Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Activity involving calculations or computing machinery}} [1] => {{About|the activity involving computing machinery|the magazines|Computing (magazine)|and|Compute!}} [2] => {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}} [3] => [[File:GalvesLocherbach_-_Low_resolution.gif|thumb|right|alt=Computer simulation|Computer simulation, one of the main cross-computing methodologies]] [4] => [5] => '''Computing''' is any goal-oriented activity requiring, benefiting from, or creating [[computer|computing machinery]].{{Cite web |title=Computing Classification System |url=https://dl.acm.org/ccs |website=Digital Library |publisher=Association for Computing Machinery}} It includes the study and experimentation of [[algorithm]]ic processes, and the development of both [[computer hardware|hardware]] and software. Computing has scientific, engineering, mathematical, technological, and social aspects. Major computing disciplines include [[computer engineering]], [[computer science]], [[cybersecurity]], [[data science]], [[information systems]], information technology, and software engineering.{{Cite web |date=17 January 2020 |title=Computing Careers & Disciplines: A Quick Guide for Prospective Students and Career Advisors (2nd edition, ©2020) |url=https://ceric.ca/wpdm-package/computing-careers-disciplines-a-quick-guide-for-prospective-students-and-career-advisors/ |access-date=4 July 2022 |website=CERIC |language=en-US}} [6] => [7] => The term ''computing'' is also [[synonymous]] with [[counting]] and [[calculation|calculating]]. In earlier times, it was used in reference to the action performed by [[Mechanical computer|mechanical computing machines]], and before that, to [[Computer (occupation)|human computers]].{{Cite web|title=The History of Computing|url=http://mason.gmu.edu/~montecin/computer-hist-web.htm|access-date=12 April 2019|website=mason.gmu.edu}} [8] => [9] => [[File:ENIAC-changing_a_tube.jpg|thumb|right|alt=Early vacuum tube Turing complete computer|ENIAC, the first programmable general-purpose electronic digital computer]] [10] => [11] => == History == [12] => {{Main|History of computing}} [13] => {{For timeline}} [14] => [15] => The history of computing is longer than the [[history of computing hardware]] and includes the history of methods intended for pen and paper (or for chalk and slate) with or without the aid of tables. Computing is intimately tied to the representation of numbers, though mathematical concepts necessary for computing existed before [[numeral system]]s. The earliest known tool for use in computation is the [[abacus]], and it is thought to have been invented in [[Babylon]] circa between 2700–2300 BC. Abaci, of a more modern design, are still used as calculation tools today. [16] => [17] => The first recorded proposal for using digital electronics in computing was the 1931 paper "The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena" by [[C. E. Wynn-Williams]].{{Citation | last = Wynn-Williams | first = C. E. | author-link = C. E. Wynn-Williams | title = The Use of Thyratrons for High Speed Automatic Counting of Physical Phenomena | journal = [[Proceedings of the Royal Society A]] | volume = 132 | issue = 819 | pages = 295–310 | date = 2 July 1931 | doi = 10.1098/rspa.1931.0102 |bibcode = 1931RSPSA.132..295W | doi-access = free }} [[Claude Shannon]]'s 1938 paper "[[A Symbolic Analysis of Relay and Switching Circuits]]" then introduced the idea of using electronics for [[Boolean algebra]]ic operations. [18] => [19] => The concept of a [[field-effect transistor]] was proposed by [[Julius Edgar Lilienfeld]] in 1925. [[John Bardeen]] and [[Walter Brattain]], while working under [[William Shockley]] at [[Bell Labs]], built the first working [[transistor]], the [[point-contact transistor]], in 1947.{{cite book |last1=Lee |first1=Thomas H. |title=The Design of CMOS Radio-Frequency Integrated Circuits |date=2003 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9781139643771 |url=https://web.stanford.edu/class/archive/ee/ee214/ee214.1032/Handouts/HO2.pdf |access-date=16 September 2019 |archive-date=9 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191209032130/https://web.stanford.edu/class/archive/ee/ee214/ee214.1032/Handouts/HO2.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{cite book |last1=Puers |first1=Robert |last2=Baldi |first2=Livio |last3=Voorde |first3=Marcel Van de |last4=Nooten |first4=Sebastiaan E. van |title=Nanoelectronics: Materials, Devices, Applications, 2 Volumes |date=2017 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9783527340538 |page=14 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JOqVDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA14}} In 1953, the [[University of Manchester]] built the first [[transistorized computer]], the [[Manchester Baby]].{{Citation|last=Lavington|first=Simon|title=A History of Manchester Computers|year=1998|edition=2|publisher=The British Computer Society|location=Swindon|pages=34–35}} However, early [[junction transistor]]s were relatively bulky devices that were difficult to mass-produce, which limited them to a number of specialised applications.{{cite book |last1=Moskowitz |first1=Sanford L. |title=Advanced Materials Innovation: Managing Global Technology in the 21st century |date=2016 |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=9780470508923 |pages=165–167 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2STRDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165}} The [[MOSFET|metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistor]] (MOSFET, or MOS transistor) was invented by [[Mohamed Atalla]] and [[Dawon Kahng]] at Bell Labs in 1959.{{cite journal|url=https://www.computerhistory.org/siliconengine/metal-oxide-semiconductor-mos-transistor-demonstrated/|title=1960 – Metal Oxide Semiconductor (MOS) Transistor Demonstrated|journal=The Silicon Engine|publisher=[[Computer History Museum]]}}{{cite book |last1=Lojek |first1=Bo |title=History of Semiconductor Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=9783540342588 |pages=321–3}} The MOSFET made it possible to build [[very large-scale integration|high-density integrated circuits]],{{cite web |title=Who Invented the Transistor? |url=https://www.computerhistory.org/atchm/who-invented-the-transistor/ |website=[[Computer History Museum]] |date=4 December 2013 |access-date=20 July 2019}}{{cite journal |last1=Hittinger |first1=William C. |title=Metal-Oxide-Semiconductor Technology |journal=Scientific American |date=1973 |volume=229 |issue=2 |pages=48–59 |issn=0036-8733|jstor=24923169 |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0873-48 |bibcode=1973SciAm.229b..48H }} leading to what is known as the [[computer revolution]]{{cite book|author1-link=Jerry G. Fossum |last1=Fossum |first1=Jerry G. |last2=Trivedi |first2=Vishal P. |title=Fundamentals of Ultra-Thin-Body MOSFETs and FinFETs |date=2013 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=9781107434493 |page=vii |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zZJfAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR7}} or [[microcomputer revolution]].