Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Domesticated canid species}} [1] => {{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}} [2] => {{Redirect2|Doggy|Pooch|other uses|Dog (disambiguation)|and|Doggy (disambiguation)|and|Pooch (disambiguation)}} [3] => {{pp-semi-indef}} [4] => {{pp-move}} [5] => {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2022}} [6] => {{Speciesbox [7] => | name = Dog [8] => | fossil_range = {{fossil range|0.0142|0}} [[Late Pleistocene]] to present [9] => | image = [10] => {{multiple image |perrow=3 |total_width=300 |align=center |image_style=border:none; [11] => | image1 = Blue merle koolie short coat heading sheep.jpg [12] => | image2 = Dog - നായ-6.JPG [13] => | image3 = Chin posing.jpg [14] => | image4 = Retriever in water.jpg [15] => | image5 = Black Labrador Retriever - Male IMG 3323.jpg [16] => | image6 = [17] => | image7 = Brooks Chase Ranger of Jolly Dogs Jack Russell.jpg [18] => | image8 = Huskiesatrest.jpg [19] => | image9 = Wilde huendin am stillen.jpg [20] => }} [21] => | status = DOM [22] => | genus = Canis [23] => | species = familiaris [24] => | authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]], 1758 [25] => | synonyms_ref = [26] => | synonyms = {{collapsible list|bullets=true| [27] => |''C. aegyptius'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} [28] => |''C. alco'' {{small|[[Charles Hamilton Smith|C. E. H. Smith]], 1839,}} [29] => |''C. americanus'' {{small|[[Johann Friedrich Gmelin|Gmelin]], 1792}} [30] => |''C. anglicus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [31] => |''C. antarcticus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [32] => |''C. aprinus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [33] => |''C. aquaticus'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} [34] => |''C. aquatilis'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [35] => |''C. avicularis'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [36] => |''C. borealis'' {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}} [37] => |''C. brevipilis'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [38] => |''C. cursorius'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [39] => |''C. domesticus'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} [40] => |''C. extrarius'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [41] => |''C. ferus'' {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}} [42] => |''C. fricator'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [43] => |''C. fricatrix'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} [44] => |''C. fuillus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [45] => |''C. gallicus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [46] => |''C. glaucus'' {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}} [47] => |''C. graius'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} [48] => |''C. grajus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [49] => |''C. hagenbecki'' {{small|Krumbiegel, 1950}} [50] => |''C. haitensis'' {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}} [51] => |''C. hibernicus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [52] => |''C. hirsutus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [53] => |''C. hybridus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [54] => |''C. islandicus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [55] => |''C. italicus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [56] => |''C. laniarius'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [57] => |''C. leoninus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [58] => |''C. leporarius'' {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}} [59] => |''C. lupus familiaris'' {{small|Linnaeus,1758}} [60] => |''C. major'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [61] => |''C. mastinus'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} [62] => |''C. melitacus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [63] => |''C. melitaeus'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} [64] => |''C. minor'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [65] => |''C. molossus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [66] => |''C. mustelinus'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} [67] => |''C. obesus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [68] => |''C. orientalis'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [69] => |''C. pacificus'' {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}} [70] => |''C. plancus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [71] => |''C. pomeranus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [72] => |''C. sagaces'' {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}} [73] => |''C. sanguinarius'' {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}} [74] => |''C. sagax'' {{small|Linnaeus, 1758}} [75] => |''C. scoticus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [76] => |''C. sibiricus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [77] => |''C. suillus'' {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}} [78] => |''C. terraenovae'' {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}} [79] => |''C. terrarius'' {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}} [80] => |''C. turcicus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [81] => |''C. urcani'' {{small|C. E. H. Smith, 1839}} [82] => |''C. variegatus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [83] => |''C. venaticus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [84] => |''C. vertegus'' {{small|Gmelin, 1792}} [85] => }} [86] => }} [87] => [88] => The '''dog''' ('''''Canis familiaris''''' or '''''Canis lupus familiaris''''') is a [[domesticated]] descendant of the [[wolf]]. Also called the '''domestic dog''', it is [[Domestication of the dog|derived]] from [[Pleistocene wolf|extinct gray wolves]], and the gray wolf is the dog's closest living relative. The dog was the first [[species]] to be domesticated by [[human]]s. Experts estimate that [[hunter-gatherer]]s domesticated dogs more than 15,000 years ago, which was before the [[History of agriculture|development of agriculture]]. Due to their long association with humans, dogs have expanded to a large number of domestic individuals and gained the ability to thrive on a [[starch]]-rich diet that would be inadequate for other [[Canidae|canids]].