqueous solution, Al3+ exists as the hexaaqua cation [Al(H2O)6]3+, which has an approximate [[acid dissociation constant|Ka]] of 10−5.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=242–252}} Such solutions are acidic as this cation can act as a proton donor and progressively [[hydrolysis|hydrolyze]] until a [[Precipitation (chemistry)|precipitate]] of [[aluminium hydroxide]], Al(OH)3, forms. This is useful for [[Sedimentation (water treatment)|clarification]] of water, as the precipitate nucleates on [[Suspension (chemistry)|suspended]] particles in the water, hence removing them. Increasing the pH even further leads to the hydroxide dissolving again as [[aluminate]], [Al(H2O)2(OH)4]−, is formed. [127] => [128] => Aluminium hydroxide forms both salts and aluminates and dissolves in acid and alkali, as well as on fusion with acidic and basic oxides.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}} This behavior of Al(OH)3 is termed [[amphoterism]] and is characteristic of weakly basic cations that form insoluble hydroxides and whose hydrated species can also donate their protons. One effect of this is that aluminium salts with weak acids are hydrolyzed in water to the aquated hydroxide and the corresponding nonmetal hydride: for example, [[aluminium sulfide]] yields [[hydrogen sulfide]]. However, some salts like [[aluminium carbonate]] exist in aqueous solution but are unstable as such; and only incomplete hydrolysis takes place for salts with strong acids, such as the halides, [[aluminium nitrate|nitrate]], and [[aluminium sulfate|sulfate]]. For similar reasons, anhydrous aluminium salts cannot be made by heating their "hydrates": hydrated aluminium chloride is in fact not AlCl3·6H2O but [Al(H2O)6]Cl3, and the Al–O bonds are so strong that heating is not sufficient to break them and form Al–Cl bonds instead:{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=224–227}} [129] => [130] => :2[Al(H2O)6]Cl3 {{overunderset|→|heat| }} Al2O3 + 6 HCl + 9 H2O [131] => [132] => All four [[Halide|trihalides]] are well known. Unlike the structures of the three heavier trihalides, [[aluminium fluoride]] (AlF3) features six-coordinate aluminium, which explains its involatility and insolubility as well as high [[heat of formation]]. Each aluminium atom is surrounded by six fluorine atoms in a distorted [[octahedron|octahedral]] arrangement, with each fluorine atom being shared between the corners of two octahedra. Such {AlF6} units also exist in complex fluorides such as [[cryolite]], Na3AlF6.{{efn|These should not be considered as [AlF6]3− complex anions as the Al–F bonds are not significantly different in type from the other M–F bonds.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=233–237}}}} AlF3 melts at {{convert|1290|°C|0|abbr=on}} and is made by reaction of [[aluminium oxide]] with [[hydrogen fluoride]] gas at {{convert|700|°C|-2|abbr=on}}.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=233–237}} [133] => [134] => With heavier halides, the coordination numbers are lower. The other trihalides are [[Dimer (chemistry)|dimeric]] or [[polymer]]ic with tetrahedral four-coordinate aluminium centers.{{efn|Such differences in coordination between the fluorides and heavier halides are not unusual, occurring in SnIV and BiIII, for example; even bigger differences occur between [[carbon dioxide|CO2]] and [[silicon dioxide|SiO2]].{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=233–237}}}} [[Aluminium trichloride]] (AlCl3) has a layered polymeric structure below its melting point of {{convert|192.4|°C|0|abbr=on}} but transforms on melting to Al2Cl6 dimers. At higher temperatures those increasingly dissociate into trigonal planar AlCl3 monomers similar to the structure of [[boron trichloride|BCl3]]. [[Aluminium tribromide]] and [[aluminium triiodide]] form Al2X6 dimers in all three phases and hence do not show such significant changes of properties upon phase change.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=233–237}} These materials are prepared by treating aluminium with the halogen. The aluminium trihalides form many [[addition compound]]s or complexes; their [[Lewis acid]]ic nature makes them useful as [[catalysis|catalysts]] for the [[Friedel–Crafts reaction]]s. Aluminium trichloride has major industrial uses involving this reaction, such as in the manufacture of [[anthraquinone]]s and [[styrene]]; it is also often used as the precursor for many other aluminium compounds and as a reagent for converting nonmetal fluorides into the corresponding chlorides (a [[Transhalogenation|transhalogenation reaction]]).{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=233–237}} [135] => [136] => Aluminium forms one stable oxide with the [[chemical formula]] Al2O3, commonly called [[alumina]].{{Cite book [137] => |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MYAABAAAQBAJ&q=Aluminium+forms+one+stable+oxide,+known+by+its+mineral+name+corundum&pg=PA14|title=Pigment Compendium [138] => |last1=Eastaugh|first1=Nicholas|last2=Walsh|first2=Valentine|last3=Chaplin|first3=Tracey|last4=Siddall|first4=Ruth|date=2008 [139] => |publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-1-136-37393-0|language=en|access-date=1 October 2020 [140] => |archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415083327/https://books.google.com/books?id=MYAABAAAQBAJ&q=Aluminium+forms+one+stable+oxide,+known+by+its+mineral+name+corundum&pg=PA14|url-status=live}} [141] => It can be found in nature in the mineral [[corundum]], α-alumina;{{Cite book [142] => |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X2NZAAAAYAAJ&q=Aluminium+forms+one+stable+oxide,+known+by+its+mineral+name+corundum&pg=PA718 [143] => |title=A treatise on chemistry|last1=Roscoe|first1=Henry Enfield|last2=Schorlemmer|first2=Carl|date=1913 [144] => |publisher=Macmillan|language=en|access-date=1 October 2020 [145] => |archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415111928/https://books.google.com/books?id=X2NZAAAAYAAJ&q=Aluminium+forms+one+stable+oxide,+known+by+its+mineral+name+corundum&pg=PA718|url-status=live}} [146] => there is also a γ-alumina phase.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=242–252}} Its crystalline form, [[corundum]], is very hard ([[Mohs hardness]] 9), has a high melting point of {{convert|2045|°C|0|abbr=on}}, has very low volatility, is chemically inert, and a good electrical insulator, it is often used in abrasives (such as toothpaste), as a refractory material, and in [[ceramics]], as well as being the starting material for the electrolytic production of aluminium. [[Sapphire]] and [[ruby]] are impure corundum contaminated with trace amounts of other metals.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=242–252}} The two main oxide-hydroxides, AlO(OH), are [[boehmite]] and [[diaspore]]. There are three main trihydroxides: [[bayerite]], [[gibbsite]], and [[nordstrandite]], which differ in their crystalline structure ([[polymorphism (materials science)|polymorphs]]). Many other intermediate and related structures are also known.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=242–252}} Most are produced from ores by a variety of wet processes using acid and base. Heating the hydroxides leads to formation of corundum. These materials are of central importance to the production of aluminium and are themselves extremely useful. Some mixed oxide phases are also very useful, such as [[spinel]] (MgAl2O4), Na-β-alumina (NaAl11O17), and [[tricalcium aluminate]] (Ca3Al2O6, an important mineral phase in [[Portland cement]]).{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=242–252}} [147] => [148] => The only stable [[chalcogenide]]s under normal conditions are [[aluminium sulfide]] (Al2S3), [[aluminium selenide|selenide]] (Al2Se3), and [[aluminium telluride|telluride]] (Al2Te3). All three are prepared by direct reaction of their elements at about {{convert|1000|°C|-2|abbr=on}} and quickly hydrolyze completely in water to yield aluminium hydroxide and the respective [[hydrogen chalcogenide]]. As aluminium is a small atom relative to these chalcogens, these have four-coordinate tetrahedral aluminium with various polymorphs having structures related to [[wurtzite]], with two-thirds of the possible metal sites occupied either in an orderly (α) or random (β) fashion; the sulfide also has a γ form related to γ-alumina, and an unusual high-temperature hexagonal form where half the aluminium atoms have tetrahedral four-coordination and the other half have trigonal bipyramidal five-coordination.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=252–257}} [149] => [150] => Four [[pnictide]]s – [[aluminium nitride]] (AlN), [[aluminium phosphide]] (AlP), [[aluminium arsenide]] (AlAs), and [[aluminium antimonide]] (AlSb) – are known. They are all [[III-V semiconductor]]s isoelectronic to [[silicon]] and [[germanium]], all of which but AlN have the [[zinc blende]] structure. All four can be made by high-temperature (and possibly high-pressure) direct reaction of their component elements.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=252–257}} [151] => [157] => [158] => Aluminium alloys well with most other metals (with the exception of most [[alkali metals]] and group 13 metals) and over 150 [[intermetallics]] with other metals are known. Preparation involves heating fixed metals together in certain proportion, followed by gradual cooling and [[Annealing (metallurgy)|annealing]]. Bonding in them is predominantly [[Metallic bonding|metallic]] and the crystal structure primarily depends on efficiency of packing.{{Cite book [159] => |last=Downs|first=A. J. [160] => |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-04Kn758yIC&q=intermetallic+aluminium&pg=PA218 [161] => |title=Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium and Thallium|date=1993 [162] => |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-7514-0103-5|pages=218|language=en|access-date=1 October 2020 [163] => |archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415115039/https://books.google.com/books?id=v-04Kn758yIC&q=intermetallic+aluminium&pg=PA218|url-status=live}} [164] => [165] => There are few compounds with lower oxidation states. A few [[aluminium(I)]] compounds exist: AlF, AlCl, AlBr, and AlI exist in the gaseous phase when the respective trihalide is heated with aluminium, and at cryogenic temperatures.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=233–237}} A stable derivative of aluminium monoiodide is the cyclic [[adduct]] formed with [[triethylamine]], Al4I4(NEt3)4. Al2O and Al2S also exist but are very unstable.{{cite journal [166] => |last1=Dohmeier |first1=C. [167] => |last2=Loos |first2=D. [168] => |last3=Schnöckel |first3=H. [169] => |date=1996 [170] => |title=Aluminum(I) and Gallium(I) Compounds: Syntheses, Structures, and Reactions [171] => |journal=[[Angewandte Chemie International Edition]] [172] => |volume=35 |issue=2 |pages=129–149 [173] => |doi=10.1002/anie.199601291 [174] => }} Very simple aluminium(II) compounds are invoked or observed in the reactions of Al metal with oxidants. For example, [[aluminium monoxide]], AlO, has been detected in the gas phase after explosion{{cite journal [175] => |last1=Tyte |first1=D.C. [176] => |date=1964 [177] => |title=Red (B2Π–A2σ) Band System of Aluminium Monoxide [178] => |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] [179] => |volume=202 |issue=4930 |pages=383–384 [180] => |bibcode=1964Natur.202..383T [181] => |doi=10.1038/202383a0 [182] => |s2cid=4163250 [183] => }} and in stellar absorption spectra.{{cite journal [184] => |last1=Merrill |first1=P.W. [185] => |last2=Deutsch |first2=A.J. [186] => |last3=Keenan |first3=P.C. [187] => |date=1962 [188] => |title=Absorption Spectra of M-Type Mira Variables [189] => |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]] [190] => |volume=136 |page=21 [191] => |bibcode=1962ApJ...136...21M [192] => |doi=10.1086/147348 [193] => }} More thoroughly investigated are compounds of the formula R4Al2 which contain an Al–Al bond and where R is a large organic [[ligand]].{{Cite book [194] => |last=Uhl |first=W. [195] => |title=Advances in Organometallic Chemistry Volume 51 [196] => |chapter=Organoelement Compounds Possessing AlAl, GaGa, InIn, and TlTl Single Bonds [197] => |date=2004 [198] => |volume=51 |pages=53–108 [199] => |doi=10.1016/S0065-3055(03)51002-4 [200] => |isbn=978-0-12-031151-4 [201] => }} [202] => [203] => === Organoaluminium compounds and related hydrides === [204] => {{main|Organoaluminium compound}} [205] => [[File:Trimethylaluminium-from-xtal-3D-bs-17-25.png|thumb|upright=1.0|Structure of [[trimethylaluminium]], a compound that features five-coordinate carbon.]] [206] => [207] => A variety of compounds of empirical formula AlR3 and AlR1.5Cl1.5 exist.{{cite book [208] => |last1=Elschenbroich |first1=C. [209] => |date=2006 [210] => |title=Organometallics [211] => |publisher=Wiley-VCH [212] => |isbn=978-3-527-29390-2 [213] => }} The aluminium trialkyls and triaryls are reactive, volatile, and colorless liquids or low-melting solids. They catch fire spontaneously in air and react with water, thus necessitating precautions when handling them. They often form dimers, unlike their boron analogues, but this tendency diminishes for branched-chain alkyls (e.g. [[isopropyl|Pr''i'']], [[isobutyl|Bu''i'']], Me3CCH2); for example, [[triisobutylaluminium]] exists as an equilibrium mixture of the monomer and dimer.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=257–67}}{{cite journal [214] => |title=The monomer-dimer equilibria of liquid aluminum alkyls|year=1970|last1=Smith|first1=Martin B. [215] => |journal=Journal of Organometallic Chemistry|pages=273–281|issue=2|doi=10.1016/S0022-328X(00)86043-X|volume=22}} [216] => These dimers, such as [[trimethylaluminium]] (Al2Me6), usually feature tetrahedral Al centers formed by dimerization with some alkyl group bridging between both aluminium atoms. They are [[HSAB theory|hard acid]]s and react readily with ligands, forming adducts. In industry, they are mostly used in alkene insertion reactions, as discovered by [[Karl Ziegler]], most importantly in "growth reactions" that form long-chain unbranched primary alkenes and alcohols, and in the low-pressure polymerization of [[ethene]] and [[propene]]. There are also some [[heterocycle|heterocyclic]] and cluster organoaluminium compounds involving Al–N bonds.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=257–67}} [217] => [218] => The industrially most important aluminium hydride is [[lithium aluminium hydride]] (LiAlH4), which is used in as a reducing agent in [[organic chemistry]]. It can be produced from [[lithium hydride]] and [[Aluminium chloride|aluminium trichloride]].{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=227–232}} The simplest hydride, [[aluminium hydride]] or alane, is not as important. It is a polymer with the formula (AlH3)''n'', in contrast to the corresponding boron hydride that is a dimer with the formula (BH3)2.{{sfn|Greenwood|Earnshaw|1997|pp=227–232}} [219] => [220] => ==Natural occurrence== [221] => {{See also|List of countries by bauxite production}} [222] => [223] => === Space === [224] => [225] => Aluminium's per-particle abundance in the [[Solar System]] is 3.15 [[parts per million|ppm]] (parts per million).{{cite journal [226] => |last1=Lodders|first1=K.|author1-link=Katharina Lodders|title=Solar System abundances and condensation temperatures of the elements [227] => |url=http://solarsystem.wustl.edu/wp-content/uploads/reprints/2003/Lodders%202003%20ApJ%20Elemental%20abundances.pdf|year=2003|pages=1220–1247 [228] => |journal=[[The Astrophysical Journal]]|volume=591|issue=2|issn=0004-637X|doi=10.1086/375492|bibcode=2003ApJ...591.1220L|s2cid=42498829 |access-date=15 June 2018 [229] => |archive-date=12 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190412090136/http://solarsystem.wustl.edu/wp-content/uploads/reprints/2003/Lodders%202003%20ApJ%20Elemental%20abundances.pdf|url-status=live}} [230] => {{efn|Abundances in the source are listed relative to silicon rather than in per-particle notation. The sum of all elements per 106 parts of silicon is 2.6682{{e|10}} parts; aluminium comprises 8.410{{e|4}} parts.