{{cite book |last1=Malmstadt |first1=Howard V. |last2=Enke |first2=Christie G. |last3=Crouch |first3=Stanley R. |title=Making the Right Connections: Microcomputers and Electronic Instrumentation |date=1994 |publisher=[[American Chemical Society]] |isbn=9780841228610 |page=389 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lyJGAQAAIAAJ |quote=The relative simplicity and low power requirements of MOSFETs have fostered today's microcomputer revolution.}} [20] => [21] => == Computer == [22] => {{Main|Computer|Outline of computers|Glossary of computer terms}} [23] => [24] => A computer is a machine that manipulates [[Data (computing)|data]] according to a set of instructions called a computer program.{{Cite web |title=Definition of computer |url=https://www.pcmag.com/encyclopedia/term/computer |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=PCMAG |language=en}} The program has an executable form that the computer can use directly to execute the instructions. The same program in its human-readable source code form, enables a programmer to study and develop a sequence of steps known as an [[algorithm]].{{Cite web |last=Denny |first=Jory |date=16 October 2020 |title=What is an algorithm? How computers know what to do with data |url=http://theconversation.com/what-is-an-algorithm-how-computers-know-what-to-do-with-data-146665 |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=The Conversation |language=en-US}} Because the instructions can be carried out in different types of computers, a single set of source instructions converts to machine instructions according to the [[Central processing unit|CPU]] type.{{Citation |last=Butterfield |first=Andrew|title=computer |date=21 January 2016 |work=A Dictionary of Computer Science |editor-last=Butterfield |editor-first=Andrew |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780199688975.001.0001/acref-9780199688975-e-936 |access-date=5 February 2024 |publisher=Oxford University Press |language=en |doi=10.1093/acref/9780199688975.001.0001/acref-9780199688975-e-936?rskey=j8f2oo&result=1052 |isbn=978-0-19-968897-5 |last2=Ngondi |first2=Gerard Ekembe NgondiGerard Ekembe |last3=Kerr |first3=Anne|editor2-last=Ngondi |editor2-first=Gerard Ekembe |editor3-last=Kerr |editor3-first=Anne}} [25] => [26] => The execution [[process (computing)|process]] carries out the instructions in a computer program. Instructions express the computations performed by the computer. They trigger sequences of simple actions on the executing machine. Those actions produce effects according to the [[Formal semantics of programming languages|semantics]] of the instructions. [27] => [28] => === Computer hardware === [29] => {{Main|Computer hardware}} [30] => Computer hardware includes the physical parts of a computer, including the [[central processing unit]], [[Computer memory|memory]], and [[input/output]].{{Cite web |title=Common CPU components – The CPU – Eduqas – GCSE Computer Science Revision – Eduqas – BBC Bitesize |url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/guides/zhppfcw/revision/2 |access-date=5 February 2024 |website=www.bbc.co.uk}} [[Computational logic]] and [[computer architecture]] are key topics in the field of computer hardware.{{Cite journal |last=Paulson |first=Laurence |date=28 February 2018 |title=Computational logic: its origins and applications |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2017.0872 |journal=Proceedings. of the Royal Society A |publisher=The Royal Society Publishing |volume=474 |issue=2210 |issn=1471-2946}}{{Cite journal |last=Paulson |first=Lawrence C. |date=February 2018 |title=Computational logic: its origins and applications |url=https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspa.2017.0872 |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences |language=en |volume=474 |issue=2210 |pages=20170872 |doi=10.1098/rspa.2017.0872 |issn=1364-5021 |pmc=5832843 |pmid=29507522}} [31] => [32] => === Computer software === [33] => {{Main|Computer software}} [34] => Computer software, or just ''software'', is a collection of computer programs and related data, which provides instructions to a computer. Software refers to one or more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer. It is a set of ''programs, procedures, algorithms,'' as well as its ''documentation'' concerned with the operation of a data processing system.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} Program software performs the [[Function (engineering)|function]] of the [[Computer program|program]] it implements, either by directly providing [[instruction (computer science)|instructions]] to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of software. The [[Terminology|term]] was coined to contrast with the old term ''[[Computer hardware|hardware]]'' (meaning physical devices). In contrast to hardware, software is intangible.{{cite web| title = Wordreference.com: WordNet 2.0| publisher = Princeton University, Princeton, NJ| url = http://www.wordreference.com/definition/software [35] => | access-date = 19 August 2007 }} [36] => [37] => Software is also sometimes used in a more narrow sense, meaning application software only. [38] => [39] => ====System software==== [40] => {{Main|System software}} [41] => [42] => System software, or systems software, is computer software designed to operate and control computer hardware, and to provide a platform for running application software. System software includes [[operating system]]s, [[utility software]], [[device driver]]s, [[window system]]s, and [[firmware]]. Frequently used development tools such as [[compiler]]s, [[linker (computing)|linker]]s, and [[Debugging|debuggers]] are classified as system software.{{Cite web |last=Rouse |first=Margaret |date=March 2019 |title=system software |url=https://whatis.techtarget.com/definition/system-software |website=WhatIs.com |publisher=TechTarget}} [[System software]] and [[middleware]] manage and integrate a computer's capabilities, but typically do not directly apply them in the performance of tasks that benefit the user, unlike application software. [43] => [44] => ==== Application software ==== [45] => {{Main|Application software}} [46] => [47] => Application software, also known as an ''application'' or an ''app'', is computer software designed to help the user perform specific tasks. Examples include [[enterprise software]], [[accounting software]], [[office suite]]s, [[graphics software]], and [[media player (application software)|media player]]s. Many application programs deal principally with [[Document file format|documents]].{{Cite web |title=Basic Computer Terms |url=https://web.pdx.edu/~stipakb/download/PA550/BasicComputerTerms.htm |access-date=2024-04-18 |website=web.pdx.edu}} Apps may be [[Product bundling|bundled]] with the computer and its system software, or may be published separately. Some users are satisfied with the bundled apps and need never install additional applications. The system software manages the hardware and serves the application, which in turn serves the user. [48] => [49] => Application software applies the power of a particular [[computing platform]] or system software to a particular purpose. Some apps, such as [[Microsoft Office]], are developed in multiple versions for several different platforms; others have narrower requirements and are generally referred to by the platform they run on. For example, a ''[[Geographic information system|geography]] application for [[Microsoft Windows|Windows]]'' or an ''[[Android (operating system)|Android]] application for [[Educational software|education]]'' or ''[[Linux gaming]]''. Applications that run only on one platform and increase the desirability of that platform due to the popularity of the application, known as [[killer application]]s.