{{cite journal |last1=Axelsson |first1=Erik |last2=Ratnakumar |first2=Abhirami |last3=Arendt |first3=Maja-Louise |last4=Maqbool |first4=Khurram |last5=Webster |first5=Matthew T. |last6=Perloski |first6=Michele |last7=Liberg |first7=Olof |last8=Arnemo |first8=Jon M. |last9=Hedhammar |first9=Åke |last10=Lindblad-Toh |first10=Kerstin |title=The genomic signature of dog domestication reveals adaptation to a starch-rich diet |journal=Nature |date=March 2013 |volume=495 |issue=7441 |pages=360–364 |doi=10.1038/nature11837 |bibcode=2013Natur.495..360A |pmid=23354050 |s2cid=4415412 }} [89] => [90] => The dog has been [[selectively bred]] over millennia for various behaviors, sensory capabilities, and physical attributes.Dewey, T. and S. Bhagat. 2002. "[https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Canis_lupus_familiaris/ ''Canis lupus familiaris'']". {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526171627/https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Canis_lupus_familiaris/|date=26 May 2022}}, Animal Diversity Web. [[Dog breed]]s vary widely in shape, size, and color. They perform many roles for humans, such as [[Hunting dog|hunting]], [[Herding dog|herding]], [[Sled dog|pulling loads]], [[Guard dog|protection]], [[Police dog|assisting police]] and the [[Dogs in warfare|military]], [[Pet|companionship]], [[Therapy dog|therapy]], and [[Service dog|aiding disabled people]]. Over the millennia, dogs became uniquely adapted to human behavior, and the [[human–canine bond]] has been a topic of frequent study. This influence on human society has given them the [[sobriquet]] of "[[man's best friend]]". [91] => [92] => == Taxonomy == [93] => {{Further|Canis lupus dingo#Taxonomic debate – the domestic dog, dingo, and New Guinea singing dog}} [94] => [95] => In 1758, the Swedish botanist and zoologist [[Carl Linnaeus]] published in his ''[[10th edition of Systema Naturae|Systema Naturae]]'', the two-word naming of species ([[binomial nomenclature]]). ''[[Canis]]'' is the [[Latin]] word meaning "dog",{{sfn|Wang|Tedford|2008|p=58}} and under this [[genus]], he listed the domestic dog, the [[wolf]], and the [[golden jackal]]. He classified the domestic dog as ''Canis familiaris'' and, on the next page, classified the grey wolf as ''Canis lupus''. Linnaeus considered the dog to be a separate species from the wolf because of its upturning tail (''cauda recurvata'' in [[Latin]] term), which is not found in any other [[canid]]. [96] => [97] => In 1999, a study of [[mitochondrial DNA]] (mtDNA) indicated that the domestic dog may have originated from the grey wolf, with the [[dingo]] and [[New Guinea singing dog]] breeds having developed at a time when human communities were more isolated from each other. In the third edition of ''[[Mammal Species of the World]]'' published in 2005, the [[mammalogist]] [[W. Christopher Wozencraft]] listed under the wolf ''Canis lupus'' its wild subspecies and proposed two additional subspecies, which formed the domestic dog clade: ''familiaris'', as named by Linnaeus in 1758 and, ''dingo'' named by Meyer in 1793. Wozencraft included ''hallstromi'' (the New Guinea singing dog) as another name ([[junior synonym]]) for the dingo. Wozencraft referred to the mtDNA study as one of the guides informing his decision. Mammalogists have noted the inclusion of ''familiaris'' and ''dingo'' together under the "domestic dog" clade with some debating it. [98] => [99] => In 2019, a workshop hosted by the [[IUCN]]/Species Survival Commission's Canid Specialist Group considered the dingo and the New Guinea singing dog to be [[feral dog|feral]] ''Canis familiaris'' and therefore did not assess them for the [[IUCN Red List]] of Threatened Species. [100] => [101] => == Evolution == [102] => {{Main|Evolution of the wolf}} [103] => [104] => [[File:Brechschere-Hund.jpg|thumb|Location of a dog's [[carnassial]]s; the inside of the 4th upper [[premolar]] aligns with the outside of the 1st lower [[Molar (tooth)|molar]], working like scissor blades.]] [105] => [106] => === Domestication === [107] => {{Main|Domestication of the dog}} [108] => [109] => The earliest remains generally accepted to be those of a domesticated dog were discovered in [[Oberkassel, Bonn|Bonn-Oberkassel]], Germany. [[Contextualism|Contextual]], [[Isotope analysis|isotopic]], [[Genetics|genetic]], and [[Morphology (biology)|morphological]] evidence shows that this dog was not a local wolf. The dog was dated to 14,223 years ago and was found buried along with a man and a woman, all three having been sprayed with red [[hematite]] powder and buried under large, thick basalt blocks. The dog had died of [[canine distemper]]. Earlier remains dating back to 30,000 years ago have been described as [[Paleolithic dog]]s, but their status as dogs or wolves remains debated because considerable morphological diversity existed among wolves during the [[Late Pleistocene]]. [110] => [111] => This timing indicates that the dog was the first species to be domesticated in the time of [[hunter-gatherer]]s, which predates agriculture. [[DNA sequences]] show that all ancient and modern dogs share a common ancestry and descended from an ancient, extinct wolf population which was distinct from the [[Wolf|modern wolf]] lineage. [112] => [113] => The dog is a classic example of a domestic animal that likely travelled a [[Commensalism|commensal]] pathway into domestication. The questions of when and where dogs were first domesticated have taxed geneticists and archaeologists for decades. Genetic studies suggest a domestication process commencing over 25,000 years ago, in one or several wolf populations in either Europe, the high Arctic, or eastern Asia. In 2021, a [[literature review]] of the current evidence [[Inference|infers]] that the dog was domesticated in [[Siberia]] 23,000 years ago by [[ancient North Siberians]], then later dispersed eastward into the Americas and westward across Eurasia, with dogs likely accompanying the first humans to inhabit the Americas. [114] => [115] => === Breeds === [116] => {{Main|Dog breed}} [117] => {{Further|Dog type}}Dogs are the most variable mammal on earth, with around 450 globally recognized [[dog breeds]].