}} It is the twelfth most abundant of all elements and third most abundant among the elements that have odd atomic numbers, after hydrogen and nitrogen. The only stable isotope of aluminium, 27Al, is the eighteenth most abundant nucleus in the universe. It is created almost entirely after fusion of carbon in massive stars that will later become [[Type II supernova]]s: this fusion creates 26Mg, which upon capturing free protons and neutrons, becomes aluminium. Some smaller quantities of 27Al are created in [[hydrogen burning]] shells of evolved stars, where 26Mg can capture free protons. Essentially all aluminium now in existence is 27Al. 26Al was present in the early Solar System with abundance of 0.005% relative to 27Al but its half-life of 728,000 years is too short for any original nuclei to survive; 26Al is therefore [[extinct radionuclide|extinct]].{{Cite book [231] => |last=Clayton|first=D.|title=Handbook of Isotopes in the Cosmos : Hydrogen to Gallium.|date=2003 [232] => |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/609856530 [233] => |publisher=Cambridge University Press|location=Leiden|pages=129–137|oclc=609856530|isbn=978-0-511-67305-4|access-date=13 September 2020 [234] => |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060733/https://www.worldcat.org/title/handbook-of-isotopes-in-the-cosmos-hydrogen-to-gallium/oclc/609856530|archive-date=11 June 2021|url-status=live}} Unlike for 27Al, hydrogen burning is the primary source of 26Al, with the nuclide emerging after a nucleus of 25Mg catches a free proton. However, the [[trace radioisotope|trace quantities]] of 26Al that do exist are the most common [[gamma ray]] emitter in the [[interstellar gas]]; if the original 26Al were still present, [[Gamma-ray astronomy|gamma ray maps]] of the Milky Way would be brighter. [235] => [236] => === Earth === [237] => [238] => [[File:Bauxite hérault.JPG|thumb|[[Bauxite]], a major aluminium ore. The red-brown color is due to the presence of [[iron oxide]] minerals.]] [239] => Overall, the Earth is about 1.59% aluminium by mass (seventh in abundance by mass).William F McDonough [https://web.archive.org/web/20110928074153/http://quake.mit.edu/hilstgroup/CoreMantle/EarthCompo.pdf The composition of the Earth]. quake.mit.edu, archived by the Internet Archive Wayback Machine. Aluminium occurs in greater proportion in the Earth's crust than in the universe at large. This is because aluminium easily forms the oxide and becomes bound into rocks and stays in the [[Earth's crust]], while less reactive metals sink to the core. In the Earth's crust, aluminium is the most abundant metallic element (8.23% by mass) and the third most abundant of all elements (after oxygen and silicon).Greenwood and Earnshaw, pp. 217–9 A large number of silicates in the Earth's crust contain aluminium.{{cite book [240] => |last1=Wade|first1=K.|last2=Banister|first2=A.J.|title=The Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium and Thallium: Comprehensive Inorganic Chemistry [241] => |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwNPDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1049|year=2016 [242] => |publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-1-4831-5322-3|page=1049|access-date=17 June 2018 [243] => |archive-date=30 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191130020257/https://books.google.com/books?id=QwNPDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1049|url-status=live}} In contrast, the Earth's [[mantle (geology)|mantle]] is only 2.38% aluminium by mass.{{cite book [244] => |last1=Palme|first1=H.|last2=O'Neill|first2=Hugh St. C.|title=The Mantle and Core [245] => |editor-last=Carlson|editor-first=Richard W.|year=2005|publisher=Elseiver [246] => |chapter-url=https://www.geol.umd.edu/~mcdonoug/KITP%20Website%20for%20Bill/papers/Earth_Models/3.1%20Palme%20&%20O'Neill%20Primative%20mantle%20(1).pdf|page=14 |access-date=11 June 2021|chapter=Cosmochemical Estimates of Mantle Composition [247] => |archive-date=3 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210403101355/https://www.geol.umd.edu/~mcdonoug/KITP%20Website%20for%20Bill/papers/Earth_Models/3.1%20Palme%20%26%20O%27Neill%20Primative%20mantle%20%281%29.pdf|url-status=live}} Aluminium also occurs in seawater at a concentration of 2 μg/kg. [248] => [249] => Because of its strong affinity for oxygen, aluminium is almost never found in the elemental state; instead it is found in oxides or silicates. [[Feldspar]]s, the most common group of minerals in the Earth's crust, are aluminosilicates. Aluminium also occurs in the minerals [[beryl]], [[cryolite]], [[garnet]], [[spinel]], and [[turquoise]].{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v-04Kn758yIC&pg=PA17|title=Chemistry of Aluminium, Gallium, Indium and Thallium|last=Downs|first=A.J.|date=1993|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-0-7514-0103-5|language=en|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=25 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725044500/https://books.google.com/books?id=v-04Kn758yIC&pg=PA17|url-status=live}} Impurities in Al2O3, such as [[chromium]] and [[iron]], yield the [[gemstone]]s [[ruby]] and [[sapphire]], respectively.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eUwJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA300|title=Chemistry and Chemical Reactivity|last1=Kotz|first1=John C.|last2=Treichel|first2=Paul M.|last3=Townsend|first3=John|publisher=Cengage Learning|year=2012|isbn=978-1-133-42007-1|page=300|access-date=17 June 2018|archive-date=22 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222050939/https://books.google.com/books?id=eUwJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA300|url-status=live}} [[Native aluminium]] metal is extremely rare and can only be found as a minor phase in low oxygen [[fugacity]] environments, such as the interiors of certain volcanoes.{{cite web|url=http://webmineral.com/data/Aluminum.shtml|title=Aluminum Mineral Data|last1=Barthelmy|first1=D.|website=Mineralogy Database|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080704001129/http://webmineral.com/data/Aluminum.shtml|archive-date=4 July 2008|url-status=live|access-date=9 July 2008}} Native aluminium has been reported in [[cold seep]]s in the northeastern [[continental slope]] of the [[South China Sea]]. It is possible that these deposits resulted from [[bacteria]]l [[Redox|reduction]] of tetrahydroxoaluminate Al(OH)4−.{{cite journal|last1=Chen|first1=Z.|last2=Huang|first2=Chi-Yue|last3=Zhao|first3=Meixun|last4=Yan|first4=Wen|last5=Chien|first5=Chih-Wei|last6=Chen|first6=Muhong|last7=Yang|first7=Huaping|last8=Machiyama|first8=Hideaki|last9=Lin|first9=Saulwood|date=2011|title=Characteristics and possible origin of native aluminum in cold seep sediments from the northeastern South China Sea|journal=Journal of Asian Earth Sciences|volume=40|issue=1|pages=363–370|bibcode=2011JAESc..40..363C|doi=10.1016/j.jseaes.2010.06.006}} [250] => [251] => Although aluminium is a common and widespread element, not all aluminium minerals are economically viable sources of the metal. Almost all metallic aluminium is produced from the [[ore]] [[bauxite]] (AlO''x''(OH)3–2''x''). Bauxite occurs as a [[weathering]] product of low iron and silica bedrock in tropical climatic conditions.{{cite book|title=The Geology of Ore Deposits|last1=Guilbert|first1=J.F.|last2=Park|first2=C.F.|date=1986|publisher=W.H. Freeman|isbn=978-0-7167-1456-9|pages=774–795}} In 2017, most bauxite was mined in Australia, China, Guinea, and India.{{cite web |author=United States Geological Survey |title=Bauxite and alumina |year=2018 |url=https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2018-bauxi.pdf |access-date=17 June 2018 |series=Mineral Commodities Summaries |archive-date=11 March 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180311202117/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/commodity/bauxite/mcs-2018-bauxi.pdf |url-status=live }} [252] => [253] => == History == [254] => {{main|History of aluminium}} [255] => [256] => [[File:Friedrich_W%C3%B6hler_Litho.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|[[Friedrich Wöhler]], the chemist who first thoroughly described metallic elemental aluminium]] [257] => [258] => The history of aluminium has been shaped by usage of [[alum]]. The first written record of alum, made by [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] historian [[Herodotus]], dates back to the 5th century BCE.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=12}} The ancients are known to have used alum as a dyeing [[mordant]] and for city defense.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=12}} After the [[Crusades]], alum, an indispensable good in the European fabric industry,{{cite book|last1=Clapham|first1=John Harold|last2=Power|first2=Eileen Edna|title=The Cambridge Economic History of Europe: From the Decline of the Roman Empire|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gBw9AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA682|year=1941|publisher=CUP Archive|isbn=978-0-521-08710-0|page=207}} was a subject of international commerce;{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=16}} it was imported to Europe from the eastern Mediterranean until the mid-15th century.{{Cite book|title=The papacy and the Levant: 1204-1571. 1 The thirteenth and fourteenth centuries|last=Setton|first=Kenneth M.|date=1976|publisher=American Philosophical Society|isbn=978-0-87169-127-9|oclc=165383496}} [259] => [260] => The nature of alum remained unknown. Around 1530, Swiss physician [[Paracelsus]] suggested alum was a salt of an earth of alum.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=25}} In 1595, German doctor and chemist [[Andreas Libavius]] experimentally confirmed this.{{cite book|last=Weeks|first=Mary Elvira|title=Discovery of the elements|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s6kPAQAAMAAJ|year=1968|volume=1|edition=7|publisher=Journal of chemical education|page=187|isbn=9780608300177}} In 1722, German chemist [[Friedrich Hoffmann]] announced his belief that the base of alum was a distinct earth.{{sfn|Richards|1896|p=2}} In 1754, German chemist [[Andreas Sigismund Marggraf]] synthesized alumina by boiling clay in sulfuric acid and subsequently adding [[potash]].{{sfn|Richards|1896|p=2}} [261] => [262] => Attempts to produce aluminium date back to 1760.{{sfn|Richards|1896|p=3}} The first successful attempt, however, was completed in 1824 by Danish physicist and chemist [[Hans Christian Ørsted]]. He reacted anhydrous [[aluminium chloride]] with potassium [[amalgam (chemistry)|amalgam]], yielding a lump of metal looking similar to tin.{{cite conference|last1=Örsted|first1=H. C.|date=1825|title=Oversigt over det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs Forhanlingar og dets Medlemmerz Arbeider, fra 31 Mai 1824 til 31 Mai 1825|trans-title=Overview of the Royal Danish Science Society's Proceedings and the Work of its Members, from 31 May 1824 to 31 May 1825|url=https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435054254693&view=1up&seq=17|language=da|pages=15–16|conference=|access-date=27 February 2020|archive-date=16 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200316113549/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=osu.32435054254693&view=1up&seq=17|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=L2BFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR25|title=Det Kongelige Danske Videnskabernes Selskabs philosophiske og historiske afhandlinger|author=Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters|author-link=Royal Danish Academy of Sciences and Letters|publisher=Popp|year=1827|pages=xxv–xxvi|language=da|trans-title=The philosophical and historical dissertations of the Royal Danish Science Society|access-date=11 March 2016|archive-date=24 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170324064522/https://books.google.com/books?id=L2BFAAAAcAAJ&pg=PR25|url-status=live}}{{cite journal|last=Wöhler|first=Friedrich|date=1827|title=Ueber das Aluminium|url=http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4433551;view=1up;seq=162|journal=[[Annalen der Physik und Chemie]]|series=2|volume=11|issue=9|pages=146–161|bibcode=1828AnP....87..146W|doi=10.1002/andp.18270870912|s2cid=122170259 |access-date=11 March 2016|archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060735/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.b4433551&view=1up&seq=162|url-status=live}} He presented his results and demonstrated a sample of the new metal in 1825.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=36}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Ck9jBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA30|title=The Lost Elements: The Periodic Table's Shadow Side|last1=Fontani|first1=Marco|last2=Costa|first2=Mariagrazia|last3=Orna|first3=Mary Virginia|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2014|isbn=978-0-19-938334-4|page=30}} In 1827, German chemist [[Friedrich Wöhler]] repeated Ørsted's experiments but did not identify any aluminium.{{cite journal|last1=Venetski|first1=S.|date=1969|title='Silver' from clay|journal=Metallurgist|volume=13|issue=7|pages=451–453|doi=10.1007/BF00741130|s2cid=137541986}} (The reason for this inconsistency was only discovered in 1921.){{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=38}} He conducted a similar experiment in the same year by mixing anhydrous aluminium chloride with potassium and produced a powder of aluminium. In 1845, he was able to produce small pieces of the metal and described some physical properties of this metal.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=38}} For many years thereafter, Wöhler was credited as the discoverer of aluminium.{{Cite journal|last=Holmes|first=Harry N.|date=1936|title=Fifty Years of Industrial Aluminum|journal=The Scientific Monthly|volume=42|issue=3|pages=236–239|jstor=15938|bibcode=1936SciMo..42..236H}} [263] => [264] => [[File:Eros-piccadilly-circus.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|The statue of [[Anteros]] in [[Piccadilly Circus]], London, was made in 1893 and is one of the first statues cast in aluminium.]] [265] => [266] => As Wöhler's method could not yield great quantities of aluminium, the metal remained rare; its cost exceeded that of gold. The first industrial production of aluminium was established in 1856 by French chemist [[Henri Etienne Sainte-Claire Deville]] and companions.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=39}} Deville had discovered that aluminium trichloride could be reduced by sodium, which was more convenient and less expensive than potassium, which Wöhler had used.{{cite book [267] => |last=Sainte-Claire Deville|first=H.E.|date=1859|title=De l'aluminium, ses propriétés, sa fabrication [268] => |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rCoKAAAAIAAJ [269] => |publisher=Mallet-Bachelier|location=Paris|url-status=live [270] => |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160430001812/https://books.google.com/books?id=rCoKAAAAIAAJ|archive-date=30 April 2016}} Even then, aluminium was still not of great purity and produced aluminium differed in properties by sample.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=46}} Because of its electricity-conducting capacity, aluminium was used as the cap of the [[Washington Monument]], completed in 1885. The tallest building in the world at the time, the non-corroding metal cap was intended to serve as a [[lightning rod]] peak. [271] => [272] => The first industrial large-scale production method was independently developed in 1886 by French engineer [[Paul Héroult]] and American engineer [[Charles Martin Hall]]; it is now known as the [[Hall–Héroult process]].{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|pp=55–61}} The Hall–Héroult process converts alumina into metal. Austrian chemist [[Carl Josef Bayer|Carl Joseph Bayer]] discovered a way of purifying bauxite to yield alumina, now known as the [[Bayer process]], in 1889.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=74}} Modern production of the aluminium is based on the Bayer and Hall–Héroult processes.{{Cite web [273] => |url=https://aluminiumleader.com/history/industry_history/|title=Aluminium history|website=All about aluminium|access-date=7 November 2017 [274] => |archive-date=7 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171107222100/https://aluminiumleader.com/history/industry_history/|url-status=live}} [275] => [276] => As large-scale production caused aluminium prices to drop, the metal became widely used in jewelry, eyeglass frames, optical instruments, tableware, and [[Aluminium foil|foil]], and other everyday items in the 1890s and early 20th century. Aluminium's ability to form hard yet light alloys with other metals provided the metal with many uses at the time.