{{Cite web |title=The Fibreculture Journal : 25 {{!}} FCJ-181 There's a History for That: Apps and Mundane Software as Commodity |url=https://twentyfive.fibreculturejournal.org/fcj-181-theres-a-history-for-that-apps-and-mundane-software-as-commodity/ |access-date=5 February 2024 |language=en-US}} [50] => [51] => === Computer network === [52] => {{Main|Computer network}} [53] => [54] => A computer network, often simply referred to as a network, is a collection of hardware components and computers [[Computer network|interconnected]] by communication channels that allow the sharing of resources and information.{{cite web |url=http://www.atis.org/glossary/definition.aspx?id=6555 |title=Computer network definition |access-date=12 November 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120121061919/http://www.atis.org/glossary/definition.aspx?id=6555 |archive-date=21 January 2012 }} When at least one process in one device is able to send or receive data to or from at least one process residing in a remote device, the two devices are said to be in a network. Networks may be classified according to a wide variety of characteristics such as the medium used to transport the data, [[communications protocol]] used, scale, [[Network topology|topology]], and organizational scope. [55] => [56] => [[Communications protocol]]s define the rules and data formats for exchanging information in a computer network, and provide the basis for [[computer network programming|network programming]]. One well-known communications protocol is [[Ethernet]], a hardware and [[link layer]] standard that is ubiquitous in [[local area network]]s. Another common protocol is the [[Internet Protocol Suite]], which defines a set of protocols for internetworking, i.e. for data communication between multiple networks, host-to-host data transfer, and application-specific data transmission formats.{{Cite web |title=TCP/IP: What is TCP/IP and How Does it Work? |url=https://www.techtarget.com/searchnetworking/definition/TCP-IP |access-date=2024-03-14 |website=Networking |language=en}} [57] => [58] => Computer networking is sometimes considered a sub-discipline of [[electrical engineering]], telecommunications, [[computer science]], information technology, or [[computer engineering]], since it relies upon the theoretical and practical application of these disciplines.Dhavaleswarapu, Ratna. (2019). [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/338211242_The_Pallid_Image_of_Globalization_in_Kiran_Desai's_The_Inheritance_of_Loss The Pallid Image of Globalization in Kiran Desai’s The Inheritance of Loss]. Retrieved 19 April 2024. [59] => [60] => ==== Internet ==== [61] => {{main|Internet}} [62] => The Internet is a global system of interconnected [[computer network]]s that use the standard [[Internet Protocol Suite]] (TCP/IP) to serve billions of users. This includes millions of private, public, academic, business, and government networks, ranging in scope from local to global. These networks are linked by a broad array of electronic, wireless, and optical networking technologies. The Internet carries an extensive range of information resources and services, such as the inter-linked [[hypertext]] documents of the [[World Wide Web]] and the [[information infrastructure|infrastructure]] to support email.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} [63] => [64] => === Computer programming === [65] => {{Main|Computer programming|Software engineering}} [66] => [67] => Computer programming is the process of writing, testing, debugging, and maintaining the source code and documentation of computer programs. This source code is written in a [[programming language]], which is an [[artificial language]] that is often more restrictive than [[natural language]]s, but easily translated by the computer. Programming is used to invoke some desired behavior (customization) from the machine.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} [68] => [69] => Writing high-quality source code requires knowledge of both the computer science domain and the domain in which the application will be used. The highest-quality software is thus often developed by a team of domain experts, each a specialist in some area of development.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} However, the term ''programmer'' may apply to a range of program quality, from [[Hacker (hobbyist)|hacker]] to [[Hacker (programmer subculture)|open source contributor]] to professional. It is also possible for a single programmer to do most or all of the computer programming needed to generate the [[proof of concept]] to launch a new [[killer application]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} [70] => [71] => ==== Computer programmer ==== [72] => {{Main|Programmer|Software engineer|Software developer}} [73] => [74] => A programmer, computer programmer, or coder is a person who writes computer software. The term ''computer programmer'' can refer to a specialist in one area of [[computer programming]] or to a generalist who writes code for many kinds of software. One who practices or professes a formal approach to programming may also be known as a programmer analyst.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} A programmer's primary computer language ([[C (programming language)|C]], [[C++]], [[Java (programming language)|Java]], [[Lisp (programming language)|Lisp]], [[Python (programming language)|Python]], etc.) is often prefixed to the above titles, and those who work in a web environment often prefix their titles with ''Web''. The term ''programmer'' can be used to refer to a [[software developer]], software engineer, [[computer scientist]], or [[software analyst]]. However, members of these [[profession]]s typically possess other software engineering skills, beyond programming.{{Cite web |date=23 January 2019 |title=5 Skills Developers Need Beyond Writing Code |url=https://news.codecademy.com/5-skills-developers-need-beyond-writing-code/}} [75] => [76] => === Computer industry === [77] => {{Main|Computer Industry|Software industry}} [78] => [79] => The computer industry is made up of businesses involved in developing computer software, designing computer hardware and [[computer networking]] infrastructures, manufacturing computer components, and providing information technology services, including [[System administrator|system administration]] and maintenance.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} [80] => [81] => The software industry includes businesses engaged in [[software development|development]], [[software maintenance|maintenance]], and [[software publisher|publication]] of software. The industry also includes software [[Service (economics)|service]]s, such as [[training]], [[software documentation|documentation]], and consulting.