{{cite journal |last1=Parker |first1=Heidi G. |last2=Dreger |first2=Dayna L. |last3=Rimbault |first3=Maud |last4=Davis |first4=Brian W. |last5=Mullen |first5=Alexandra B. |last6=Carpintero-Ramirez |first6=Gretchen |last7=Ostrander |first7=Elaine A. |title=Genomic Analyses Reveal the Influence of Geographic Origin, Migration, and Hybridization on Modern Dog Breed Development |journal=[[Cell Reports]] |date=2017 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=697–708 |doi=10.1016/j.celrep.2017.03.079 |pmid=28445722 |pmc=5492993 |doi-access=free}} In the [[Victorian era]], directed human [[Selection (biology)|selection]] developed the modern [[dog breeds]], which resulted in a vast range of [[phenotype]]s. Most breeds were derived from small numbers of founders within the last 200 years. Since then, dogs have undergone rapid [[Phenotypic plasticity|phenotypic change]] and have been subjected to [[artificial selection]] by humans. The skull, body, and limb proportions between breeds display more phenotypic diversity than can be found within the entire order of carnivores. These breeds possess distinct traits related to morphology, which include body size, skull shape, tail phenotype, fur type and colour. Their behavioural traits include guarding, herding, hunting, retrieving, and scent detection. Their personality traits include hypersocial behavior, boldness, and aggression. Present-day dogs are dispersed around the world. An example of this dispersal is the numerous modern breeds of European lineage during the Victorian era. [118] => File:Dog morphological variation.png|[[Morphology (biology)|Morphological variation]] in six dogs [119] => File:Dog coat variation.png|[[Phenotype|Phenotypic variation]] in four dogs [120] => [121] => [122] => == Anatomy == [123] => {{Main|Dog anatomy}} [124] => [125] => === Skeleton === [126] => [[File:Dog anatomy lateral skeleton view.jpg|thumb|upright=1.25|A lateral view of a dog skeleton]] [127] => All healthy dogs, regardless of their size and type, have an identical [[Skeleton|skeletal]] structure with the exception of the number of bones in the tail, although there is significant skeletal variation between dogs of different types.{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2004|p=12}}{{sfnp|Fogle|2009|pp=38-39}} The dog's skeleton is well adapted for running; the [[vertebra]]e on the neck and back have extensions for back muscles, consisting of [[Epaxial and hypaxial muscles|epaxial muscles and hypaxial muscles]], to connect to; the long ribs provide room for the [[heart]] and [[lung]]s; and the shoulders are unattached to the skeleton, allowing for flexibility.{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2004|p=12}}{{sfnp|Fogle|2009|pp=38-39}}{{Cite web |title=Back pain |url=https://www.elwoodvet.net/back-pain-dogs |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=Elwood vet |language=en-AU |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324091613/https://www.elwoodvet.net/back-pain-dogs |url-status=live }} [128] => [129] => Compared to the dog's wolf-like ancestors, selective breeding since domestication has seen the dog's skeleton larger in size for larger types such as [[mastiff]]s and miniaturised for smaller types such as [[terrier]]s; [[dwarfism]] has been selectively used for some types where short legs are advantageous, such as [[dachshund]]s and [[corgi]]s.{{sfnp|Fogle|2009|pp=38-39}} Most dogs naturally have 26 vertebrae in their tails, but some with [[Natural bobtail|naturally short tails]] have as few as three.{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2004|p=12}} [130] => [131] => The dog's skull has identical components regardless of breed type, but there is significant [[Cephalic index|divergence in terms of skull shape]] between types.{{sfnp|Fogle|2009|pp=38-39}}{{sfnp|Jones|Hamilton|1971|p=27}} The three basic skull shapes are the elongated dolichocephalic type as seen in [[sighthound]]s, the intermediate mesocephalic or mesaticephalic type, and the very short and broad brachycephalic type exemplified by mastiff type skulls.{{sfnp|Fogle|2009|pp=38-39}}{{sfnp|Jones|Hamilton|1971|p=27}} [132] => [133] => === Senses === [134] => {{Further|Dog anatomy#Senses}} [135] => [136] => Dogs' senses include vision, hearing, smell, taste, touch, and [[magnetoreception]]. One study suggests that dogs can feel small variations in [[Earth's magnetic field]].{{cite journal |last1=Nießner |first1=Christine |last2=Denzau |first2=Susanne |last3=Malkemper |first3=Erich Pascal |author-link3=Erich Pascal Malkemper |last4=Gross |first4=Julia Christina |last5=Burda |first5=Hynek |last6=Winklhofer |first6=Michael |last7=Peichl |first7=Leo |year=2016 |title=Cryptochrome 1 in Retinal Cone Photoreceptors Suggests a Novel Functional Role in Mammals |journal=Scientific Reports |volume=6 |pages=21848 |bibcode=2016NatSR...621848N |doi=10.1038/srep21848 |pmc=4761878 |pmid=26898837}} Dogs prefer to defecate with their spines aligned in a north-south position in calm [[magnetic field]] conditions.{{cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=Vlastimil |last2=Nováková |first2=Petra |last3=Malkemper |first3=Erich Pascal |last4=Begall |first4=Sabine |last5=Hanzal |first5=Vladimír |last6=Ježek |first6=Miloš |last7=Kušta |first7=Tomáš |last8=Němcová |first8=Veronika |last9=Adámková |first9=Jana |last10=Benediktová |first10=Kateřina |last11=Červený |first11=Jaroslav |last12=Burda |first12=Hynek |title=Dogs are sensitive to small variations of the Earth's magnetic field |journal=Frontiers in Zoology |date=December 2013 |volume=10 |issue=1 |page=80 |doi=10.1186/1742-9994-10-80 |doi-access=free |pmc=3882779 |pmid=24370002 }} [137] => [138] => Dogs' vision is [[Dichromacy|dichromatic]]; the dog's visual world consists of yellows, blues, and grays. They have difficulty differentiating between red and green. The divergence of the eye axis of dogs ranges from 12–25°, depending on the breed. Dogs' eyes of different breeds can have different retina configurations. The [[fovea centralis]] area of dogs' eyes, which is attached to a [[Axon|nerve fiber]], is the most sensitive to [[Photon|photons]].