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|pp=64–69}} During [[World War I]], major governments demanded large shipments of aluminium for light strong airframes;{{cite book |last=Ingulstad|first=Mats|year=2012 [277] => |chapter='We Want Aluminum, No Excuses': Business-Government Relations in the American Aluminum Industry, 1917–1957|pages=33–68 [278] => |title=From Warfare to Welfare: Business-Government Relations in the Aluminium Industry [279] => |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TFS6NAEACAAJ [280] => |editor1-first=Mats|editor1-last=Ingulstad|editor2-first=Hans Otto|editor2-last=Frøland [281] => |publisher=Tapir Academic Press|isbn=978-82-321-0049-1|access-date=7 May 2020 [282] => |archive-date=25 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725055556/https://books.google.com/books?id=TFS6NAEACAAJ|url-status=live}} [283] => during [[World War II]], demand by major governments for aviation was even higher.{{cite book [284] => |last=Seldes|first=George|url=https://archive.org/stream/FactsAndFascism/FactsandFascism_djvu.txt|title=Facts and Fascism|publisher=In Fact, Inc.|year=1943|edition=5|page=261|author-link=George Seldes}}{{cite book|last=Thorsheim|first=Peter|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uUlLCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA66|title=Waste into Weapons|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2015|isbn=978-1-107-09935-7|pages=66–69|access-date=7 January 2021|archive-date=6 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406160604/https://books.google.com/books?id=uUlLCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA66|url-status=live}}{{cite book|last=Weeks|first=Albert Loren|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC&pg=PA135|title=Russia's Life-saver: Lend-lease Aid to the U.S.S.R. in World War II|publisher=[[Lexington Books]]|year=2004|isbn=978-0-7391-0736-2|page=135|access-date=7 January 2021|archive-date=6 April 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200406160618/https://books.google.com/books?id=z3hP33KprskC&pg=PA135|url-status=live}} [285] => [286] => By the mid-20th century, aluminium had become a part of everyday life and an essential component of housewares.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|pp=69–70}} In 1954, production of aluminium surpassed that of [[copper]],{{efn|Compare annual statistics of aluminium and copper{{Cite report|chapter-url=https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/|title=Historical Statistics for Mineral Commodities in the United States|chapter=Copper. Supply-Demand Statistics|year=2017|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|language=en|access-date=2019-06-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308171100/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/|archive-date=2018-03-08|url-status=live}} production by USGS.}} historically second in production only to iron,{{Cite web|last=Gregersen|first=Erik|title=Copper|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/copper|website=[[Encyclopedia Britannica]]|language=en|access-date=2019-06-04|archive-date=22 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190622234613/https://www.britannica.com/science/copper|url-status=live}} making it the most produced [[non-ferrous metal]]. During the mid-20th century, aluminium emerged as a civil engineering material, with building applications in both basic construction and interior finish work,{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|pp=165–166}} and increasingly being used in military engineering, for both airplanes and land armor vehicle engines.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=85}} [[Sputnik 1|Earth's first artificial satellite]], launched in 1957, consisted of two separate aluminium semi-spheres joined and all subsequent space vehicles have used aluminium to some extent. The [[aluminium can]] was invented in 1956 and employed as a storage for drinks in 1958.{{sfn|Drozdov|2007|p=135}} [287] => [288] => [[File:Aluminium - world production trend.svg|thumb|upright=1.0|lang=en|World production of aluminium since 1900]] [289] => [290] => Throughout the 20th century, the production of aluminium rose rapidly: while the world production of aluminium in 1900 was 6,800 metric tons, the annual production first exceeded 100,000 metric tons in 1916; 1,000,000 tons in 1941; 10,000,000 tons in 1971.{{Cite report|chapter-url=https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/|title=Historical Statistics for Mineral Commodities in the United States|chapter=Aluminum|year=2017|publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]]|language=en|access-date=9 November 2017|archive-date=8 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180308171100/https://minerals.usgs.gov/minerals/pubs/historical-statistics/|url-status=live}} In the 1970s, the increased demand for aluminium made it an exchange commodity; it entered the [[London Metal Exchange]], the oldest industrial metal exchange in the world, in 1978. The output continued to grow: the annual production of aluminium exceeded 50,000,000 metric tons in 2013. [291] => [292] => The [[real price]] for aluminium declined from $14,000 per metric ton in 1900 to $2,340 in 1948 (in 1998 United States dollars). Extraction and processing costs were lowered over technological progress and the scale of the economies. However, the need to exploit lower-grade poorer quality deposits and the use of fast increasing input costs (above all, energy) increased the net cost of aluminium;{{sfn|Nappi|2013|p=9}} the real price began to grow in the 1970s with the rise of energy cost.{{sfn|Nappi|2013|pp=9–10}} Production moved from the industrialized countries to countries where production was cheaper.{{sfn|Nappi|2013|p=10}} Production costs in the late 20th century changed because of advances in technology, lower energy prices, exchange rates of the United States dollar, and alumina prices.{{sfn|Nappi|2013|pp=14–15}} The [[BRIC]] countries' combined share in primary production and primary consumption grew substantially in the first decade of the 21st century.{{sfn|Nappi|2013|p=17}} China is accumulating an especially large share of the world's production thanks to an abundance of resources, cheap energy, and governmental stimuli;{{sfn|Nappi|2013|p=20}} it also increased its consumption share from 2% in 1972 to 40% in 2010.{{sfn|Nappi|2013|p=22}} In the United States, Western Europe, and Japan, most aluminium was consumed in transportation, engineering, construction, and packaging.{{sfn|Nappi|2013|p=23}} In 2021, prices for industrial metals such as aluminium have soared to near-record levels as [[2021–2022 global energy crisis|energy shortages]] in China drive up costs for electricity.{{cite news |title=Aluminum prices hit 13-year high amid power shortage in China |url=https://asia.nikkei.com/Business/Markets/Commodities/Aluminum-prices-hit-13-year-high-amid-power-shortage-in-China |work=Nikkei Asia |date=22 September 2021}} [293] => [294] => == Etymology == [295] => The names ''aluminium'' and ''aluminum'' are derived from the word ''alumine'', an obsolete term for ''alumina'',{{efn|The spelling ''alumine'' comes from French, whereas the spelling ''alumina'' comes from Latin.{{cite book|last=Black|first=J.|url=http://archive.org/details/2543060RX2.nlm.nih.gov|title=Lectures on the elements of chemistry: delivered in the University of Edinburgh|date=1806|publisher=Graves, B.|page=291|volume=2}} [296] => {{blockquote|The French chemists have given a new name to this pure earth; alumine in French, and alumina in Latin. I confess I do not like this alumina.}}}} a [[Aluminium oxide|naturally occurring oxide of aluminium]].{{cite web |website=Oxford English Dictionary, third edition |title=aluminium, n. |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/5889 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=December 2011 |access-date=30 December 2020|archive-date=11 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060750/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=103D1FF8ECD2A058B7F6241C7F97B88D?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F5889 |url-status=live }} [297] => {{blockquote|'''Origin:''' Formed within English, by derivation. '''Etymons:''' {{smallcaps|alumine}}''n.'', {{smallcaps|-ium}} ''suffix'', {{smallcaps|aluminum}} ''n.''}} ''Alumine'' was borrowed from French, which in turn derived it from ''alumen'', the classical Latin name for [[alum]], the mineral from which it was collected.{{cite web |website=Oxford English Dictionary, third edition |title=alumine, n. |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/5880 |publisher=Oxford University Press |date=December 2011 |access-date=30 December 2020 |archive-date=11 June 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060739/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=2B8662831CD405D28E3F852F18211FD4?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F5880 |url-status=live }} [298] => {{blockquote|'''Etymology:''' < French ''alumine'' (L. B. Guyton de Morveau 1782, ''Observ. sur la Physique'' '''19''' 378) < classical Latin ''alūmin-'', ''alūmen'' {{smallcaps|alum}} ''n.''1, after French ''-ine'' {{smallcaps|-ine}} suffix4.}} The Latin word ''alumen'' stems from the [[Proto-Indo-European language|Proto-Indo-European]] root ''*alu-'' meaning "bitter" or "beer".{{cite book |last=Pokorny |first=Julius |author-link=Julius Pokorny |title=Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch |trans-title=Indo-European etymological dictionary |language=de |url=https://indo-european.info/pokorny-etymological-dictionary/whnjs.htm |date=1959 |publisher=A. Francke Verlag |pages=33–34 |entry=alu- (-d-, -t-) |access-date=13 November 2017 |archive-date=23 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171123145109/https://indo-european.info/pokorny-etymological-dictionary/whnjs.htm |url-status=live }} [299] => [300] => [[File:The Turner Brass Works ad 1897.jpg|thumb|upright|1897 American advertisement featuring the ''aluminum'' spelling]] [301] => [302] => === Origins === [303] => British chemist [[Humphry Davy]], who performed a number of experiments aimed to isolate the metal, is credited as the person who named the element. The first name proposed for the metal to be isolated from alum was ''alumium'', which Davy suggested in an 1808 article on his electrochemical research, published in [[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society]].{{Cite journal|last1=Davy|first1=Humphry|date=1808|title=Electro Chemical Researches, on the Decomposition of the Earths; with Observations on the Metals obtained from the alkaline Earths, and on the Amalgam procured from Ammonia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kg9GAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA353|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society|volume=98|page=353|doi=10.1098/rstl.1808.0023|access-date=10 December 2009|doi-access=free|bibcode=1808RSPT...98..333D|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415111945/https://books.google.com/books?id=Kg9GAAAAMAAJ&pg=RA1-PA353|url-status=live}} It appeared that the name was created from the English word ''alum'' and the Latin suffix ''-ium''; but it was customary then to give elements names originating in Latin, so this name was not adopted universally. This name was criticized by contemporary chemists from France, Germany, and Sweden, who insisted the metal should be named for the oxide, alumina, from which it would be isolated.{{sfn|Richards|1896|pp=3–4}} The English name ''alum'' does not come directly from Latin, whereas ''alumine''/''alumina'' obviously comes from the Latin word ''alumen'' (upon [[declension]], ''alumen'' changes to ''alumin-''). [304] => [305] => One example was ''Essai sur la Nomenclature chimique'' (July 1811), written in French by a Swedish chemist, [[Jöns Jacob Berzelius]], in which the name ''aluminium'' is given to the element that would be synthesized from alum.{{cite journal|last=Berzelius|first=J. J.|title=Essai sur la nomenclature chimique|journal=Journal de Physique|volume=73|pages=253–286|year=1811|author-link=Jöns Jakob Berzelius|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HpfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA253|access-date=27 December 2020|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415120753/https://books.google.com/books?id=HpfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA253|url-status=live}}.{{efn|Davy discovered several other elements, including those he named ''[[sodium]]'' and ''[[potassium]]'', after the English words ''[[Soda lime|soda]]'' and ''[[potash]]''. Berzelius referred to them as to ''natrium'' and ''kalium''. Berzelius's suggestion was expanded in 1814{{cite journal|last=Berzelius|first=J.|author-link=Jöns Jacob Berzelius|title=Essay on the Cause of Chemical Proportions, and on some Circumstances relating to them: together with a short and easy Method of expressing them|editor-last=Thomson|editor-first=Th.|editor-link=Thomas Thomson (chemist)|year=1814|publisher=Baldwin, R.|journal=[[Annals of Philosophy]]|volume=III|pages=51–62|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/54032#page/5/mode/1up|access-date=13 December 2014|archive-date=15 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140715120636/http://biodiversitylibrary.org/item/54032#page/5/mode/1up|url-status=live}} with his proposed system of one or two-letter [[chemical symbol]]s, which are used up to the present day; sodium and potassium have the symbols ''Na'' and ''K'', respectively, after their Latin names.}} (Another article in the same journal issue also refers to the metal whose oxide is the basis of [[sapphire]], i.e. the same metal, as to ''aluminium''.){{cite journal|last=Delaméntherie|first=J.-C.|title=Leçonse de minéralogie. Données au collége de France|journal=Journal de Physique|volume=73|pages=469–470|year=1811|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HpfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA470|access-date=27 December 2020|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415114959/https://books.google.com/books?id=HpfOAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA470|url-status=live}}. A January 1811 summary of one of Davy's lectures at the [[Royal Society]] mentioned the name ''aluminium'' as a possibility.{{Cite journal|date=January 1811|title=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. For the Year 1810. — Part I|journal=The Critical Review: Or, Annals of Literature|series=The Third|volume=XXII|pages=9|hdl=2027/chi.36013662?urlappend=%3Bseq=17|language=en}}{{blockquote|Potassium, acting upon alumine and glucine, produces pyrophoric substances of a dark grey colour, which burnt, throwing off brilliant sparks, and leaving behind alkali and earth, and which, when thrown into water, decomposed it with great violence. The result of this experiment is not wholly decisive as to the existence of what might be called ''aluminium'' and ''glucinium''}} The next year, Davy published a chemistry textbook in which he used the spelling ''aluminum''.{{cite book|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YjMwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA201|title=Elements of Chemical Philosophy: Part 1|last=Davy|first=Humphry|publisher=Bradford and Inskeep|year=1812|volume=1|page=201|chapter=Of metals; their primary compositions with other uncompounded bodies, and with each other|author-link=Humphry Davy|access-date=4 March 2020|archive-date=14 March 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200314113620/https://books.google.com/books?id=YjMwAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA201|url-status=live}} Both spellings have coexisted since. Their usage is currently regional: ''aluminum'' dominates in the United States and Canada; ''aluminium'' is prevalent in the rest of the English-speaking world.{{cite web [306] => |website=Oxford English Dictionary, third edition [307] => |title=aluminium, n. [308] => |url=https://www.oed.com/view/Entry/5889 [309] => |publisher=Oxford University Press|date=December 2011|access-date=30 December 2020 [310] => |archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060736/https://www.oed.com/start;jsessionid=7486FA56257A57791FB5DF1C726BAE1F?authRejection=true&url=%2Fview%2FEntry%2F5889|url-status=live}} [311] => {{blockquote|{{smallcaps|aluminium}} ''n.'' coexisted with its synonym {{smallcaps|aluminum}} ''n.'' throughout the 19th cent. From the beginning of the 20th cent., ''aluminum'' gradually became the predominant form in North America; it was adopted as the official name of the metal in the United States by the American Chemical Society in 1925. Elsewhere, ''aluminum'' was gradually superseded by ''aluminium'', which was accepted as international standard by IUPAC in 1990.