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} [82] => [83] => =={{Anchor|DISCIPLINES}}Sub-disciplines of computing== [84] => [85] => === Computer engineering === [86] => {{Main|Computer engineering}} [87] => [88] => Computer engineering is a [[academic discipline|discipline]] that integrates several fields of [[electrical engineering]] and [[computer science]] required to develop computer hardware and software.{{Cite book | author1 = IEEE Computer Society | author-link = IEEE Computer Society | author2 = ACM | author-link2 = Association for Computing Machinery | title = Computer Engineering 2004: Curriculum Guidelines for Undergraduate Degree Programs in Computer Engineering | url = http://www.acm.org/education/education/curric_vols/CE-Final-Report.pdf | access-date = 17 December 2012 | date = 12 December 2004 | page = iii | quote = Computer System engineering has traditionally been viewed as a combination ofboth electronic engineering (EE) and computer science (CS). | archive-date = 12 June 2019 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20190612130313/https://www.acm.org/education/education/curric_vols/CE-Final-Report.pdf | url-status = dead }} Computer engineers usually have training in [[electronic engineering]] (or [[electrical engineering]]), [[software design]], and hardware-software integration, rather than just software engineering or electronic engineering. Computer engineers are involved in many hardware and software aspects of computing, from the design of individual [[microprocessor]]s, personal computers, and [[supercomputer]]s, to [[circuit design]]. This field of engineering includes not only the design of hardware within its own domain, but also the interactions between hardware and the context in which it operates.{{Cite web [89] => | last = Trinity College Dublin | url = http://www.tcd.ie/Engineering/about/what_is_eng/computer_eng_intro.html | title = What is Computer System Engineering | access-date = 21 April 2006}}, "Computer engineers need not only to understand how computer systems themselves work, but also how they integrate into the larger picture. Consider the car. A modern car contains many separate computer systems for controlling such things as the engine timing, the brakes and the air bags. To be able to design and implement such a car, the computer engineer needs a broad theoretical understanding of all these various subsystems & how they interact. [90] => [91] => === Software engineering === [92] => {{Main|Software engineering}} [93] => [94] => Software engineering is the application of a systematic, disciplined, and quantifiable approach to the design, development, operation, and maintenance of software, and the study of these approaches. That is, the application of engineering to software.{{cite book|pages =1| first1= Alain| last1=Abran| first2=James W.| last2=Moore| first3=Pierre| last3=Bourque| first4=Robert| last4=Dupuis| first5=Leonard L.| last5=Tripp| title=Guide to the Software Engineering Body of Knowledge| year=2004| publisher=IEEE| isbn=978-0-7695-2330-9}}{{cite web | author = ACM | year = 2006 | url = http://computingcareers.acm.org/?page_id=12 | title = Computing Degrees & Careers | publisher = ACM | access-date = 23 November 2010 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110617053818/http://computingcareers.acm.org/?page_id=12 | archive-date = 17 June 2011 | url-status = dead }}{{cite book | last = Laplante | first = Phillip | title = What Every Engineer Should Know about Software Engineering | publisher = CRC | location = Boca Raton | year = 2007 | isbn = 978-0-8493-7228-5 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=pFHYk0KWAEgC&q=What%20Every%20Engineer%20Should%20Know%20about%20Software%20Engineering.&pg=PA1 | access-date = 21 January 2011 }} It is the act of using insights to conceive, model and scale a solution to a problem. The first reference to the term is the 1968 [[NATO Software Engineering Conferences|NATO Software Engineering Conference]], and was intended to provoke thought regarding the perceived ''[[software crisis]]'' at the time.{{cite book| last=Sommerville| first=Ian| title=Software Engineering| edition=7| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PqsWaBkFh1wC| access-date=10 January 2013 [95] => | year=2008| publisher=Pearson Education| isbn=978-81-7758-530-8| page=26}}{{cite conference | first1 = Naur | last1 = Peter |author-link1=Peter Naur |first2=Brian|last2=Randell |author-link2=Brian Randell | title = Software Engineering: Report of a conference sponsored by the NATO Science Committee | publisher = Scientific Affairs Division, NATO | date = 7–11 October 1968 | location = Garmisch, Germany | url = http://homepages.cs.ncl.ac.uk/brian.randell/NATO/nato1968.PDF | access-date = 26 December 2008}}{{cite web| url = http://homepages.cs.ncl.ac.uk/brian.randell/NATO/NATOReports/index.html| title = The 1968/69 NATO Software Engineering Reports| access-date = 11 October 2008 | last = Randell | first = Brian | author-link = Brian Randell|date = 10 August 2001| work = Brian Randell's University Homepage| publisher = The School of the Computer Sciences, Newcastle University| quote = The idea for the first NATO Software Engineering Conference, and in particular that of adopting the then practically unknown term ''software engineering'' as its (deliberately provocative) title, I believe came originally from Professor [[Friedrich L. Bauer|Fritz Bauer]].}} [[Software development]], a widely used and more generic term, does not necessarily subsume the engineering paradigm. The generally accepted concepts of Software Engineering as an engineering discipline have been specified in the Guide to the [[Software Engineering Body of Knowledge]] (SWEBOK). The SWEBOK has become an internationally accepted standard in ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015.{{cite web | url = http://www.iso.org/iso/iso_catalogue/catalogue_tc/catalogue_detail.htm?csnumber=33897| id= ISO/IEC TR 19759:2015| access-date = 21 May 2019|title = Software Engineering – Guide to the software engineering body of knowledge (SWEBOK)|publisher = International Organization for Standardization}} [96] => [97] => === Computer science === [98] => {{Main|Computer science|Computer scientist}} [99] => [100] => Computer science or computing science (abbreviated CS or Comp Sci) is the [[science|scientific]] and practical approach to [[computation]] and its applications. A [[computer scientist]] specializes in the theory of computation and the design of computational systems.{{cite web |url=http://wordnetweb.princeton.edu/perl/webwn?s=computer%20scientist |title=WordNet Search – 3.1 |publisher=Wordnetweb.princeton.edu |access-date=14 May 2012}} [101] => [102] => Its subfields can be divided into practical techniques for its implementation and application in [[computer system]]s, and purely theoretical areas. Some, such as [[computational complexity theory]], which studies fundamental properties of [[computational problem]]s, are highly abstract, while others, such as [[Computer graphics (computer science)|computer graphics]], emphasize real-world applications. Others focus on the challenges in implementing computations. For example, [[programming language theory]] studies approaches to the description of computations, while the study of [[computer programming]] investigates the use of [[programming language]]s and [[complex systems]]. The field of [[human–computer interaction]] focuses on the challenges in making computers and computations useful, usable, and universally accessible to humans. {{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} [103] => [104] => === Cybersecurity === [105] => {{Main|Computer security}}The field of cybersecurity pertains to the protection of computer systems and networks. This includes [[Information privacy|information and data privacy]], preventing [[Denial-of-service attack|disruption]] of IT services and prevention of theft of and damage to hardware, software, and data.