{{Cite web |title=Eye Structure and Function in Dogs - Dog Owners |url=https://www.msdvetmanual.com/dog-owners/eye-disorders-of-dogs/eye-structure-and-function-in-dogs |access-date=2024-04-05 |website=MSD Veterinary Manual |language=en |archive-date=22 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240222060812/https://www.msdvetmanual.com/dog-owners/eye-disorders-of-dogs/disorders-of-the-eyelids-in-dogs |url-status=live }} [139] => [140] => === Coat === [141] => {{Main|Dog coat}}The [[Pelage|coats]] of domestic dogs are of two varieties: "double" being familiar with dogs (as well as wolves) originating from colder climates, made up of a coarse [[guard hair]] and a soft [[down hair]], or "single", with the topcoat only. Breeds may have an occasional "blaze", stripe, or "star" of white fur on their chest or underside.{{sfnp|Cunliffe|2004|pp=22–23}} Premature graying can occur in dogs as early as one year of age; this is associated with [[Impulsivity|impulsive behaviors]], [[anxiety]] behaviors, and fear of unfamiliar noise, people, or animals.{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2016.09.013|title=Anxiety and impulsivity: Factors associated with premature graying in young dogs|journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science|volume=185|pages=78–85|year=2016|last1=King|first1=Camille|last2=Smith|first2=Thomas J.|last3=Grandin|first3=Temple|last4=Borchelt|first4=Peter|doi-access=free}} [142] => [143] => === Dewclaw === [144] => A dog's [[dewclaw]] is the five [[Digit (anatomy)|digits]] in the dog's forelimb and hind legs. Dogs' forelimbs' dewclaws are attached by bone and ligament, while the dogs' hind legs' are attached by skin to the limb. Most dogs aren't born with dewclaws in their hind legs, and some are without them in their forelimbs. Dogs' dewclaws consist of the [[Phalanx bone|proximal phalanxes and distal phalanxes]]. Some publications thought that dewclaws in wolves, who usually do not have dewclaws, were a sign of hybridization with dogs.{{cite journal |last1=Ciucci |first1=Paolo |last2=Lucchini |first2=Vittorio |last3=Boitani |first3=Luigi |last4=Randi |first4=Ettore |title=Dewclaws in wolves as evidence of admixed ancestry with dogs |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |date=December 2003 |volume=81 |issue=12 |pages=2077–2081 |doi=10.1139/z03-183 }}{{Cite journal |last1=Amici |first1=Federica |last2=Meacci |first2=Simone |last3=Caray |first3=Emmeline |last4=Oña |first4=Linda |last5=Liebal |first5=Katja |last6=Ciucci |first6=Paolo |date=2024 |title=A first exploratory comparison of the behaviour of wolves (Canis lupus) and wolf-dog hybrids in captivity |journal=Animal Cognition |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=9 |doi=10.1007/s10071-024-01849-7 |pmid=38429445 |pmc=10907477 }} [145] => [146] => === Tail === [147] => A dog's tail is the terminal appendage of the [[vertebral column]], which is made up of a string of 5 to 23 [[vertebra]]e enclosed in muscles and skin that support the dog's back extensor muscles. One of the primary functions of a dog's tail is to communicate their emotional state.{{Cite web |title=Study explores the mystery of why dogs wag their tails |url=https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-the-mystery-of-why-dogs-wag-their-tails/ |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=Earth.com |language=en |archive-date=4 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240204151625/https://www.earth.com/news/study-explores-the-mystery-of-why-dogs-wag-their-tails/ |url-status=live }} The tail also helps the dog maintain balance by putting its weight on the opposite side of the dog's tilt, and it can also help the dog spread its [[anal gland]]'s scent through the tail's position and movement.{{Cite web |date=15 October 2019 |title=What is the Purpose of a Dog's Tail? |url=https://www.dallasanimalchiropractic.com/post/what-is-the-purpose-of-a-dog-s-tail |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=Dallas Animal Chiro |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330144025/https://www.dallasanimalchiropractic.com/post/what-is-the-purpose-of-a-dog-s-tail |url-status=live }} Dogs can have a [[violet gland]] (or supracaudal gland) characterized by [[sebaceous gland]]s on the dorsal surface of their tails; in some breeds, it may be vestigial or absent. The enlargement of the violet gland in the tail, which can create a [[Hair loss|bald spot from hair loss]], can be caused by [[Cushing's syndrome (veterinary)|Cushing's disease]] or an excess of sebum from [[androgen]]s in the sebaceous glands.{{Cite web |title=Stud Tail Tail Gland Hyperplasia in Dogs |url=https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/stud-tail-tail-gland-hyperplasia-in-dogs |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=[[VCA Animal Hospitals]] |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330202745/https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/stud-tail-tail-gland-hyperplasia-in-dogs |url-status=live }} [148] => [149] => A study suggests that dogs show asymmetric tail-wagging responses to different emotive stimuli. "Stimuli that could be expected to elicit approach tendencies seem to be associated with [a] higher amplitude of tail-wagging movements to the right side".