}} [312] => [313] => === Spelling === [314] => In 1812, British scientist [[Thomas Young (scientist)|Thomas Young]]{{cite web|url=http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/15.html#contents|title=Quarterly Review Archive|last1=Cutmore|first1=Jonathan|website=Romantic Circles|publisher=University of Maryland|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170301094017/http://www.rc.umd.edu/reference/qr/index/15.html|archive-date=1 March 2017|url-status=live|date=February 2005|access-date=28 February 2017}} wrote an anonymous review of Davy's book, in which he proposed the name ''aluminium'' instead of ''aluminum'', which he thought had a "less classical sound".{{Cite book|last1=Young|first1=Thomas|date=1812|title=Elements of Chemical Philosophy By Sir Humphry Davy|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uGykjvn032IC&pg=PA72|journal=Quarterly Review|volume=VIII|issue=15|page=72|isbn=978-0-217-88947-6|id=210|access-date=10 December 2009|archive-date=25 July 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725043632/https://books.google.com/books?id=uGykjvn032IC&pg=PA72|url-status=live}} This name persisted: although the ''{{nowrap|-um}}'' spelling was occasionally used in Britain, the American scientific language used ''{{nowrap|-ium}}'' from the start. Most scientists throughout the world used ''{{nowrap|-ium}}'' in the 19th century; and it was entrenched in several other European languages, such as [[French language|French]], [[German language|German]], and [[Dutch language|Dutch]].{{Efn|Some European languages, like [[Spanish language|Spanish]] or [[Italian language|Italian]], use a different suffix from the Latin ''-um''/''-ium'' to form a name of a metal, some, like [[Polish language|Polish]] or [[Czech language|Czech]], have a different base for the name of the element, and some, like [[Russian language|Russian]] or [[Greek language|Greek]], do not use the [[Latin script]] altogether.|name=|group=}} In 1828, an American lexicographer, [[Noah Webster]], entered only the ''aluminum'' spelling in his ''[[Webster's Dictionary#First edition 1828|American Dictionary of the English Language]]''.{{Cite book|url=http://webstersdictionary1828.com/Dictionary/aluminum|title=American Dictionary of the English Language|last=Webster|first=Noah|year=1828|entry=aluminum|author-link=Noah Webster|access-date=13 November 2017|archive-date=13 November 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171113222259/http://webstersdictionary1828.com/Dictionary/aluminum|url-status=live}} In the 1830s, the ''{{nowrap|-um}}'' spelling gained usage in the United States; by the 1860s, it had become the more common spelling there outside science.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Js-PbsEjKSQC&pg=PT23|title=Port Out, Starboard Home: The Fascinating Stories We Tell About the words We Use|last=Quinion|first=Michael|publisher=Penguin Books Limited|year=2005|isbn=978-0-14-190904-2|pages=23–24}} In 1892, Hall used the ''{{nowrap|-um}}'' spelling in his advertising handbill for his new electrolytic method of producing the metal, despite his constant use of the ''{{nowrap|-ium}}'' spelling in all the patents he filed between 1886 and 1903: it is unknown whether this spelling was introduced by mistake or intentionally; but Hall preferred ''aluminum'' since its introduction because it resembled ''[[platinum]]'', the name of a prestigious metal.{{Cite book|last=Kean|first=S.|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qy40DwAAQBAJ&q=aluminium+aluminum+hall+typo+spelling&pg=PT120|title=The Disappearing Spoon: And Other True Tales of Rivalry, Adventure, and the History of the World from the Periodic Table of the Elements|date=2018|publisher=Little, Brown Books for Young Readers|isbn=978-0-316-38825-2|pages=|language=en|chapter=Elements as money|edition=Young Readers|access-date=14 January 2021|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415111942/https://books.google.com/books?id=qy40DwAAQBAJ&q=aluminium+aluminum+hall+typo+spelling&pg=PT120|url-status=live}} By 1890, both spellings had been common in the United States, the ''{{nowrap|-ium}}'' spelling being slightly more common; by 1895, the situation had reversed; by 1900, ''aluminum'' had become twice as common as ''aluminium''; in the next decade, the ''{{nowrap|-um}}'' spelling dominated American usage. In 1925, the [[American Chemical Society]] adopted this spelling. [315] => [316] => The [[International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry]] (IUPAC) adopted ''aluminium'' as the standard international name for the element in 1990. In 1993, they recognized ''aluminum'' as an acceptable variant;{{cite book|last=Emsley|first=John|author-link=John Emsley|title=Nature's Building Blocks: An A–Z Guide to the Elements|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfYXzwPo3UC&pg=PA24|year=2011|publisher=OUP Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-960563-7|pages=24–30|access-date=16 November 2017|archive-date=22 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222070959/https://books.google.com/books?id=2EfYXzwPo3UC&pg=PA24|url-status=live}} the most recent [[IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry 2005|2005 edition of the IUPAC nomenclature of inorganic chemistry]] also acknowledges this spelling.{{Cite book|url=https://www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/databases/Red_Book_2005.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141222172055/http://www.iupac.org/fileadmin/user_upload/databases/Red_Book_2005.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-12-22|editor1-first=Neil G.|editor1-last=Connelly|editor2-first=Ture|editor2-last=Damhus|title=Nomenclature of inorganic chemistry. IUPAC Recommendations 2005|publisher=[[RSC Publishing]]|year=2005|isbn=978-0-85404-438-2|page=249}} IUPAC official publications use the ''{{nowrap|-ium}}'' spelling as primary, and they list both where it is appropriate.{{efn|For instance, see the November–December 2013 issue of ''Chemistry International'': in a table of (some) elements, the element is listed as "aluminium (aluminum)".{{cite journal [317] => |title=Standard Atomic Weights Revised|author=|pages=17–18 [318] => |url=https://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2013/3506/nov13.pdf [319] => |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140211093133/http://www.iupac.org/publications/ci/2013/3506/nov13.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2014-02-11 [320] => |journal=Chemistry International|volume=35|issue=6|issn=0193-6484}}}} [321] => [322] => == Production and refinement == [323] => [324] => {{See also|List of countries by primary aluminium production}} [325] => [326] =>
|+'''World's largest producing countries of aluminium, 2019''' [329] => ! Country !! data-sort-type="number"|Output
(thousand
tons) [330] => |- [331] => | {{flagu|China}} || align="right"|36,000 [332] => |- [333] => | {{flagu|India}} || align="right"|3,700 [334] => |- [335] => | {{flagu|Russia}} || align="right"|3,600 [336] => |- [337] => | {{flagu|Canada}} || align="right"|2,900 [338] => |- [339] => | {{flagu|United Arab Emirates}} || align="right"|2,700 [340] => |- [341] => | {{flagu|Australia}} || align="right"|1,600 [342] => |- [343] => | {{flagu|Bahrain}} || align="right"|1,400 [344] => |- [345] => | {{flagu|Norway}} || align="right"|1,300 [346] => |- [347] => | {{flagu|United States}} || align="right"|1,100 [348] => |- [349] => | {{flagu|Iceland}} || align="right"|850 [350] => |- [351] => | Other countries || align="right"|9,200 [352] => |- [353] => | Total || align="right"|64,000 [354] => |} [355] =>
[356] => [357] => The production of aluminium starts with the extraction of [[bauxite]] rock from the ground. The bauxite is processed and transformed using the [[Bayer process]] into [[alumina]], which is then processed using the [[Hall–Héroult process]], resulting in the final aluminium. [358] => [359] => Aluminium production is highly energy-consuming, and so the producers tend to locate smelters in places where electric power is both plentiful and inexpensive.{{cite book|url=http://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=1388|title=World Mineral Production 2003–2007|last1=Brown|first1=T.J.|date=2009|publisher=[[British Geological Survey]]|access-date=1 December 2014|archive-date=13 July 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190713005219/http://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm%3Fid%3D1388|url-status=live}} Production of one kilogram of aluminium requires 7 kilograms of oil energy equivalent, as compared to 1.5 kilograms for steel and 2 kilograms for plastic.{{Cite book |last=Lama |first=F. |title=Why the West Can't Win: From Bretton Woods to a Multipolar World |publisher=Clarity Press, Inc. |year=2023 |isbn=978-1-949762-74-7 |pages=19}} As of 2019, the world's largest [[Smelting|smelters]] of aluminium are located in China, India, Russia, Canada, and the United Arab Emirates,{{Cite journal|title=USGS Minerals Information: Mineral Commodity Summaries|url=https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-aluminum.pdf|website=minerals.usgs.gov|language=en|doi=10.3133/70194932|access-date=2020-12-17|archive-date=22 January 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210122013648/https://pubs.usgs.gov/periodicals/mcs2020/mcs2020-aluminum.pdf|url-status=live}} while China is by far the top producer of aluminium with a world share of fifty-five percent. [360] => [361] => According to the [[International Resource Panel]]'s [[Metal Stocks in Society report]], the global [[per capita]] stock of aluminium in use in society (i.e. in cars, buildings, electronics, etc.) is {{convert|80|kg|abbr=on}}. Much of this is in more-developed countries ({{convert|350|–|500|kg|abbr=on}} per capita) rather than less-developed countries ({{convert|35|kg|abbr=on}} per capita).{{cite report [362] => |last1=Graedel|first1=T.E.|title=Metal stocks in Society – Scientific Synthesis|year=2010 [363] => |url=http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx1264xPA-Metal%20stocks%20in%20society.pdf [364] => |isbn=978-92-807-3082-1|publisher=International Resource Panel|page=17|display-authors=etal|access-date=18 April 2017|archive-date=26 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180426184751/http://www.unep.fr/shared/publications/pdf/DTIx1264xPA-Metal%20stocks%20in%20society.pdf|url-status=live}} [365] => [366] => === Bayer process === [367] => [368] => {{Main|Bayer process}} [369] => {{See also|List of countries by bauxite production}} [370] => [371] => [[Bauxite]] is converted to alumina by the Bayer process. Bauxite is blended for uniform composition and then is ground. The resulting [[slurry]] is mixed with a hot solution of [[sodium hydroxide]]; the mixture is then treated in a digester vessel at a pressure well above atmospheric, dissolving the aluminium hydroxide in bauxite while converting impurities into relatively insoluble compounds: [372] => [373] => {{block indent|Al(OH)3 + Na+ + OH− → Na+ + [Al(OH)4]−}} [374] => [375] => After this reaction, the slurry is at a temperature above its atmospheric boiling point. It is cooled by removing steam as pressure is reduced. The bauxite residue is separated from the solution and discarded. The solution, free of solids, is seeded with small crystals of aluminium hydroxide; this causes decomposition of the [Al(OH)4]− ions to aluminium hydroxide. After about half of aluminium has precipitated, the mixture is sent to classifiers. Small crystals of aluminium hydroxide are collected to serve as seeding agents; coarse particles are converted to alumina by heating; the excess solution is removed by evaporation, (if needed) purified, and recycled.{{cite book [376] => |title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry [377] => |last1=Hudson|first1=L. Keith|last2=Misra|first2=Chanakya|last3=Perrotta|first3=Anthony J.|last4=Wefers|first4=Karl|last5=Williams|first5=F.S.|date=2005 [378] => |publisher=Wiley-VCH|chapter=Aluminum Oxide|display-authors=3|title-link=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry}} [379] => [380] => === Hall–Héroult process === [381] => [382] => [[File:Tovarna glinice in aluminija Kidričevo - kupi aluminija 1968.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|right|[[Extrusion]] billets of aluminium]] [383] => [384] => {{Main|Hall–Héroult process|Aluminium smelting}} [385] => {{See also|List of countries by aluminium oxide production}} [386] => [387] => The conversion of [[alumina]] to aluminium is achieved by the [[Hall–Héroult process]]. In this energy-intensive process, a solution of alumina in a molten ({{convert|950|and|980|C|F}}) mixture of [[cryolite]] (Na3AlF6) with [[calcium fluoride]] is [[electrolysis|electrolyzed]] to produce metallic aluminium. The liquid aluminium sinks to the bottom of the solution and is tapped off, and usually cast into large blocks called [[Bar stock|aluminium billets]] for further processing. [388] => [389] => Anodes of the electrolysis cell are made of carbon—the most resistant material against fluoride corrosion—and either bake at the process or are prebaked. The former, also called Söderberg anodes, are less power-efficient and fumes released during baking are costly to collect, which is why they are being replaced by prebaked anodes even though they save the power, energy, and labor to prebake the cathodes. Carbon for anodes should be preferably pure so that neither aluminium nor the electrolyte is contaminated with ash. Despite carbon's resistivity against corrosion, it is still consumed at a rate of 0.4–0.5 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium. Cathodes are made of [[anthracite]]; high purity for them is not required because impurities [[Leaching (chemistry)|leach]] only very slowly. The cathode is consumed at a rate of 0.02–0.04 kg per each kilogram of produced aluminium. A cell is usually terminated after 2–6 years following a failure of the cathode. [390] => [391] => The Hall–Heroult process produces aluminium with a purity of above 99%. Further purification can be done by the [[Hoopes process]]. This process involves the electrolysis of molten aluminium with a sodium, barium, and aluminium fluoride electrolyte. The resulting aluminium has a purity of 99.99%.{{cite book [392] => |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KpgTrFloOq0C&pg=PA40|title=Handbook of Aluminum|last1=Totten|first1=G.E.|last2=Mackenzie|first2=D.S.|date=2003 [393] => |publisher=[[Marcel Dekker]]|isbn=978-0-8247-4843-2|page=40 [394] => |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160615132126/https://books.google.com/books?id=KpgTrFloOq0C&pg=PA40|archive-date=15 June 2016|url-status=live}} [395] => [396] => Electric power represents about 20 to 40% of the cost of producing aluminium, depending on the location of the smelter. Aluminium production consumes roughly 5% of electricity generated in the United States. Because of this, alternatives to the Hall–Héroult process have been researched, but none has turned out to be economically feasible. [397] => [398] => ===Recycling=== [399] => [400] => [[File:Waste bins recyclable.jpg|thumb|Common bins for recyclable waste along with a bin for unrecyclable waste. The bin with a yellow top is labeled "aluminum". Rhodes, Greece.]] [401] => [402] => {{Main|Aluminium recycling}} [403] => [404] => Recovery of the metal through [[recycling]] has become an important task of the aluminium industry. Recycling was a low-profile activity until the late 1960s, when the growing use of aluminium [[beverage can]]s brought it to public awareness.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DtX1nbel49kC|title=Aluminum Recycling|last=Schlesinger|first=Mark|publisher=CRC Press|year=2006|isbn=978-0-8493-9662-5|page=248|access-date=25 June 2018|archive-date=15 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170215051211/https://books.google.com/books?id=DtX1nbel49kC|url-status=live}} Recycling involves melting the scrap, a process that requires only 5% of the energy used to produce aluminium from ore, though a significant part (up to 15% of the input material) is lost as [[dross]] (ash-like oxide).