{{Cite journal |last1=Schatz |first1=Daniel |last2=Bashroush |first2=Rabih |last3=Wall |first3=Julie |date=2017 |title=Towards a More Representative Definition of Cyber Security |url=https://commons.erau.edu/jdfsl/vol12/iss2/8/ |journal=The Journal of Digital Forensics, Security and Law |volume=12 |issue=2 |doi=10.15394/jdfsl.2017.1476|doi-access=free }} [106] => [107] => === Data science === [108] => {{Main|Data science}} [109] => Data science is a field that uses scientific and computing tools to extract information and insights from data, driven by the increasing volume and availability of data.{{Cite journal |last=Dhar |first=Vasant |date=2013 |title=Data science and prediction |url=https://dl.acm.org/doi/10.1145/2500499 |journal=Communications of the ACM |language=en |volume=56 |issue=12 |pages=64–73 |doi=10.1145/2500499 |issn=0001-0782}} [[Data mining]], [[big data]], statistics, and [[machine learning]] are all interwoven with data science.{{Cite journal |last=Cao |first=Longbing |date=31 May 2018 |title=Data Science: A Comprehensive Overview |journal=ACM Computing Surveys |language=en |volume=50 |issue=3 |pages=1–42 |doi=10.1145/3076253 |s2cid=207595944 |issn=0360-0300|doi-access=free |arxiv=2007.03606 }} [110] => [111] => === Information systems === [112] => {{Main|Information system}} [113] => [114] => Information systems (IS) is the study of complementary networks of hardware and software (see information technology) that people and organizations use to collect, filter, process, create, and distribute [[data (computing)|data]].{{cite web|url=http://wwwmatthes.in.tum.de/wikis/system-cartography/application-landscape|title=Definition of Application Landscape|date=21 January 2009|publisher=Software Engineering for Business Information Systems (sebis)|access-date=14 January 2011|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110305011857/http://wwwmatthes.in.tum.de/wikis/system-cartography/application-landscape|archive-date=5 March 2011}}{{cite journal |last=Denning |first=Peter |date=July 1999 |title=COMPUTER SCIENCE: THE DISCIPLINE |journal=Encyclopaedia of Computer Science (2000 Edition) |quote=The Domain of Computer Science: Even though computer science addresses both human-made and natural information processes, the main effort in the discipline has been directed toward human-made processes, especially information processing systems and machines}}{{cite book|last1=Jessup|first1=Leonard M.|first2=Joseph S.|last2=Valacich|date=2008|title=Information Systems Today|edition=3rd|publisher= Pearson Publishing|pages = –, 416}} The [[Association for Computing Machinery|ACM]]'s ''Computing Careers'' describes IS as: [115] => {{Blockquote| [116] => "A majority of IS [degree] programs are located in business schools; however, they may have different names such as management information systems, computer information systems, or business information systems. All IS degrees combine business and computing topics, but the emphasis between technical and organizational issues varies among programs. For example, programs differ substantially in the amount of programming required."{{cite web|url=http://computingcareers.acm.org/index.html@page_id=9.html|title=Computing Degrees & Careers " Information Systems|publisher=Association for Computing Machinery|access-date=6 July 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180706021730/http://computingcareers.acm.org/index.html@page_id=9.html|archive-date=6 July 2018|url-status=dead}} [117] => }} [118] => [119] => The study of IS bridges business and [[computer science]], using the theoretical foundations of information and [[computation]] to study various business models and related [[algorithm]]ic processes within a computer science discipline.{{cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Timothy |last2=Geist |first2=Robert |last3=Matzko |first3=Sarah |last4=Westall |first4=James |date=March 2004 |title=τ'εχνη: A First Step |journal=Technical Symposium on Computer Science Education |pages=125–129 |isbn= 1-58113-798-2 |quote=In 1999, Clemson University established a (graduate) degree program that bridges the arts and the sciences... All students in the program are required to complete graduate level work in both the arts and computer science}}{{cite journal |last=Khazanchi |first=Deepak |author2=Bjorn Erik Munkvold |date=Summer 2000 |title=Is information system a science? an inquiry into the nature of the information systems discipline |journal=ACM SIGMIS Database |volume=31 |issue=3 |pages=24–42 |issn=0095-0033 |doi=10.1145/381823.381834 |s2cid=52847480 |quote=From this we have concluded that IS is a science, i.e., a scientific discipline in contrast to purportedly non-scientific fields|doi-access=free }}{{cite web|quote=Computer Science is the study of all aspects of computer systems, from the theoretical foundations to the very practical aspects of managing large software projects |title= Bachelor of Information Sciences (Computer Science) |date= 24 February 2006 |url=http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 |website=Massey University |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060619125916/http://study.massey.ac.nz/major.asp?major_code=2010&prog_code=93068 |archive-date=19 June 2006 }} The field of Computer Information Systems (CIS) studies computers and algorithmic processes, including their principles, their software and hardware designs, their applications, and their impact on society{{cite journal |last=Polack |first=Jennifer |date=December 2009 |title=Planning a CIS Education Within a CS Framework |journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges |volume=25 |issue=2 |pages=100–106 |issn= 1937-4771}}{{cite journal |last=Hayes |first=Helen |author2=Onkar Sharma |date=February 2003 |title=A decade of experience with a common first year program for computer science, information systems and information technology majors |journal=Journal of Computing Sciences in Colleges |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=217–227 |issn=1937-4771 |quote=In 1988, a degree program in Computer Information Systems (CIS) was launched with the objective of providing an option for students who were less inclined to become programmers and were more interested in learning to design, develop, and implement Information Systems, and solve business problems using the systems approach}} while IS emphasizes functionality over design.