{{Cite journal |last1=Siniscalchi |first1=Marcello |last2=Lusito |first2=Rita |last3=Vallortigara |first3=Giorgio |last4=Quaranta |first4=Angelo |date=31 October 2013 |title=Seeing Left- or Right-Asymmetric Tail Wagging Produces Different Emotional Responses in Dogs |journal=Current Biology |publisher=[[Cell Press]] |volume=23 |issue=22|pages=2279–2282 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2013.09.027 |pmid=24184108 |bibcode=2013CBio...23.2279S |doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Artelle |first1=K. A. |last2=Dumoulin |first2=L. K. |last3=Reimchen |first3=T. E. |date=19 January 2010 |others=Financially supported by [[Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada]] |title=Behavioural responses of dogs to asymmetrical tail wagging of a robotic dog replica |journal=Laterality: Asymmetries of Body, Brain and Cognition |volume=16 |issue=2 |pages=129–135 |doi=10.1080/13576500903386700 |pmid=20087813 }} [150] => [151] => Dogs can injure themselves by wagging their tails forcefully; this condition is called ''kennel tail'', ''happy tail'', ''bleeding tail'', or ''splitting tail''.{{Cite web |title=What is Happy Tail Syndrome in Dogs? |url=https://www.thewildest.com/dog-health/what-happy-tail-syndrome-dogs |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=www.thewildest.com |language=en |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329132018/https://www.thewildest.com/dog-health/what-happy-tail-syndrome-dogs |url-status=live }} In some [[hunting dog]]s, the tail is traditionally [[Docking (dog)|docked]] to avoid injuries. Some dogs can be born without tails because of a DNA variant in the [[T-box transcription factor T|T gene]], which can also result in a congenitally short (bobtail) tail.{{Cite web |title=Paw Print Genetics - T Locus (Natural Bobtail) in the Poodle |url=https://www.pawprintgenetics.com/products/tests/details/175/?breed=20 |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=www.pawprintgenetics.com |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329132151/https://www.pawprintgenetics.com/products/tests/details/175/?breed=20 |url-status=live }} [152] => [[File:BlkStdSchnauzer2.jpg|thumb|A black [[Standard Schnauzer]] with a docked tail|center]] [153] => [154] => == Health == [155] => {{Main|Dog health}} [156] => [157] => Some breeds of dogs are prone to specific genetic ailments such as [[Elbow dysplasia|elbow]] and [[Hip dysplasia (canine)|hip dysplasia]], [[blindness]], [[deafness]], [[Pulmonary valve stenosis|pulmonic stenosis]], a [[Cleft lip and palate|cleft palate]], and [[Luxating patella|trick knees]]. Two severe medical conditions significantly affecting dogs are [[pyometra]], affecting [[Neutering|unspayed]] females of all breeds and ages, and [[gastric dilatation volvulus]] (bloat), which affects larger breeds or deep-chested dogs. Both of these are acute conditions and can kill rapidly. Dogs are also susceptible to parasites such as [[flea]]s, [[tick]]s, [[mite]]s, [[hookworm]]s, [[tapeworm]]s, [[Nematode|roundworms]], and [[Dirofilaria immitis|heartworms]] that can live in their hearts.{{Cite journal |date=22 December 2022 |title=Keep the Worms Out of Your Pet's Heart! The Facts about Heartworm Disease |url=https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/keep-worms-out-your-pets-heart-facts-about-heartworm-disease |journal=[[United States Food and Drug Administration]] |language=en |access-date=30 March 2024 |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330145012/https://www.fda.gov/animal-veterinary/animal-health-literacy/keep-worms-out-your-pets-heart-facts-about-heartworm-disease |url-status=live }} [158] => [159] => Several human foods and household ingestibles are toxic to dogs, including [[chocolate]] solids, causing [[theobromine poisoning]], [[onion]]s and [[garlic]], causing [[thiosulfate]], [[sulfoxide]] or [[disulfide]] poisoning, [[grape]]s and [[raisin]]s, [[macadamia nut]]s, and [[xylitol]].{{Cite journal | last1 = Murphy | first1 = L.A. | last2 = Coleman | first2 = A.E. | doi = 10.1016/j.cvsm.2011.12.003 | title = Xylitol Toxicosis in Dogs | journal = Veterinary Clinics of North America: Small Animal Practice | volume = 42 | issue = #2 | pages = 307–312 | year = 2012 | pmid = 22381181}} The [[nicotine]] in tobacco can also be dangerous to dogs. Signs of ingestion can include copious vomiting (e.g., from eating cigar butts) or [[diarrhea]]. The symptoms of [[Hydrocarbon mixtures|hydrocarbon mixture]] indigestion can be [[abdominal pain]], [[aspiration pneumonia]], [[Mouth ulcer|oral ulcers]], vomiting, or death.{{Cite web |title=Petroleum Product Poisoning in Animals - Toxicology |url=https://www.msdvetmanual.com/toxicology/petroleum-product-poisoning/petroleum-product-poisoning-in-animals |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=MSD Veterinary Manual |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330144025/https://www.msdvetmanual.com/toxicology/petroleum-product-poisoning/petroleum-product-poisoning-in-animals |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last=Fogle |first=Bruce |author-link=Bruce Fogle |title=Caring For Your Dog |year=1974 |pages=423 |language=en}} The most common deaths among dogs were [[Neoplasm|neoplasia]] and [[Cardiovascular disease|heart disease]], followed by [[Microbial toxin|toxicosis]] and [[gastrointestinal disease]].{{Cite web |title=Cancer in Pets {{!}} American Veterinary Medical Association |url=https://www.avma.org/resources/pet-owners/petcare/cancer-pets |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=www.avma.org |language=en |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329104647/https://www.avma.org/resources/pet-owners/petcare/cancer-pets |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=4 March 2022 |title=When death comes suddenly to a pet {{!}} American Veterinary Medical Association |url=https://www.avma.org/news/when-death-comes-suddenly-pet |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=www.avma.org |language=en |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329104647/https://www.avma.org/news/when-death-comes-suddenly-pet |url-status=live }}{{cite journal |last1=Eichelberg |first1=H. |last2=Seine |first2=R. |title=Lebenserwartung und Todesursachen bei Hunden - I. Zur Situation bei Mischlingen und verschiedenen Rassen |trans-title=Life expectancy and cause of death in dogs. I. The situation in mixed breeds and various dog breeds |language=de |journal=Berliner und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift |date=August 1996 |volume=109 |issue=8 |pages=292–303 |pmid=9005839 }} A 20-year-record study found that [[respiratory disease]] was the most common cause of death in [[Bulldog]]s.