{{cite web|url=http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/recycling/awareness/facts/benefits.htm|title=Benefits of Recycling|publisher=[[Ohio Department of Natural Resources]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030624162738/http://www.dnr.state.oh.us/recycling/awareness/facts/benefits.htm|archive-date=24 June 2003|url-status=dead}} An aluminium stack melter produces significantly less dross, with values reported below 1%.{{cite web|url=http://www.afsinc.org/files/best%20practice%20energy-schifo-radia-may%202004.pdf|title=Theoretical/Best Practice Energy Use in Metalcasting Operations|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131031072356/http://www.afsinc.org/files/best%20practice%20energy-schifo-radia-may%202004.pdf|archive-date=31 October 2013|url-status=dead|df=dmy-all|access-date=28 October 2013}} [405] => [406] => White dross from primary aluminium production and from secondary recycling operations still contains useful quantities of aluminium that can be [[Aluminium dross recycling|extracted industrially]]. The process produces aluminium billets, together with a highly complex waste material. This waste is difficult to manage. It reacts with water, releasing a mixture of gases (including, among others, [[hydrogen]], [[acetylene]], and [[ammonia]]), which spontaneously ignites on contact with air;{{cite web|url=http://www.experts123.com/q/why-are-dross-saltcake-a-concern.html|title=Why are dross & saltcake a concern?|website=www.experts123.com|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121114111346/http://www.experts123.com/q/why-are-dross-saltcake-a-concern.html|archive-date=14 November 2012|url-status=live}} contact with damp air results in the release of copious quantities of ammonia gas. Despite these difficulties, the waste is used as a filler in [[Asphalt concrete|asphalt]] and [[concrete]].{{cite web|url=http://aggregain.wrap.org.uk/document.rm?id=1753|archive-url=http://webarchive.nationalarchives.gov.uk/20100402111522/http://www.wrap.org.uk/downloads/BRE_Added_value_study_report.4ca28919.1753.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-date=2010-04-02|title=Added value of using new industrial waste streams as secondary aggregates in both concrete and asphalt|last1=Dunster|first1=A.M.|date=2005|publisher=[[Waste & Resources Action Programme]]|display-authors=etal}} [407] => [408] => {{Clear}} [409] => [410] => == Applications == [411] => [412] => [[File:Austin A40 Roadster ca 1951.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|right|Aluminium-bodied [[Austin A40 Sports]] (c. 1951)]] [413] => [414] => === Metal === [415] => {{See also|Aluminium alloy}} [416] => [417] => The global production of aluminium in 2016 was 58.8 million metric tons. It exceeded that of any other metal except [[iron]] (1,231 million metric tons).{{cite book|url=https://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/start.cfm?id=3396|title=World Mineral Production: 2012–2016|last1=Brown|first1=T.J.|last2=Idoine|first2=N.E.|last3=Raycraft|first3=E.R.|last4=Shaw|first4=R.A.|last5=Hobbs|first5=S.F.|last6=Everett|first6=P.|last7=Deady|first7=E.A.|last8=Bide|first8=T.|display-authors=3|date=2018|publisher=British Geological Survey|isbn=978-0-85272-882-6|access-date=10 July 2018|archive-date=16 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516174440/https://www.bgs.ac.uk/downloads/directDownload.cfm?id=3396&noexcl=true&t=World%20Mineral%20Production%202012%20to%202016|url-status=live}}{{cite encyclopedia|title=Aluminum|encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/17944/aluminum-Al|access-date=6 March 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120312125740/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/17944/aluminum-Al|archive-date=12 March 2012|url-status=live}} [418] => [419] => Aluminium is almost always alloyed, which markedly improves its mechanical properties, especially when [[tempering (metallurgy)|tempered]]. For example, the common [[aluminium foil]]s and beverage cans are alloys of 92% to 99% aluminium.{{cite web|url=http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Aluminum-Foil.html|title=Aluminum Foil|last1=Millberg|first1=L.S.|website=How Products are Made|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070713102210/http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Aluminum-Foil.html|archive-date=13 July 2007|url-status=live|volume=1|access-date=11 August 2007}} The main [[alloying]] agents are [[copper]], [[zinc]], [[magnesium]], [[manganese]], and [[silicon]] (e.g., [[duralumin]]) with the levels of other metals in a few percent by weight.{{cite book|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|last1=Lyle|first1=J.P.|last2=Granger|first2=D.A.|last3=Sanders|first3=R.E.|date=2005|publisher=Wiley-VCH|chapter=Aluminum Alloys|doi=10.1002/14356007.a01_481|title-link=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|isbn=978-3-527-30673-2}} Aluminium, both wrought and cast, has been alloyed with: [[manganese]], [[silicon]], [[magnesium]], [[copper]] and [[zinc]] among others.{{cite book [420] => |last1=Ross|first1=R.B.|title=Metallic Materials Specification Handbook|date=2013 [421] => |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=9781461534822 [422] => |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v171BwAAQBAJ|access-date=3 June 2021 [423] => |archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060734/https://books.google.com/books?id=v171BwAAQBAJ|url-status=live}} For example, the [[Kynal]] family of alloys was developed by the British chemical manufacturer [[Imperial Chemical Industries]]. [424] => [425] => [[File:Drinking can ring-pull tab.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|[[Aluminium can]]]] [426] => [427] => The major uses for aluminium are in:{{sfn|Davis|1999|pp=17–24}} [428] => * Transportation ([[automobile]]s, aircraft, [[truck]]s, [[railway car]]s, marine vessels, [[bicycle]]s, spacecraft, ''etc.''). Aluminium is used because of its low density; [429] => * Packaging ([[aluminium can|cans]], foil, frame, etc.). Aluminium is used because it is non-toxic (see [[#Toxicity|below]]), non-[[Adsorption|adsorptive]], and [[splinter]]-proof; [430] => * Building and construction ([[window]]s, [[door]]s, [[Siding (construction)|siding]], building wire, sheathing, roofing, ''etc.''). Since steel is cheaper, aluminium is used when lightness, corrosion resistance, or engineering features are important; [431] => * Electricity-related uses (conductor alloys, motors, and generators, transformers, capacitors, ''etc.''). Aluminium is used because it is relatively cheap, highly conductive, has adequate mechanical strength and low density, and resists corrosion; [432] => * A wide range of [[household]] items, from [[cooking utensil]]s to [[furniture]]. Low density, good appearance, ease of fabrication, and durability are the key factors of aluminium usage; [433] => * Machinery and equipment (processing equipment, pipes, tools). Aluminium is used because of its corrosion resistance, non-[[pyrophoricity]], and mechanical strength. [434] => [435] => ===Compounds=== [436] => The great majority (about 90%) of [[aluminium oxide]] is converted to metallic aluminium. Being a very hard material ([[Mohs hardness]] 9),{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mXpwAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42|title=Fundamentals of Aluminium Metallurgy: Production, Processing and Applications|last=Lumley|first=Roger|publisher=Elsevier Science|year=2010|isbn=978-0-85709-025-6|page=42|access-date=13 July 2018|archive-date=22 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222153110/https://books.google.com/books?id=mXpwAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42|url-status=live}} alumina is widely used as an abrasive;{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zs_lGeGsuaAC&pg=PA281|title=Concise Encyclopedia of Composite Materials|last=Mortensen|first=Andreas|publisher=Elsevier|year=2006|isbn=978-0-08-052462-7|page=281|access-date=13 July 2018|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220232017/https://books.google.com/books?id=zs_lGeGsuaAC&pg=PA281|url-status=live}} being extraordinarily chemically inert, it is useful in highly reactive environments such as [[high pressure sodium]] lamps.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y8NNHruBKVQC&pg=PA541|title=Advanced Ceramic Technologies & Products|author=The Ceramic Society of Japan|year=2012|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-4-431-54108-0|page=541|access-date=13 July 2018|archive-date=29 November 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191129220847/https://books.google.com/books?id=y8NNHruBKVQC&pg=PA541|url-status=live}} Aluminium oxide is commonly used as a catalyst for industrial processes; e.g. the [[Claus process]] to convert [[hydrogen sulfide]] to sulfur in [[refineries]] and to [[alkylation|alkylate]] [[amine]]s.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kUOvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA138|title=Dictionary of Energy|last=Slesser|first=Malcolm|publisher=Palgrave Macmillan UK|year=1988|isbn=978-1-349-19476-6|page=138|access-date=13 July 2018|archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060750/https://books.google.com/books?id=kUOvCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA138|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vi3wCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165|title=How to Produce Methanol from Coal|last=Supp|first=Emil|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|year=2013|isbn=978-3-662-00895-9|pages=164–165|access-date=13 July 2018|archive-date=26 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226154639/https://books.google.com/books?id=vi3wCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165|url-status=live}} Many industrial [[Catalysis|catalysts]] are [[catalyst support|supported]] by alumina, meaning that the expensive [[Catalysis|catalyst]] material is dispersed over a surface of the inert alumina.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ev47CMLmM2sC&pg=PA80|title=Preparation of Solid Catalysts|last1=Ertl|first1=Gerhard|last2=Knözinger|first2=Helmut|last3=Weitkamp|first3=Jens|year=2008|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-3-527-62068-5|page=80|access-date=13 July 2018|archive-date=24 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191224115243/https://books.google.com/books?id=ev47CMLmM2sC&pg=PA80|url-status=live}} Another principal use is as a drying agent or absorbent.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PTXyS7Yj6zUC&pg=PA155|title=Purification of Laboratory Chemicals|last1=Armarego|first1=W.L.F.|last2=Chai|first2=Christina|year=2009|publisher=Butterworth-Heinemann|isbn=978-0-08-087824-9|pages=73, 109, 116, 155|access-date=13 July 2018|archive-date=22 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191222155719/https://books.google.com/books?id=PTXyS7Yj6zUC&pg=PA155|url-status=live}} [437] => [438] => [[File:Pulsed Laser Deposition in Action.jpg|thumb|upright|Laser deposition of alumina on a substrate]] [439] => Several sulfates of aluminium have industrial and commercial application. [[Aluminium sulfate]] (in its hydrate form) is produced on the annual scale of several millions of metric tons.{{cite book|title=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|last=Helmboldt|first=O.|date=2007|publisher=[[Wiley-VCH]]|chapter=Aluminum Compounds, Inorganic|doi=10.1002/14356007.a01_527.pub2|title-link=Ullmann's Encyclopedia of Industrial Chemistry|pages=1–17 |isbn=978-3-527-30673-2}} About two-thirds is consumed in [[water treatment]]. The next major application is in the manufacture of paper. It is also used as a mordant in dyeing, in pickling seeds, deodorizing of mineral oils, in [[Tanning (leather)|leather tanning]], and in production of other aluminium compounds. Two kinds of alum, [[ammonium alum]] and [[potassium alum]], were formerly used as mordants and in leather tanning, but their use has significantly declined following availability of high-purity aluminium sulfate. Anhydrous [[aluminium chloride]] is used as a catalyst in chemical and petrochemical industries, the dyeing industry, and in synthesis of various inorganic and organic compounds. Aluminium hydroxychlorides are used in purifying water, in the paper industry, and as [[antiperspirants]]. [[Sodium aluminate]] is used in treating water and as an accelerator of solidification of cement. [440] => [441] => Many aluminium compounds have niche applications, for example: [442] => * [[Aluminium acetate]] in solution is used as an [[astringent]].{{cite book [443] => |title=WHO Model Formulary 2008|year=2009|vauthors=((World Health Organization))|veditors=Stuart MC, Kouimtzi M, Hill SR [444] => |isbn=9789241547659|hdl=10665/44053|author-link=World Health Organization|publisher=World Health Organization|hdl-access=free}} [445] => * [[Aluminium phosphate]] is used in the manufacture of glass, ceramic, [[Wood pulp|pulp]] and paper products, [[cosmetics]], paints, [[varnish]]es, and in dental [[cement]].{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ueRsAAAAMAAJ&q=Aluminium+phosphate+used+in+the+manufacture+of+glass,+ceramic,+pulp+and+paper+products,+cosmetics,+paints,+varnishes,+and+in+dental+cement.|title=Occupational Skin Disease|date=1983|publisher=Grune & Stratton|isbn=978-0-8089-1494-5|language=en|access-date=14 June 2017|archive-date=15 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415120754/https://books.google.com/books?id=ueRsAAAAMAAJ&q=Aluminium+phosphate+used+in+the+manufacture+of+glass,+ceramic,+pulp+and+paper+products,+cosmetics,+paints,+varnishes,+and+in+dental+cement.|url-status=live}} [446] => * [[Aluminium hydroxide]] is used as an [[antacid]], and mordant; it is used also in [[water]] purification, the manufacture of glass and ceramics, and in the [[waterproofing]] of [[Textile|fabrics]].{{cite book|title=Fundamentals of pharmacology: a text for nurses and health professionals|author1=Galbraith, A|author2=Bullock, S|author3=Manias, E|author4=Hunt, B|author5=Richards, A|publisher=Pearson|year=1999|location=Harlow|pages=482}}{{Cite book|title=Saunders Handbook of Veterinary Drugs|last=Papich|first=Mark G.|date=2007|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|isbn=978-1-4160-2888-8|edition=2nd|location=St. Louis, Mo|pages=15–16|chapter=Aluminum Hydroxide and Aluminum Carbonate}} [447] => * [[Lithium aluminium hydride]] is a powerful reducing agent used in [[organic chemistry]].{{Citation|last=Brown|first=Weldon G.|title=Reductions by Lithium Aluminum Hydride|date=2011-03-15|url=http://doi.wiley.com/10.1002/0471264180.or006.10|work=Organic Reactions|pages=469–510|editor-last=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|place=Hoboken, NJ, USA|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|language=en|doi=10.1002/0471264180.or006.10|isbn=978-0-471-26418-7|access-date=2021-05-22|archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060736/https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/0471264180.or006.10|url-status=live}}{{cite encyclopedia|year=2007|title=Lithium Aluminium Hydride|encyclopedia=SASOL Encyclopaedia of Science and Technology|publisher=New Africa Books|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1wS3aWR5SO4C&pg=PA143|page=143|isbn=978-1-86928-384-1|author1=Gerrans, G.C.|author2=Hartmann-Petersen, P.|access-date=6 September 2017|archive-date=23 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170823221511/https://books.google.com/books?id=1wS3aWR5SO4C&pg=PA143|url-status=live}} [448] => * [[Organoaluminium chemistry|Organoaluminiums]] are used as [[Lewis acid]]s and co-catalysts.{{cite journal|author1=M. Witt|author2=H.W. Roesky|year=2000|title=Organoaluminum chemistry at the forefront of research and development|url=http://tejas.serc.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/feb252000/NMC2.pdf|journal=Curr. Sci.|volume=78|issue=4|pages=410|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006124655/http://tejas.serc.iisc.ernet.in/currsci/feb252000/NMC2.pdf|archive-date=6 October 2014|df=dmy-all}} [449] => * [[Methylaluminoxane]] is a co-catalyst for [[Ziegler–Natta]] [[olefin]] [[polymerization]] to produce [[vinyl polymer]]s such as [[polyethene]].