{{cite journal |last1=Freeman |first1=Peter |last2=Hart |first2=David |date=August 2004 |title=A Science of Design for Software-Intensive Systems |doi-access=free |s2cid-access=free |journal=Communications of the ACM |volume=47 |issue=8 |pages=19–21 |issn= 0001-0782 |quote=Computer science and engineering needs an intellectually rigorous, analytical, teachable design process to ensure development of systems we all can live with ... Though the other components' connections to the software and their role in the overall design of the system are critical, the core consideration for a software-intensive system is the software itself, and other approaches to systematizing design have yet to solve the "software problem"—which won't be solved until software design is understood scientifically. |doi=10.1145/1012037.1012054|s2cid=14331332 }} [120] => [121] => === Information technology === [122] => {{Main|Information technology}} [123] => [124] => Information technology (IT) is the application of computers and [[telecommunications equipment]] to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data, [125] => {{citation |contribution=IT |title=A Dictionary of Physics |editor-last=Daintith |editor-first=John |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780199233991 |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t83.e1592 |access-date=1 August 2012}} {{subscription required}} [126] => often in the context of a business or other enterprise.{{cite web|url=http://foldoc.org/information+technology|title=Free on-line dictionary of computing (FOLDOC)|access-date=9 February 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130415234011/http://foldoc.org/Information+Technology|archive-date=15 April 2013|url-status=dead}} The term is commonly used as a synonym for computers and computer networks, but also encompasses other information distribution technologies such as television and telephones. Several [[Computer industry|industries]] are associated with information technology, including computer hardware, software, [[electronics]], [[semiconductor]]s, internet, [[telecommunications equipment|telecom equipment]], [[e-commerce]], and [[computer services]]. [127] => {{citation |last1=Chandler |first1=Daniel |last2=Munday |first2=Rod |contribution=Information technology |title=A Dictionary of Media and Communication |date=January 2011 |edition=first |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-956875-8 |url=http://www.oxfordreference.com/views/ENTRY.html?subview=Main&entry=t326.e1343 |access-date=1 August 2012}} {{subscription required}} [128] => On the later more broad application of the term IT, Keary comments- "In its original application 'information technology' was appropriate to describe the convergence of technologies with application in the broad field of data storage, retrieval, processing, and dissemination. This useful conceptual term has since been converted to what purports to be concrete use, but without the reinforcement of definition...the term IT lacks substance when applied to the name of any function, discipline, or position." {{cite book|author=Anthony Ralston|title=Encyclopedia of computer science|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yQ9LAQAAIAAJ|access-date=12 May 2013|year=2000|publisher=Nature Pub. Group|isbn=978-1-56159-248-7}}. [129] => [130] => ==Research and emerging technologies== [131] => {{further|List of unsolved problems in computer science}} [132] => [[DNA computing|DNA-based computing]] and [[quantum computing]] are areas of active research for both computing hardware and software, such as the development of [[quantum algorithm]]s. Potential infrastructure for future technologies includes [[DNA origami]] on photolithography{{cite journal | last1 = Kershner | first1 = Ryan J. | last2 = Bozano | first2 = Luisa D. | last3 = Micheel | first3 = Christine M. | last4 = Hung | first4 = Albert M. | last5 = Fornof | first5 = Ann R. | last6 = Cha | first6 = Jennifer N. | last7 = Rettner | first7 = Charles T. | last8 = Bersani | first8 = Marco | last9 = Frommer | first9 = Jane | last10 = Rothemund | first10 = Paul W. K. | last11 = Wallraff | first11 = Gregory M. | year = 2009 | title = Placement and orientation of individual DNA shapes on lithographically patterned surfaces | journal = [[Nature Nanotechnology]] | volume = 4| issue = 9| pages = 557–561| doi = 10.1038/nnano.2009.220 | pmid = 19734926 | bibcode = 2009NatNa...4..557K | citeseerx = 10.1.1.212.9767 }} [http://www.nature.com/nnano/journal/vaop/ncurrent/extref/nnano.2009.220-s1.pdf supplementary information: DNA origami on photolithography] and [[quantum antenna]]e for transferring information between ion traps.{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/nature09800 | volume=471 | title=Trapped-ion antennae for the transmission of quantum information | year=2011 | journal=Nature | pages=200–203 | last1 = Harlander | first1 = M.| issue = 7337 | pmid = 21346764 | arxiv = 1011.3639 | bibcode = 2011Natur.471..200H | s2cid = 4388493 }} [133] => *{{cite press release |date=26 February 2011 |title=Atomic antennas transmit quantum information across a microchip |website=ScienceDaily |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/02/110223133444.htm}} By 2011, researchers had [[Qubit#Quantum entanglement|entangled]] 14 [[qubit]]s.{{cite journal | doi = 10.1103/PhysRevLett.106.130506 | volume=106 | title=14-Qubit Entanglement: Creation and Coherence | year=2011 | journal=Physical Review Letters | last1 = Monz | first1 = Thomas| issue=13 | pmid=21517367 | arxiv=1009.6126 | bibcode=2011PhRvL.106m0506M | page=130506 | s2cid=8155660 }} [134] => {{Cite web|url=http://www.nanowerk.com/news/newsid=20823.php|title=World record: Calculations with 14 quantum bits|website=www.nanowerk.com}} Fast [[digital circuit]]s, including those based on [[Josephson junction]]s and [[rapid single flux quantum]] technology, are becoming more nearly realizable with the discovery of [[nanoscale superconductor]]s.Saw-Wai Hla et al., ''Nature Nanotechnology'' 31 March 2010 [http://www.thinq.co.uk/news/2010/3/30/worlds-smallest-superconductor-discovered/ "World's smallest superconductor discovered"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528133148/http://www.thinq.co.uk/news/2010/3/30/worlds-smallest-superconductor-discovered/ |date=28 May 2010 }}. Four pairs of certain molecules have been shown to form a nanoscale superconductor, at a dimension of 0.87 [[nanometer]]s. Access date 31 March 2010 [135] => [136] => Fiber-optic and photonic (optical) devices, which already have been used to transport data over long distances, are starting to be used by data centers, along with CPU and semiconductor memory components. This allows the separation of RAM from CPU by optical interconnects.[http://www.technologyreview.com/computing/25924/?a=f Tom Simonite, "Computing at the speed of light", ''Technology Review'' Wed., August 4, 2010] [[MIT]] IBM has created an [[integrated circuit]] with both electronic and optical information processing in one chip. This is denoted CMOS-integrated nanophotonics (CINP).[http://www.extremetech.com/computing/142881-ibm-creates-first-cheap-commercially-viable-silicon-nanophotonic-chip Sebastian Anthony (Dec 10,2012), "IBM creates first commercially viable silicon nanophotonic chip"], accessdate=2012-12-10 One benefit of optical interconnects is that motherboards, which formerly required a certain kind of system on a chip (SoC), can now move formerly dedicated memory and network controllers off the motherboards, spreading the controllers out onto the rack. This allows standardization of backplane interconnects and motherboards for multiple types of SoCs, which allows more timely upgrades of CPUs.