{{Cite web |date=31 May 2011 |title=Study examines causes of death in dogs {{!}} American Veterinary Medical Association |url=https://www.avma.org/javma-news/2011-06-15/study-examines-causes-death-dogs |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=www.avma.org |language=en |archive-date=28 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231128221002/https://www.avma.org/javma-news/2011-06-15/study-examines-causes-death-dogs |url-status=live }} Puppies were more likely to die from [[infection]] or [[Birth defect|congenital disease]].{{Cite web |last=Straus |first=Mary |date=18 May 2011 |title=A Study of Breed-Related Causes of Death in Dogs |url=https://www.whole-dog-journal.com/health/a-study-of-breed-related-causes-of-death-in-dogs/ |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=Whole Dog Journal |language=en-US |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329105820/https://www.whole-dog-journal.com/health/a-study-of-breed-related-causes-of-death-in-dogs/ |url-status=live }} Dogs can also have some of the same health conditions as humans, including [[Diabetes in dogs|diabetes]], [[Tooth pathology|dental]] and [[Cardiovascular disease|heart disease]], [[epilepsy]], [[cancer]], [[hypothyroidism]], and [[arthritis]]. Type 1 diabetes mellitus, resembling human diabetes, is the type of diabetes seen most often in dogs.{{cite journal |last1=Nelson |first1=Richard W |last2=Reusch |first2=Claudia E |title=ANIMAL MODELS OF DISEASE: Classification and etiology of diabetes in dogs and cats |journal=Journal of Endocrinology |date=September 2014 |volume=222 |issue=3 |pages=T1–T9 |doi=10.1530/JOE-14-0202 |pmid=24982466 }} Their [[pathology]] is similar to that of humans, as is their [[Immune response|response]] to treatment and their outcomes. The genes involved in canine [[Obsessive–compulsive disorder|obsessive-compulsive disorders]] led to the detection of four genes in humans' related [[Biological pathway|pathways]]. [160] => [161] => === Lifespan === [162] => {{Further|Aging in dogs}} [163] => [164] => The typical lifespan of dogs varies widely among breeds, but the [[median]] longevity (the age at which half the dogs in a population have died and half are still alive) is approximately 12.7 years.{{cite journal |last1=Montoya |first1=Mathieu |last2=Morrison |first2=Jo Ann |last3=Arrignon |first3=Florent |last4=Spofford |first4=Nate |last5=Charles |first5=Hélène |last6=Hours |first6=Marie-Anne |last7=Biourge |first7=Vincent |title=Life expectancy tables for dogs and cats derived from clinical data |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |date=21 February 2023 |volume=10 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2023.1082102 |pmid=36896289 |pmc=9989186 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=McMillan |first1=Kirsten M. |last2=Bielby |first2=Jon |last3=Williams |first3=Carys L. |last4=Upjohn |first4=Melissa M. |last5=Casey |first5=Rachel A. |last6=Christley |first6=Robert M. |title=Longevity of companion dog breeds: those at risk from early death |journal=Scientific Reports |date=February 2024 |volume=14 |issue=1 |page=531 |doi=10.1038/s41598-023-50458-w |pmid=38302530 |pmc=10834484 |bibcode=2024NatSR..14..531M }} Obesity correlates negatively with longevity with one study finding obese dogs have a life expectancy approximately a year and a half less than dogs with a healthy weight. [165] => [166] => === Reproduction === [167] => {{Main|Canine reproduction}} [168] => [[File:Dogs mating 2.jpg|thumb|Two dogs [[Canine reproduction|tied after mating]]]] [169] => In domestic dogs, [[sexual maturity]] happens around six months to one year for both males and females, although this can be delayed until up to two years of age for some large breeds. This is the time at which female dogs will have their first [[estrous cycle]], characterized by their [[vulva]]s swelling and producing [[Vaginal discharge|discharges]], usually lasting between 4 and 20 days.{{Cite web |last=Pereira |first=Crystal |title=Heat in Pet Dogs & Cats, Estrus Cycle & False Pregnancy – DawgieBowl |url=https://dawgiebowl.com/blog/heat-in-pets/ |access-date=29 March 2024 |language=en-US |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329130107/https://dawgiebowl.com/blog/heat-in-pets/ |url-status=live }} They will experience subsequent estrous cycles semiannually, during which the body prepares for [[Pregnancy (mammals)|pregnancy]]. At the peak of the cycle, females will become estrous, mentally and physically receptive to [[Canine tying|copulation]]. Because the [[ovum|ova]] survive and can be fertilized for a week after ovulation, more than one male can sire the same litter. Fertilization typically occurs two to five days after ovulation. After [[ejaculation]], the dogs are [[Canine reproduction|coitally tied]] for around 5–30 minutes because of the male's [[bulbus glandis]] swelling and the female's constrictor vestibuli contracting; the male will continue ejaculating until they untie naturally.{{Cite web |title=Estrus and Mating in Dogs {{!}} VCA Animal Hospital {{!}} VCA Animal Hospitals |url=https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/breeding-for-pet-owners-estrus-and-mating-in-dogs |access-date=1 April 2024 |website=[[VCA Animal Hospitals]] |language=en |archive-date=7 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240207090454/https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/breeding-for-pet-owners-estrus-and-mating-in-dogs |url-status=live }} 14–16 days after ovulation, the embryo attaches to the [[uterus]], and after seven to eight more days, a heartbeat is detectable.