{{cite journal|author1=A. Andresen|author2=H.G. Cordes|author3=J. Herwig|author4=W. Kaminsky|author5=A. Merck|author6=R. Mottweiler|author7=J. Pein|author8=H. Sinn|author9=H.J. Vollmer|year=1976|title=Halogen-free Soluble Ziegler-Catalysts for the Polymerization of Ethylene|journal=[[Angew. Chem. Int. Ed.]]|volume=15|issue=10|pages=630–632|doi=10.1002/anie.197606301}} [450] => * Aqueous aluminium ions (such as aqueous aluminium sulfate) are used to treat against fish parasites such as ''[[Gyrodactylus salaris]]''.{{cite book|last1=Aas|first1=Øystein|last2=Klemetsen|first2=Anders|last3=Einum|first3=Sigurd|last4=Skurdal|first4=Jostein|display-authors=3|title=Atlantic Salmon Ecology|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9lMZnUdUGZUC&pg=PA240|year=2011|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4443-4819-4|page=240|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-date=21 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221202430/https://books.google.com/books?id=9lMZnUdUGZUC&pg=PA240|url-status=live}} [451] => * In many [[vaccine]]s, certain aluminium salts serve as an immune [[Immunologic adjuvant|adjuvant]] (immune response booster) to allow the [[protein]] in the vaccine to achieve sufficient potency as an immune stimulant.{{cite book|last=Singh|first=Manmohan|title=Vaccine Adjuvants and Delivery Systems|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7QKRrTPwuDYC&pg=PA112|year=2007|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-13492-4|pages=81–109|access-date=14 July 2018|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220055221/https://books.google.com/books?id=7QKRrTPwuDYC&pg=PA112|url-status=live}} Until 2004, most of the adjuvants used in vaccines were aluminium-adjuvanted.{{cite journal |last1=Lindblad |first1=Erik B |title=Aluminium compounds for use in vaccines |journal=Immunology & Cell Biology |date=October 2004 |volume=82 |issue=5 |pages=497–505 |doi=10.1111/j.0818-9641.2004.01286.x|pmid=15479435 |s2cid=21284189 }} [452] => [453] => == Biology == [454] => [455] => [[File:Al absorption by skin.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Schematic of aluminium absorption by human skin.{{Cite journal | doi=10.1039/C3EM00374D| pmid=23982047| title=Human exposure to aluminium| journal=Environmental Science: Processes & Impacts| volume=15| issue=10| pages=1807–1816| year=2013| last1=Exley | first1=C.| doi-access=free}}]] [456] => [457] => Despite its widespread occurrence in the Earth's crust, aluminium has no known function in biology. At pH 6–9 (relevant for most natural waters), aluminium precipitates out of water as the hydroxide and is hence not available; most elements behaving this way have no biological role or are toxic.{{cite web [458] => |url=https://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/natwater.htm|website=[[Western Oregon University]] [459] => |title=Environmental Applications. Part I. Common Forms of the Elements in Water [460] => |publisher=Western Oregon University|access-date=30 September 2019 [461] => |archive-date=11 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181211082553/http://www.wou.edu/las/physci/ch412/natwater.htm|url-status=live}} [[Aluminium sulfate]] has an [[Median lethal dose|LD50]] of 6207 mg/kg (oral, mouse), which corresponds to 435 grams (about one pound) for a {{convert|70|kg|abbr=on}} person. [462] => [463] => === Toxicity === [464] => [465] => Aluminium is classified as a non-carcinogen by the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]].{{cite journal|last=Dolara|first=Piero|date=21 July 2014|title=Occurrence, exposure, effects, recommended intake and possible dietary use of selected trace compounds (aluminium, bismuth, cobalt, gold, lithium, nickel, silver)|journal=International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition|volume=65|issue=8|pages=911–924|doi=10.3109/09637486.2014.937801|issn=1465-3478|pmid=25045935|s2cid=43779869}}{{efn|While aluminium per se is not carcinogenic, Söderberg aluminium production is, as is noted by the [[International Agency for Research on Cancer]],{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/11527472|title=Polynuclear aromatic compounds. part 3, Industrial exposures in aluminium production, coal gasification, coke production, and iron and steel founding.|date=1984|publisher=International Agency for Research on Cancer |isbn=92-832-1534-6|oclc=11527472|pages=51–59|access-date=7 January 2021|archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060739/https://www.worldcat.org/title/polynuclear-aromatic-compounds-part-3-industrial-exposures-in-aluminium-production-coal-gasification-coke-production-and-iron-and-steel-founding/oclc/11527472|url-status=live}} likely due to exposure to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons.{{Cite journal|last1=Wesdock|first1=J. C.|last2=Arnold|first2=I. M. F.|date=2014|title=Occupational and Environmental Health in the Aluminum Industry|url= |journal=Journal of Occupational and Environmental Medicine|language=en-US|volume=56|issue=5 Suppl|pages=S5–S11|doi=10.1097/JOM.0000000000000071|pmid=24806726|pmc=4131940|issn=1076-2752}}}} A review published in 1988 said that there was little evidence that normal exposure to aluminium presents a risk to healthy adult,{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wRnOytsi8boC&pg=PA90 |title=Physiology of Aluminum in Man |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160519101650/https://books.google.com/books?id=wRnOytsi8boC&pg=PA90|archive-date=19 May 2016 |series=Aluminum and Health |publisher=CRC Press |year=1988 |isbn=0-8247-8026-4 |page=90 }} and a 2014 multi-element toxicology review was unable to find deleterious effects of aluminium consumed in amounts not greater than 40 mg/day per kg of [[body weight|body mass]]. Most aluminium consumed will leave the body in feces; most of the small part of it that enters the bloodstream, will be excreted via urine;{{Cite web|url=https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=1076&tid=34|title= Public Health Statement: Aluminum|website=ATSDR |language=en|access-date=2018-07-18|archive-date=12 December 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161212212014/https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/phs/phs.asp?id=1076&tid=34|url-status=live}} nevertheless some aluminium does pass the blood-brain barrier and is lodged preferentially in the brains of Alzheimer's patients.{{cite journal |pmid=1302300|year=1992|last1=Xu|first1=N.|last2=Majidi|first2=V.|last3=Markesbery|first3=W. R.|last4=Ehmann|first4=W. D.|title=Brain aluminum in Alzheimer's disease using an improved GFAAS method|journal=Neurotoxicology|volume=13|issue=4|pages=735–743}}{{cite journal [466] => |title=Demonstration of aluminum in amyloid fibers in the cores of senile plaques in the brains of patients with Alzheimer's disease|year=2009 [467] => |last1=Yumoto|first1=Sakae|last2=Kakimi|first2=Shigeo|last3=Ohsaki|first3=Akihiro|last4=Ishikawa|first4=Akira [468] => |journal=Journal of Inorganic Biochemistry|volume=103|issue=11|pages=1579–1584|pmid=19744735|doi=10.1016/j.jinorgbio.2009.07.023}} [469] => Evidence published in 1989 indicates that, for Alzheimer's patients, aluminium may act by [[electrostatically]] [[crosslink]]ing proteins, thus down-regulating genes in the [[superior temporal gyrus]].{{cite journal [470] => |doi=10.1017/S0317167100029826|title=New Evidence for an Active Role of Aluminum in Alzheimer's Disease|year=1989|last1=Crapper Mclachlan|first1=D.R.|last2=Lukiw|first2=W.J.|last3=Kruck|first3=T.P.A.|journal=Canadian Journal of Neurological Sciences|volume=16|issue=4 Suppl|pages=490–497|pmid=2680008|doi-access=free}} [471] => [472] => === Effects === [473] => [474] => Aluminium, although rarely, can cause vitamin D-resistant [[osteomalacia]], [[erythropoietin]]-resistant [[microcytic anemia]], and central nervous system alterations. People with kidney insufficiency are especially at a risk. Chronic ingestion of hydrated aluminium silicates (for excess gastric acidity control) may result in aluminium binding to intestinal contents and increased elimination of other metals, such as [[iron]] or [[zinc]]; sufficiently high doses (>50 g/day) can cause anemia. [475] => [476] => [[File:Al transport across human cells.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|There are five major aluminium forms absorbed by human body: the free solvated trivalent cation (Al3+(aq)); low-molecular-weight, neutral, soluble complexes (LMW-Al0(aq)); high-molecular-weight, neutral, soluble complexes (HMW-Al0(aq)); low-molecular-weight, charged, soluble complexes (LMW-Al(L)n+/−(aq)); nano and micro-particulates (Al(L)n(s)). They are transported across cell membranes or cell epi-/[[endothelia]] through five major routes: (1) [[paracellular]]; (2) [[transcellular]]; (3) [[active transport]]; (4) channels; (5) adsorptive or receptor-mediated [[endocytosis]].]] [477] => [478] => During the 1988 [[Camelford water pollution incident]] people in [[Camelford]] had their drinking water contaminated with [[aluminium sulfate]] for several weeks. A final report into the incident in 2013 concluded it was unlikely that this had caused long-term health problems.{{cite web [479] => |title=Lowermoor Water Pollution incident "unlikely" to have caused long term health effects [480] => |publisher=Committee on Toxicity of Chemicals in Food, Consumer Products and the Environment|date=18 April 2013 [481] => |url=https://cot.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/cot/cotpnlwpirv2.pdf|access-date=21 December 2019|url-status=live [482] => |archive-date=21 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221033817/https://cot.food.gov.uk/sites/default/files/cot/cotpnlwpirv2.pdf}} [483] => [484] => Aluminium has been suspected of being a possible cause of [[Alzheimer's disease]],{{Cite journal|last=Tomljenovic|first=Lucija|date=2011-03-21|title=Aluminum and Alzheimer's Disease: After a Century of Controversy, Is there a Plausible Link?|url=https://www.medra.org/servlet/aliasResolver?alias=iospress&doi=10.3233/JAD-2010-101494|journal=Journal of Alzheimer's Disease|volume=23|issue=4|pages=567–598|doi=10.3233/JAD-2010-101494|pmid=21157018|access-date=11 June 2021|archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060821/https://content.iospress.com/articles/journal-of-alzheimers-disease/jad101494|url-status=live}} but research into this for over 40 years has found, {{as of|2018|lc=yes}}, no good evidence of causal effect.{{cite web [485] => |title=Aluminum and dementia: Is there a link?|date=24 August 2018 [486] => |publisher=Alzheimer Society Canada [487] => |url=https://alzheimer.ca/en/Home/About-dementia/Alzheimer-s-disease/Risk-factors/Aluminum|access-date=21 December 2019|url-status=live [488] => |archive-date=21 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191221040250/https://alzheimer.ca/en/Home/About-dementia/Alzheimer-s-disease/Risk-factors/Aluminum}} [489] => {{Cite journal|last1=Santibáñez|first1=Miguel|last2=Bolumar|first2=Francisco|last3=García|first3=Ana M|date=2007|title=Occupational risk factors in Alzheimer's disease: a review assessing the quality of published epidemiological studies|journal=Occupational and Environmental Medicine|volume=64|issue=11|pages=723–732|doi=10.1136/oem.2006.028209|issn=1351-0711|pmc=2078415|pmid=17525096}} [490] => [491] => Aluminium increases [[estrogen]]-related [[gene expression]] in human [[breast cancer]] cells cultured in the laboratory.{{cite journal [492] => |title=Metalloestrogens: an emerging class of inorganic xenoestrogens with potential to add to the oestrogenic burden of the human breast|date=2006 [493] => |last1=Darbre|first1=P.D. [494] => |journal=Journal of Applied Toxicology|volume=26|pages=191–197|pmid=16489580|issue=3|s2cid=26291680|doi=10.1002/jat.1135}} [495] => In very high doses, aluminium is associated with altered function of the blood–brain barrier.{{cite journal [496] => |author=Banks, W.A.|date=1989|title=Aluminum-induced neurotoxicity: alterations in membrane function at the blood–brain barrier|last2=Kastin|first2=A.J. [497] => |journal=Neurosci Biobehav Rev|volume=13|issue=1|pages=47–53|doi=10.1016/S0149-7634(89)80051-X|pmid=2671833|s2cid=46507895}} [498] => A small percentage of people{{cite book [499] => |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1mk3lFVtBSQC&pg=PA244|title=Patty's Toxicology, 6 Volume Set|last1=Bingham|first1=Eula|last2=Cohrssen|first2=Barbara|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-0-470-41081-3|page=244|access-date=23 July 2018|archive-date=20 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191220172223/https://books.google.com/books?id=1mk3lFVtBSQC&pg=PA244|url-status=live}} have contact [[allergy|allergies]] to aluminium and experience itchy red rashes, headache, muscle pain, joint pain, poor memory, insomnia, depression, asthma, irritable bowel syndrome, or other symptoms upon contact with products containing aluminium.{{Cite news [500] => |url=https://allergy-symptoms.org/aluminum-allergy/|title=Aluminum Allergy Symptoms and Diagnosis|date=2016-09-20|work=Allergy-symptoms.org|access-date=2018-07-23 [501] => |language=en-US|archive-date=23 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180723152243/https://allergy-symptoms.org/aluminum-allergy/|url-status=live}} [502] => [503] => Exposure to powdered aluminium or aluminium welding fumes can cause [[pulmonary fibrosis]].{{Cite journal|last1=al-Masalkhi|first1=A.|last2=Walton|first2=S.P.|date=1994|title=Pulmonary fibrosis and occupational exposure to aluminum|journal=The Journal of the Kentucky Medical Association|volume=92|issue=2|pages=59–61|issn=0023-0294|pmid=8163901}} Fine aluminium powder can ignite or explode, posing another workplace hazard.{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0022.html|title=CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Aluminum|website=www.cdc.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530203735/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0022.html|archive-date=30 May 2015|url-status=live|access-date=11 June 2015}}{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0023.html|title=CDC – NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards – Aluminum (pyro powders and welding fumes, as Al)|website=www.cdc.gov|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150530205127/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0023.html|archive-date=30 May 2015|url-status=live|access-date=11 June 2015}} [504] => [505] => === Exposure routes === [506] => [507] => Food is the main source of aluminium. Drinking water contains more aluminium than solid food; however, aluminium in food may be absorbed more than aluminium from water.{{cite journal|author=Yokel R.A.|author2=Hicks C.L.|author3=Florence R.L.|date=2008|title=Aluminum bioavailability from basic sodium aluminum phosphate, an approved food additive emulsifying agent, incorporated in cheese|journal=[[Food and Chemical Toxicology]]|volume=46|issue=6|pages=2261–2266|doi=10.1016/j.fct.2008.03.004|pmc=2449821|pmid=18436363}} Major sources of human oral exposure to aluminium include food (due to its use in food additives, food and beverage packaging, and cooking utensils), drinking water (due to its use in municipal water treatment), and aluminium-containing medications (particularly antacid/antiulcer and buffered aspirin formulations).{{Cite report|author=[[United States Department of Health and Human Services]]|url=http://abcmt.org/tp22.pdf|title=Toxicological profile for aluminum|date=1999|access-date=2018-08-03|archive-date=9 May 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200509192819/http://abcmt.org/tp22.pdf|url-status=live}} Dietary exposure in Europeans averages to 0.2–1.5 mg/kg/week but can be as high as 2.3 mg/kg/week. Higher exposure levels of aluminium are mostly limited to miners, aluminium production workers, and [[Kidney dialysis|dialysis]] patients.{{Cite news|url=https://enviroliteracy.org/special-features/its-element-ary/aluminum/|title=Aluminum|work=The Environmental Literacy Council|language=en-US|access-date=2018-07-29|archive-date=27 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201027112722/https://enviroliteracy.org/special-features/its-element-ary/aluminum/|url-status=dead}} [508] => [509] => Consumption of [[antacid]]s, antiperspirants, [[vaccine]]s, and cosmetics provide possible routes of exposure.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hKlVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA333|title=Metal Allergy: From Dermatitis to Implant and Device Failure|last1=Chen|first1=Jennifer K.