[http://www.zdnet.com/open-compute-does-the-data-center-have-an-open-future-7000013012/ Open Compute: Does the data center have an open future?] accessdate=2013-08-11 [137] => [138] => Another field of research is [[spintronics]]. Spintronics can provide computing power and storage, without heat buildup.{{Cite news|date=8 August 2007|title=Putting electronics in a spin|language=en-GB|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/technology/6935638.stm|access-date=23 November 2020}} Some research is being done on hybrid chips, which combine [[photonics]] and spintronics.{{Cite web |url=https://www.spice.uni-mainz.de/files/2018/11/UFS_2018_Koopmans.pdf |title=Merging spintronics with photonics |access-date=6 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190906155347/https://www.spice.uni-mainz.de/files/2018/11/UFS_2018_Koopmans.pdf |archive-date=6 September 2019 |url-status=dead }}{{Cite journal|last1=Lalieu|first1=M. L. M.|last2=Lavrijsen|first2=R.|last3=Koopmans|first3=B.|date=10 January 2019|title=Integrating all-optical switching with spintronics|url= |journal=Nature Communications|language=en|volume=10|issue=1|pages=110|doi=10.1038/s41467-018-08062-4|pmid=30631067|pmc=6328538|arxiv=1809.02347|bibcode=2019NatCo..10..110L|issn=2041-1723}} There is also research ongoing on combining [[plasmonics]], photonics, and electronics.{{Cite journal|last1=Farmakidis|first1=Nikolaos|last2=Youngblood|first2=Nathan|last3=Li|first3=Xuan|last4=Tan|first4=James|last5=Swett|first5=Jacob L.|last6=Cheng|first6=Zengguang|last7=Wright|first7=C. David|last8=Pernice|first8=Wolfram H. P.|last9=Bhaskaran|first9=Harish|date=1 November 2019|title=Plasmonic nanogap enhanced phase-change devices with dual electrical-optical functionality|url= |journal=Science Advances|language=en|volume=5|issue=11|pages=eaaw2687|doi=10.1126/sciadv.aaw2687|pmid=31819898|pmc=6884412|arxiv=1811.07651|bibcode=2019SciA....5.2687F|issn=2375-2548}} [139] => [140] => === Cloud computing === [141] => Cloud computing is a model that allows for the use of computing resources, such as servers or applications, without the need for interaction between the owner of these resources and the end user. It is typically offered as a service, making it an example of [[Software as a service|Software as a Service]], [[Platform as a service|Platforms as a Service]], and [[Infrastructure as a service|Infrastructure as a Service]], depending on the functionality offered. Key characteristics include on-demand access, broad network access, and the capability of rapid scaling.{{Cite news|url=http://faculty.winthrop.edu/domanm/csci411/Handouts/NIST.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://faculty.winthrop.edu/domanm/csci411/Handouts/NIST.pdf |archive-date=9 October 2022 |url-status=live|title=The NIST Definition of Cloud Computing|date=September 2011|work=U.S. Department of Commerce}} It allows individual users or small business to benefit from [[economies of scale]]. [142] => [143] => One area of interest in this field is its potential to support energy efficiency. Allowing thousands of instances of computation to occur on one single machine instead of thousands of individual machines could help save energy. It could also ease the transition to renewable energy source, since it would suffice to power one server farm with renewable energy, rather than millions of homes and offices.{{Cite journal|last1=Berl|first1=A.|last2=Gelenbe|first2=E.|last3=Girolamo|first3=M. Di|last4=Giuliani|first4=G.|last5=Meer|first5=H. De|last6=Dang|first6=M. Q.|last7=Pentikousis|first7=K.|date=September 2010|title=Energy-Efficient Cloud Computing|url=https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/8130358|journal=The Computer Journal|volume=53|issue=7|pages=1045–1051|doi=10.1093/comjnl/bxp080|issn=1460-2067}} [144] => [145] => However, this centralized computing model poses several challenges, especially in security and privacy. Current legislation does not sufficiently protect users from companies mishandling their data on company servers. This suggests potential for further legislative regulations on cloud computing and tech companies.{{Cite journal|last=Kaufman|first=L. M.|date=July 2009|title=Data Security in the World of Cloud Computing|journal=IEEE Security Privacy|volume=7|issue=4|pages=61–64|doi=10.1109/MSP.2009.87|s2cid=16233643|issn=1558-4046}} [146] => [147] => === Quantum computing === [148] => [[Quantum computing]] is an area of research that brings together the disciplines of computer science, information theory, and quantum physics. While the idea of information as part of physics is relatively new, there appears to be a strong tie between information theory and quantum mechanics.{{Cite journal|last=Steane|first=Andrew|date=1 February 1998|title=Quantum computing|journal=Reports on Progress in Physics|language=en|volume=61|issue=2|pages=117–173|doi=10.1088/0034-4885/61/2/002|issn=0034-4885|bibcode=1998RPPh...61..117S|arxiv=quant-ph/9708022|s2cid=119473861}} Whereas traditional computing operates on a binary system of ones and zeros, quantum computing uses [[qubit]]s. Qubits are capable of being in a superposition, i.e. in both states of one and zero, simultaneously. Thus, the value of the qubit is not between 1 and 0, but changes depending on when it is measured. This trait of qubits is known as [[quantum entanglement]], and is the core idea of quantum computing that allows quantum computers to do large scale computations.{{Cite journal|last1=Horodecki|first1=Ryszard|last2=Horodecki|first2=Paweł|last3=Horodecki|first3=Michał|last4=Horodecki|first4=Karol|date=17 June 2009|title=Quantum entanglement|journal=Reviews of Modern Physics|volume=81|issue=2|pages=865–942|doi=10.1103/RevModPhys.81.865|bibcode=2009RvMP...81..865H|arxiv=quant-ph/0702225|s2cid=59577352}} Quantum computing is often used for scientific research in cases where traditional computers do not have the computing power to do the necessary calculations, such in [[Molecular modelling|molecular modeling]]. Large molecules and their reactions are far too complex for traditional computers to calculate, but the computational power of quantum computers could provide a tool to perform such calculations.{{Citation needed|date=July 2022}} [149] => [150] => ==See also== [151] => * [[Artificial intelligence]] [152] => * [[Computational science]] [153] => * [[Computational thinking]] [154] => * [[Confidential computing]] [155] => * [[Creative computing]] [156] => * [[Electronic data processing]] [157] => * [[Enthusiast computing]] [158] => * [[Wikipedia:WikiProject Computing/Index of history of computing articles|Index of history of computing articles]] [159] => * [[Instruction set architecture]] [160] => * [[Lehmer sieve]] [161] => * [[List of computer term etymologies]] [162] => * [[Mobile computing]] [163] => * [[Scientific computing]] [164] => * [[Unconventional computing]] [165] => [166] => ==References== [167] => {{Reflist}} [168] => [169] => ==External links== [170] => {{Sister project links | wikt=computing | commons=Computing | b=Computing | n=no | q=no | s=no | v=Computing | voy=no | species=no | d=no}} [171] => *[[foldoc:|FOLDOC: the Free On-Line Dictionary Of Computing]] [172] => [173] => {{Computer science}} [174] => [175] => [[Category:Computing| ]] [] => )
good wiki