{{cite journal |pmid=11787146 |year=2001 |last1=Concannon |first1=P |last2=Tsutsui |first2=T |last3=Shille |first3=V |title=Embryo development, hormonal requirements and maternal responses during canine pregnancy |volume=57 |pages=169–179 |journal=Journal of Reproduction and Fertility. Supplement}}{{cite web |url=http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Dog_Development#Development_Overview |title=Dog Development – Embryology |publisher=Php.med.unsw.edu.au |date=16 June 2013 |access-date=20 May 2021 |archive-date=2 December 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131202234138/http://php.med.unsw.edu.au/embryology/index.php?title=Dog_Development#Development_Overview |url-status=live }} Dogs bear their litters roughly 58 to 68 days after [[fertilization]],{{cite web|url=http://www.cpvh.com/2011/07/27/gestation-in-dogs/ |title=Gestation in dogs |access-date=24 March 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130603145809/http://www.cpvh.com/2011/07/27/gestation-in-dogs/ |archive-date=3 June 2013 }} with an average of 63 days, although the length of [[gestation]] can vary. An average litter consists of about six [[Puppy|puppies]].{{cite web|url=http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/overpopulation_estimates.html|title=HSUS Pet Overpopulation Estimates|publisher=The Humane Society of the United States|access-date=22 October 2008|archive-date=25 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130425142203/http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/overpopulation_estimates.html|url-status=dead}} [170] => [171] => ==== Neutering ==== [172] => [[Neutering]] is the sterilization of animals, usually by [[Castration|removing the male's testicles]] or the [[Oophorectomy|female's ovaries]] and [[Hysterectomy|uterus]], to eliminate the ability to procreate and reduce [[sex drive]]. Because of [[dogs' overpopulation]] in some countries, many animal control agencies, such as the [[American Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals]] (ASPCA), advise that dogs not intended for further breeding should be neutered, so that they do not have undesired puppies that may later be euthanized.{{cite web | url=http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/spayneuter/ | title=Top 10 reasons to spay/neuter your pet | publisher=American Society for Prevention of Cruelty to Animals | access-date=16 May 2007 | archive-date=1 February 2009 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090201223014/http://www.aspca.org/pet-care/spayneuter/ | url-status=live }} According to the [[Humane Society of the United States]], three to four million dogs and [[cat]]s are [[Animal euthanasia|euthanized]] each year.{{Cite web|title=Pets by the numbers|url=https://www.humanesociety.org/resources/pets-numbers|access-date=3 March 2021|website=The Humane Society of the United States|archive-date=22 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210222090140/https://www.humanesociety.org/resources/pets-numbers|url-status=live}} Many more are confined to cages in shelters. Spaying or castrating dogs is considered a major factor in keeping overpopulation down.{{Cite journal | quote = Although the cause of pet overpopulation is multifaceted, the relative lack of owners choosing to spay or neuter their animals is a major contributing factor. | last = Mahlow | first = Jane C. | year = 1999 | title = Estimation of the proportions of dogs and cats that are surgically sterilized | journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association | volume = 215 | pages = 640–643 | pmid= 10476708 | issue = #5| doi = 10.2460/javma.1999.215.05.640 }} [173] => [174] => Neutering reduces problems caused by [[hypersexuality]], especially in male dogs.{{cite journal |last1=Heidenberger |first1=E. |last2=Unshelm |first2=J. |title=Verhaltensänderungen von Hunden nach Kastration |trans-title=Changes in the behavior of dogs after castration |language=de |journal=Tierarztliche Praxis |date=February 1990 |volume=18 |issue=1 |pages=69–75 |pmid=2326799 }} Spayed female dogs are less likely to develop [[cancer]]s affecting the [[mammary gland]]s, [[Ovary|ovaries]], and other [[Sex organ|reproductive organs]].{{Cite book |author=Morrison, Wallace B. |title=Cancer in Dogs and Cats |publisher=Williams and Wilkins |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-683-06105-5 |edition=1st |pages=583}} However, neutering increases the risk of [[urinary incontinence]] in female dogs,{{cite journal |last1=Arnold |first1=S. |title=Harninkontinenz bei kastrierten Hündinnen. Teil 1: Bedeutung, Klinik und Ätiopathogenese |trans-title=Urinary incontinence in castrated bitches. Part 1: Significance, clinical aspects and etiopathogenesis |language=de |journal=Schweizer Archiv Fur Tierheilkunde |date=1997 |volume=139 |issue=6 |pages=271–276 |pmid=9411733 }} [[prostate cancer]] in males,{{cite journal |last1=Johnston |first1=S.D |last2=Kamolpatana |first2=K |last3=Root-Kustritz |first3=M.V |last4=Johnston |first4=G.R |title=Prostatic disorders in the dog |journal=Animal Reproduction Science |date=July 2000 |volume=60-61 |pages=405–415 |doi=10.1016/s0378-4320(00)00101-9 |pmid=10844211 }} and [[osteosarcoma]], [[hemangiosarcoma]], [[Anterior cruciate ligament injury|cruciate ligament rupture]], [[pyometra]], [[Obesity in pets|obesity]], and [[diabetes mellitus]] in either sex.{{cite journal |last1=Kustritz |first1=Margaret V. Root |title=Determining the optimal age for gonadectomy of dogs and cats |journal=Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association |date=December 2007 |volume=231 |issue=11 |pages=1665–1675 |doi=10.2460/javma.231.11.1665 |pmid=18052800 |doi-access=free }} [175] => [176] => ==== Inbreeding depression ==== [177] => A common breeding practice for pet dogs is to [[Inbreeding|mate them between close relatives]] (e.g., between half- and full-siblings).{{cite journal |vauthors=Leroy G |title=Genetic diversity, inbreeding and breeding practices in dogs: results from pedigree analyses |journal=Vet. J. |volume=189 |issue=2 |pages=177–182 |year=2011 |pmid=21737321 |doi=10.1016/j.tvjl.2011.06.016 }} [[Inbreeding depression]] is considered to be due mainly to the expression of homozygous deleterious recessive mutations.