|last2=Thyssen|first2=Jacob P.|publisher=Springer|year=2018|isbn=978-3-319-58503-1|page=333|access-date=23 July 2018|archive-date=26 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191226141303/https://books.google.com/books?id=hKlVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA333|url-status=live}} Consumption of acidic foods or liquids with aluminium enhances aluminium absorption,{{cite journal|author=Slanina, P.|last2=French|first2=W.|last3=Ekström|first3=L.G.|last4=Lööf|first4=L.|last5=Slorach|first5=S.|last6=Cedergren|first6=A.|date=1986|title=Dietary citric acid enhances absorption of aluminum in antacids|journal=Clinical Chemistry|volume=32|issue=3|pages=539–541|pmid=3948402|doi=10.1093/clinchem/32.3.539}} and [[maltol]] has been shown to increase the accumulation of aluminium in nerve and bone tissues.{{cite journal|last1=Van Ginkel|first1=M.F.|last2=Van Der Voet|first2=G.B.|last3=D'haese|first3=P.C.|last4=De Broe|first4=M.E.|last5=De Wolff|first5=F.A.|date=1993|title=Effect of citric acid and maltol on the accumulation of aluminum in rat brain and bone|journal=The Journal of Laboratory and Clinical Medicine|volume=121|issue=3|pages=453–460|pmid=8445293}} [510] => [511] => === Treatment === [512] => [513] => In case of suspected sudden intake of a large amount of aluminium, the only treatment is [[deferoxamine mesylate]] which may be given to help eliminate aluminium from the body by [[chelation]].{{Cite web|url=http://www.arltma.com/Articles/AlumToxDoc.htm|title=ARL: Aluminum Toxicity|website=www.arltma.com|access-date=2018-07-24|archive-date=31 August 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190831154809/http://www.arltma.com/Articles/AlumToxDoc.htm|url-status=dead}}[http://www.med.nyu.edu/content?ChunkIID=164929 Aluminum Toxicity] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140203055539/http://www.med.nyu.edu/content?ChunkIID=164929|date=3 February 2014}} from [[NYU Langone Medical Center]]. Last reviewed November 2012 by Igor Puzanov, MD However, this should be applied with caution as this reduces not only aluminium body levels, but also those of other metals such as copper or iron. [514] => [515] => ==Environmental effects== [516] => [[File:Luftaufnahmen Nordseekueste 2012-05-by-RaBoe-478.jpg|thumb|upright=1.0|"[[Bauxite tailings]]" storage facility in [[Stade]], Germany. The aluminium industry generates about 70 million tons of this waste annually.]]High levels of aluminium occur near mining sites; small amounts of aluminium are released to the environment at the coal-fired power plants or [[Incineration|incinerators]]. Aluminium in the air is washed out by the rain or normally settles down but small particles of aluminium remain in the air for a long time. [517] => [518] => Acidic [[precipitation]] is the main natural factor to mobilize aluminium from natural sources and the main reason for the environmental effects of aluminium;{{cite journal|last1=Rosseland|first1=B.O.|last2=Eldhuset|first2=T.D.|last3=Staurnes|first3=M.|year=1990|title=Environmental effects of aluminium|journal=Environmental Geochemistry and Health|volume=12|issue=1–2|pages=17–27|doi=10.1007/BF01734045|pmid=24202562|bibcode=1990EnvGH..12...17R |s2cid=23714684|issn=0269-4042}} however, the main factor of presence of aluminium in salt and freshwater are the industrial processes that also release aluminium into air. [519] => [520] => In water, aluminium acts as a toxiс agent on [[gill]]-breathing animals such as [[fish]] when the water is acidic, in which aluminium may precipitate on gills,{{Cite journal|last1=Baker|first1=Joan P.|last2=Schofield|first2=Carl L.|date=1982|title=Aluminum toxicity to fish in acidic waters|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02419419|journal=Water, Air, and Soil Pollution|language=en|volume=18|issue=1–3|pages=289–309|doi=10.1007/BF02419419|bibcode=1982WASP...18..289B|s2cid=98363768|issn=0049-6979|access-date=27 December 2020|archive-date=11 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210611060738/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF02419419|url-status=live}} which causes loss of [[Blood plasma|plasma]]- and [[hemolymph]] ions leading to [[Osmoregulation|osmoregulatory]] failure. Organic complexes of aluminium may be easily absorbed and interfere with metabolism in mammals and birds, even though this rarely happens in practice. [521] => [522] => Aluminium is primary among the factors that reduce plant growth on acidic soils. Although it is generally harmless to plant growth in pH-neutral soils, in acid soils the concentration of toxic Al3+ [[cation]]s increases and disturbs root growth and function.{{cite journal [523] => |title=Effect of aluminum on δ-aminolevulinic acid dehydratase (ALA-D) and the development of cucumber (''Cucumis sativus'') [524] => |first1=Luciane|last1=Belmonte Pereira |first2=Luciane|last2=Aimed Tabaldi |first3=Jamile|last3=Fabbrin Gonçalves |first4=Gladis Oliveira|last4=Jucoski [525] => |first5=Mareni Maria|last5=Pauletto |first6=Simone|last6=Nardin Weis |first7=Fernando|last7=Texeira Nicoloso |first8=Denise|last8= Brother |first9=João|last9=Batista Teixeira Rocha |first10=Maria Rosa Chitolina|last10=Chitolina Schetinger [526] => |journal=Environmental and Experimental Botany|volume=57|issue=1–2|pages=106–115|date=2006|doi = 10.1016/j.envexpbot.2005.05.004|bibcode=2006EnvEB..57..106P }} [527] => {{cite journal [528] => |title=Toxicity and tolerance of aluminium in vascular plants|first=Maud|last=Andersson [529] => |journal=Water, Air, & Soil Pollution|volume=39|issue=3–4|pages=439–462|date=1988 [530] => |url=https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00279487|url-status=live [531] => |doi=10.1007/BF00279487|bibcode=1988WASP...39..439A|s2cid=82896081|access-date=28 February 2020 [532] => |archive-date=28 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200228160931/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/BF00279487}} [533] => {{cite journal [534] => |title=The role of the apoplast in aluminium toxicity and resistance of higher plants: A review [535] => |first=Walter J.|last=Horst [536] => |journal=Zeitschrift für Pflanzenernährung und Bodenkunde|volume=158|issue=5|pages=419–428|date=1995|doi=10.1002/jpln.19951580503}} [537] => {{cite journal [538] => |title = Aluminium tolerance in plants and the complexing role of organic acids [539] => |first1 = Jian Feng [540] => |last1 = Ma [541] => |journal = Trends in Plant Science [542] => |volume = 6 [543] => |issue = 6 [544] => |pages = 273–278 [545] => |date = 2001 [546] => |doi = 10.1016/S1360-1385(01)01961-6 [547] => |pmid = 11378470 [548] => |last2 = Ryan [549] => |first2 = P.R. [550] => |last3 = Delhaize [551] => |first3 = E.}} [552] => [[Wheat]] has [[adaptation|developed]] a tolerance to aluminium, releasing [[organic compound]]s that bind to harmful aluminium [[cations]]. [[Sorghum]] is believed to have the same tolerance mechanism.{{cite journal [553] => |title = Comparative Mapping of a Major Aluminum Tolerance Gene in Sorghum and Other Species in the Poaceae [554] => |first8 = L.V.|last8 = Kochian |first7 = L.|last7 = Li |first6 = R.E.|last6 = Schaffert |first5 = P.E.|last5 = Klein [555] => |first4 = M.E.|last4 = Sorrells|first3 = Y.|last3 = Wang|first2 = D.F.|last2 = Garvin|author = Magalhaes, J.V. [556] => |journal = Genetics|volume = 167| issue = 4|date = 2004|pmid = 15342528|pmc = 1471010|doi = 10.1534/genetics.103.023580|pages = 1905–1914}} [557] => [558] => Aluminium production possesses its own challenges to the environment on each step of the production process. The major challenge is the [[greenhouse gas emissions]]. These gases result from electrical consumption of the smelters and the byproducts of processing. The most potent of these gases are [[Fluorocarbon|perfluorocarbons]] from the smelting process. Released [[sulfur dioxide]] is one of the primary precursors of [[acid rain]]. [559] => [560] => Biodegradation of metallic aluminium is extremely rare; most aluminium-corroding organisms do not directly attack or consume the aluminium, but instead produce corrosive wastes.{{cite web|publisher=Duncan Aviation |title=Fuel System Contamination & Starvation |date=2011 |url=http://www.duncanaviation.aero/intelligence/201102/fuel_starvation_system_contamination.php |url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150225051128/http://www.duncanaviation.aero/intelligence/201102/fuel_starvation_system_contamination.php |archive-date=25 February 2015 }}{{cite journal|quote=A ''Geotrichum''-type arthroconidial fungus was isolated by the authors from a deteriorated compact disc found in Belize (Central America)....In the present paper, we report the purification and characterization of an H2O2-generating extracellular oxidase produced by this fungus, which shares catalytic properties with both ''P. eryngii'' AAO and ''P. simplicissimum'' VAO.|volume=Proteins and Proteomics 1794|issue=4|date=April 2009|pages=689–697|title=New oxidase from ''Bjerkandera'' arthroconidial anamorph that oxidizes both phenolic and nonphenolic benzyl alcohols|first1=Elvira|last1=Romero|first2=Patricia|last2=Ferreira|first3=Ángel T.|last3=Martínez|first4=María|last4=Jesús Martínez|journal=Biochimica et Biophysica Acta (BBA) - Proteins and Proteomics |doi=10.1016/j.bbapap.2008.11.013|pmid=19110079 }} See also the abstract of {{harvnb|Romero|Speranza|García-Guinea|Martínez|2007}}. The fungus ''[[Geotrichum candidum]]'' can consume the aluminium in [[compact disc]]s.{{Cite journal|doi=10.1038/news010628-11 |author=Bosch, Xavier |title=Fungus eats CD |date=27 June 2001 |journal=Nature |pages=news010628–11 |url=http://www.nature.com/news/2001/010627/full/news010628-11.html |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101231163222/http://www.nature.com/news/2001/010627/full/news010628-11.html |archive-date=31 December 2010 }}{{cite journal|journal=Naturwissenschaften|year=2001|volume=88|pages=351–354|doi=10.1007/s001140100249|department=Short Communication|first1=Javier|last1=Garcia-Guinea|first2=Victor|last2=Cárdenes|first3=Angel T.|last3=Martínez|first4=Maria|last4=Jesús Martínez|title=Fungal bioturbation paths in a compact disk|issue=8 |pmid=11572018 |bibcode=2001NW.....88..351G |s2cid=7599290 }}{{cite journal|title=An anamorph of the white-rot fungus ''Bjerkandera adusta'' capable of colonizing and degrading compact disc components|first1=Elvira|last1=Romero|first2=Mariela|last2=Speranza|first3=Javier|last3=García-Guinea|first4=Ángel T.|last4=Martínez|first5=María|last5=Jesús Martínez|date=8 August 2007|doi=10.1111/j.1574-6968.2007.00876.x|editor-first=Bernard|editor-last=Prior|journal=FEMS Microbiol Lett|volume=275|issue=1 |pages=122–129|publisher=Blackwell Publishing Ltd.|pmid=17854471 |doi-access=free|hdl=10261/47650|hdl-access=free}} The bacterium ''[[Pseudomonas aeruginosa]]'' and the fungus ''[[Cladosporium resinae]]'' are commonly detected in aircraft fuel tanks that use [[kerosene]]-based fuels (not [[avgas]]), and laboratory cultures can degrade aluminium.{{cite journal [561] => |url=http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bio19Tuat01-t1-body-d4.html |journal=Tuatara |title=Studies on the "Kerosene Fungus" ''Cladosporium resinae'' (Lindau) De Vries: Part I. The Problem of Microbial Contamination of Aviation Fuels |page=29 |author1=Sheridan, J.E. |author2=Nelson, Jan |author3=Tan, Y.L. |volume=19 |issue=1 |url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213140543/http://nzetc.victoria.ac.nz/tm/scholarly/tei-Bio19Tuat01-t1-body-d4.html |archive-date=13 December 2013 }} [562] => [563] => == See also == [564] => {{Portal|Chemistry}} [565] => * [[Aluminium granules]] [566] => * [[Aluminium joining]] [567] => * [[Aluminium–air battery]] [568] => * [[Aluminized steel]], for corrosion resistance and other properties [569] => * [[Aluminized screen]], for display devices [570] => * [[Aluminized cloth]], to reflect heat [571] => * [[Aluminized mylar]], to reflect heat [572] => * [[Panel edge staining]] [573] => * [[Quantum clock]] [574] => [575] => == Notes == [576] => {{notelist}} [577] => [578] => == References == [579] => {{Reflist}} [580] => [581] => == Bibliography == [582] => [583] => * {{cite book |last=Davis|first=J. R.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iEeiQEeLOmYC|title=Corrosion of Aluminum and Aluminum Alloys|date=1999|publisher=ASM International|isbn=978-1-61503-238-9|language=en}} [584] => * {{cite book |title=Lange's handbook of chemistry |last=Dean |first=J. A. |date=1999 |publisher=McGraw-Hill |isbn=978-0-07-016384-3 |edition=15 |oclc=40213725}} [585] => * {{cite book |last = Drozdov |first = A. |year = 2007 |title = Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element |title-link = Aluminium: The Thirteenth Element |publisher = [[RUSAL]] Library |isbn = 978-5-91523-002-5}} [586] => * {{cite book |last1=Greenwood |first1=N. N. |author-link1=Norman Greenwood |last2=Earnshaw |first2=A. |year=1997 |title=Chemistry of the Elements |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Butterworth-Heinemann]] |isbn=978-0-08-037941-8}} [587] => * {{cite book |last=King |first=R. B. |date=1995 |title=Inorganic Chemistry of Main Group Elements |publisher=Wiley-VCH |isbn=978-0-471-18602-1}} [588] => * {{cite book |editor-last=Lide|editor-first=D. R.|title=Handbook of Chemistry and Physics|url=https://archive.org/details/crchandbookofche81lide|url-access=registration|publisher=[[CRC Press]]|date=2004|edition=84|isbn=978-0-8493-0566-5}} [589] => * {{cite report |last=Nappi |first=C. |year=2013 |title=The global aluminium industry 40 years from 1972 |publisher=International Aluminium Institute |url=http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/mclaughlin1/docs/nappi.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://large.stanford.edu/courses/2016/ph240/mclaughlin1/docs/nappi.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}} [590] => * {{cite book |last=Richards |first=J. W. |year=1896 |url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924003633751/cu31924003633751_djvu.txt |title=Aluminium: Its history, occurrence, properties, metallurgy and applications, including its alloys |edition=3 |publisher=Henry Carey Baird & Co.}} [591] => * {{cite book|last=Schmitz|first=C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WvT2OEf8DskC|title=Handbook of Aluminium Recycling|date=2006|publisher=Vulkan-Verlag GmbH|isbn=978-3-8027-2936-2|language=en}} [592] => [593] => ==Further reading== [594] => * Mimi Sheller, ''Aluminum Dream: The Making of Light Modernity''. Cambridge, Mass.: Massachusetts Institute of Technology Press, 2014. [595] => [596] => ==External links== [597] => {{Sister project links|auto=1|wikt=aluminium|s=1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Aluminium}} [598] => * [https://www.periodicvideos.com/videos/013.htm Aluminium] at ''[[The Periodic Table of Videos]]'' (University of Nottingham) [599] => * [https://www.atsdr.cdc.gov/ToxProfiles/tp22.pdf Toxicological Profile for Aluminum] (PDF) (September 2008) – 357-page report from the [[United States Department of Health and Human Services]], Public Health Service, [[Agency for Toxic Substances and Disease Registry]] [600] => * [https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0022.html Aluminum] entry (last reviewed October 30, 2019) in the ''NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards'' published by the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]]'s [[National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health]] [601] => * [https://www.indexmundi.com/commodities/?commodity=aluminum&months=300 Current and historical prices] (1998–present) for aluminum [[futures contract|futures]] on the global [[commodities market]] [602] => * {{Internet Archive short film|id=gov.archives.arc.38661|name=Aluminum}} [603] => [604] => {{Aluminium compounds}} [605] => {{Periodic table (navbox)}}{{Aluminium alloys}} [606] => {{Authority control}} [607] => [608] => [[Category:Aluminium| ]] [609] => [[Category:Chemical elements]] [610] => [[Category:Post-transition metals]] [611] => [[Category:Rocket fuels|Aluminium]] [612] => [[Category:Electrical conductors]] [613] => [[Category:Pyrotechnic fuels]] [614] => [[Category:Airship technology]] [615] => [[Category:Reducing agents]] [616] => [[Category:E-number additives]] [617] => [[Category:Native element minerals]] [618] => [[Category:Chemical elements with face-centered cubic structure]] [] => )
good wiki