Computing

Computing is the process of utilizing and manipulating computer technology to perform various tasks. It encompasses a wide range of activities such as the development and design of computer hardware and software, the management and organization of data, and the utilization of computational techniques for problem-solving.

More about us

About

It encompasses a wide range of activities such as the development and design of computer hardware and software, the management and organization of data, and the utilization of computational techniques for problem-solving. The field of computing has evolved tremendously over the years, with advancements in technology leading to more sophisticated and powerful computers. This has allowed for the development of complex software applications and the ability to process vast amounts of data in a fraction of the time it would take a human. Computing can be categorized into various subfields, such as computer science, information technology, and computer engineering. Computer science focuses on the theoretical foundations of computation and the methods used to design and analyze algorithms. Information technology deals with the application of computers and telecommunications to store, retrieve, transmit, and manipulate data. Computer engineering involves the design and development of computer systems and their components. Computing has become an integral part of modern society, with computers being used in almost all aspects of life. From personal computers and smartphones to large-scale computer networks, computing has revolutionized communication, transportation, entertainment, and many other industries. It has provided new opportunities for innovation and has greatly increased the efficiency and productivity of various fields. The Wikipedia page on computing provides an overview of the field, covering its history, key concepts, and various subfields. It also discusses the impact of computing on society, including its benefits and challenges. Overall, the page offers a comprehensive resource for anyone seeking to understand the field of computing and its significance in today's world.

Expert Team

Vivamus eget neque lacus. Pellentesque egauris ex.

Award winning agency

Lorem ipsum, dolor sit amet consectetur elitorceat .

10 Year Exp.

Pellen tesque eget, mauris lorem iupsum neque lacus.

You might be interested in

Abacus

An abacus is a counting tool that has been used for centuries in various parts of the world.

Algorithm

An algorithm is a mathematical or logical formula designed to solve a specific problem or complete a specific task.

C++

C++ is a general-purpose programming language that was developed in 1979 by Bjarne Stroustrup.

Computation

Computation is the process of transforming data with the help of algorithms and mathematical models, resulting in useful information.

Computer

A computer is an electronic device that can perform various tasks based on programmed instructions.

Cybersecurity

Electronics

Electronics is the science and technology of studying, designing, and manufacturing devices that use the flow of electrons to perform electrical functions.

Ethernet

Ethernet is a widely used technology for local area networks (LANs) that allows computers and other devices to communicate and share resources within a network.

Microprocessor

A microprocessor is an integrated circuit that contains the functions of a central processing unit (CPU) of a computer.

MOSFET

A summary for the Wikipedia page on MOSFET (metal-oxide-semiconductor field-effect transistor) would be as follows: The MOSFET is a type of transistor widely used in modern electronic devices due to its ability to amplify and switch electronic signals.

Photonics

Photonics is a branch of optics that involves the application of generation, detection, and manipulation of light in form of photons through emission, transmission, modulation, signal processing, switching, amplification, and sensing.

Qubit

A qubit, or quantum bit, is the fundamental unit of quantum information and computation.

Science

Science is a systematic and empirical approach to acquiring knowledge through observation, experimentation, and explanation of natural phenomena.

Semiconductor

A semiconductor is a material that has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor and an insulator.

Supercomputer

A supercomputer is a type of computer that is the most powerful and fastest in terms of speed and processing capabilities.

Transistor

A transistor is an electronic device that acts as a semiconductor and is used to amplify or switch electronic signals and electrical power.