Aluminium

Aluminium is a chemical element with the symbol Al and atomic number 13. It is a silvery-white, soft, lightweight metal known for its low density and resistance to corrosion.

More about us

About

It is a silvery-white, soft, lightweight metal known for its low density and resistance to corrosion. Aluminium is the third most abundant element in Earth's crust, making up about 8% by mass. It occurs naturally only in chemically bound forms, primarily as aluminium oxide, or bauxite. The ancient Greeks and Romans used alum, a compound containing aluminium, as a dye fixative. However, it was not until the 19th century that aluminium was isolated as a pure metal. The Hall–Héroult process, developed in the late 19th century, revolutionized aluminium production and made the metal cheap and easily available. Aluminium is widely used in various industries due to its desirable properties. It is a good conductor of electricity, so it is commonly used in power lines, electrical appliances, and electronic devices. Its low density makes it ideal for applications where weight reduction is important, such as in the aerospace industry and automotive manufacturing. Additionally, aluminium is non-toxic, non-magnetic, and has high reflectivity, which makes it suitable for packaging, utensils, and mirrors. Despite its numerous advantages, aluminium also has some drawbacks. It has poor tensile strength, so it is often alloyed with other metals, such as copper, magnesium, or zinc, to enhance its mechanical properties. Aluminium also has a high energy consumption during production, contributing to its relatively high cost compared to other metals. The environmental impact of aluminium has been a subject of concern. Extraction of aluminium from bauxite requires large amounts of energy and releases greenhouse gases. However, aluminium is highly recyclable, and recycling it significantly reduces its environmental footprint. In summary, aluminium is a versatile metal with numerous applications due to its desirable properties. It is lightweight, corrosion-resistant, and widely available. Though there are some challenges associated with its production and recycling, aluminium continues to be a widely used and important metal in various industries.

Expert Team

Vivamus eget neque lacus. Pellentesque egauris ex.

Award winning agency

Lorem ipsum, dolor sit amet consectetur elitorceat .

10 Year Exp.

Pellen tesque eget, mauris lorem iupsum neque lacus.

You might be interested in

Aerospace

Aerospace is a branch of engineering that deals with aircraft, spacecraft, and related technologies.

Ammonia

Ammonia is a compound composed of one nitrogen atom bonded to three hydrogen atoms.

Aviation

Aviation is a branch of technology that deals with the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft.

Bacteria

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that have a wide range of shapes and sizes.

Bicycle

A bicycle, often called a bike, is a human-powered or motor-powered vehicle with two wheels, one behind the other.

Catalysis

Catalysis is the process of increasing the rate of a chemical reaction by the presence of a substance called a catalyst.

Erythropoietin

Erythropoietin (EPO) is a hormone produced mainly by the kidneys that regulates the production of red blood cells in the body.

Estrogen

Estrogen, also known as oestrogen, is a group of sex hormones primarily responsible for the development and regulation of the female reproductive system.

Hydrogen

Hydrogen is a chemical element with the symbol H and atomic number 1.

Infrared

Infrared is a type of electromagnetic radiation, which lies beyond the visible spectrum of light.

Kelvin

Kelvin is a unit of temperature widely used in the scientific field.

Magnetism

Magnetism is a phenomenon that relates to the interaction of magnetic fields, magnetic materials, and electric currents.

Oxygen

Oxygen is a chemical element with the symbol O and atomic number 8.

Polymer

Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating subunits known as monomers.

Polymerization

In polymer chemistry, polymerization (American English), or polymerisation (British English), is a process of reacting monomer molecules together in a chemical reaction to form polymer chains or three-dimensional networks.

Potassium

Potassium is a chemical element with the symbol K and atomic number 19.

Precipitation

Precipitation is a crucial aspect of Earth's water cycle and refers to any form of water that falls from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface.

Protein

Proteins are macromolecules found in all living organisms.

Recycling

Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new products to reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, energy usage, and pollution.

Redox

Redox is a term derived from the words "reduction" and "oxidation," which are two fundamental chemical processes that occur together in reactions involving the transfer of electrons between molecules.

Sodium

Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na and atomic number 11.

Superconductor

Vaccine

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease.

Water

Water is a transparent, odorless, tasteless liquid that covers around 71% of the Earth's surface and is the most abundant substance on the planet.

Wheat

Wheat is a widely cultivated cereal grain that is one of the most important staple foods worldwide.