{{cite journal |vauthors=Charlesworth D, Willis JH |title=The genetics of inbreeding depression |journal=Nat. Rev. Genet. |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=783–796 |year=2009 |pmid=19834483 |doi=10.1038/nrg2664 |s2cid=771357 }} Outcrossing between unrelated individuals, including dogs of different breeds, results in the beneficial masking of deleterious recessive mutations in progeny.{{Cite book |title=Molecular Genetics of Development |vauthors=Bernstein H, Hopf FA, Michod RE |year=1987 |isbn=978-0-12-017624-3 |series=Advances in Genetics |volume=24 |publication-date=2 March 2008 |pages=323–370 |chapter=The Molecular Basis of the Evolution of Sex |doi=10.1016/S0065-2660(08)60012-7 |pmid=3324702 }} [178] => [179] => In a study of seven dog breeds (the [[Bernese Mountain Dog]], [[Basset Hound]], [[Cairn Terrier]], [[Brittany (dog)|Brittany]], [[German Shepherd|German Shepherd Dog]], [[Leonberger]], and [[West Highland White Terrier]]), it was found that inbreeding decreases litter size and survival.{{cite journal |last1=Leroy |first1=Grégoire |last2=Phocas |first2=Florence |last3=Hedan |first3=Benoit |last4=Verrier |first4=Etienne |last5=Rognon |first5=Xavier |title=Inbreeding impact on litter size and survival in selected canine breeds |journal=The Veterinary Journal |date=January 2015 |volume=203 |issue=1 |pages=74–78 |doi=10.1016/j.tvjl.2014.11.008 |pmid=25475165 |url=https://hal-univ-rennes1.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01122782/file/Inbreeding%20impact%20on%20litter%20size_accepted.pdf }} Another analysis of data on 42,855 [[Dachshund]] litters found that as the [[inbreeding coefficient]] increased, litter size decreased and the percentage of stillborn puppies increased, thus indicating inbreeding depression.{{cite journal |last1=Gresky |first1=Christina |last2=Hamann |first2=Henning |last3=Distl |first3=Ottmar |title=Einfluss von Inzucht auf die Wurfgröße und den Anteil tot geborener Welpen beim Dackel |trans-title=Influence of inbreeding on litter size and the proportion of stillborn puppies in dachshunds |language=de |journal=Berliner und Munchener Tierarztliche Wochenschrift |date=2005 |volume=118 |issue=3–4 |pages=134–139 |pmid=15803761 }} In a study of [[Boxer (dog)|Boxer]] litters, 22% of puppies died before reaching 7 weeks of age. Stillbirth was the most frequent cause of death, followed by infection. Mortality due to infection increased significantly with increases in inbreeding.{{cite journal |last1=van der Beek |first1=Sijne |last2=Nielen |first2=Angelique L. J. |last3=Schukken |first3=Ynte H. |last4=Brascamp |first4=E. W. |title=Evaluation of genetic, common-litter, and within-litter effects on preweaning mortality in a birth cohort of puppies |journal=American Journal of Veterinary Research |date=September 1999 |volume=60 |issue=9 |pages=1106–1110 |doi=10.2460/ajvr.1999.60.09.1106 |pmid=10490080 }} [180] => [181] => {{-}} [182] => [183] => == Behavior == [184] => {{Main|Dog behavior}} [185] => {{See also|Dog behavior#Behavior compared with other canids}} [186] => Dog behavior is the internally coordinated responses (actions or inactions) of the domestic dog (individuals or groups) to [[Stimulus (physiology)|internal and external stimuli]]. Dogs' minds have been shaped by millennia of contact with humans. They have acquired the ability to understand and communicate with humans and are uniquely attuned to human behaviors. Behavioral scientists thought that a set of social-cognitive abilities in domestic dogs that are not possessed by the dog's canine relatives or other highly intelligent mammals, such as [[great ape]]s, are parallel to children's social-cognitive skills. [187] => [188] => Unlike other domestic species selected for production-related traits, dogs were initially selected for their behaviors.{{Citation |last1=Serpell |first1=James A. |title=Dog Breeds and Their Behavior |date=2014 |work=Domestic Dog Cognition and Behavior: The Scientific Study of Canis familiaris |pages=31–57 |editor-last=Horowitz |editor-first=Alexandra |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-642-53994-7_2 |access-date=24 March 2024 |place=Berlin, Heidelberg |publisher=Springer |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-3-642-53994-7_2 |isbn=978-3-642-53994-7 |last2=Duffy |first2=Deborah L.|url-access=subscription }} In 2016, a study found that only 11 fixed genes showed variation between wolves and dogs.{{Cite journal |last1=Cagan |first1=Alex |last2=Blass |first2=Torsten |date=2016 |title=Identification of genomic variants putatively targeted by selection during dog domestication |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=10 |doi=10.1186/s12862-015-0579-7 |pmc=4710014 |pmid=26754411 |bibcode=2016BMCEE..16...10C |doi-access=free }} These gene variations were unlikely to have been the result of natural evolution and indicate selection on both morphology and behavior during dog domestication. These genes have been shown to affect the [[Catecholamine#Synthesis|catecholamine synthesis]] pathway, with the majority of the genes affecting the [[fight-or-flight response]]{{cite journal |last1=Almada |first1=Rafael Carvalho |last2=Coimbra |first2=Norberto Cysne |title=Recruitment of striatonigral disinhibitory and nigrotectal inhibitory GABAergic pathways during the organization of defensive behavior by mice in a dangerous environment with the venomous snake ''Bothrops alternatus'' (''Reptilia'', ''Viperidae'') |journal=Synapse |date=June 2015 |volume=69 |issue=6 |pages=299–313 |doi=10.1002/syn.21814 |pmid=25727065 }} (i.e., selection for [[Tame animal|tameness]]) and emotional processing. Dogs generally show reduced fear and aggression compared with wolves, though some of these genes have been associated with aggression in certain dog breeds.Coppinger R, Schneider R: Evolution of working dogs. The domestic dog: Its evolution, behaviour and interactions with people. Cambridge: Cambridge University press, 1995.{{cite journal |last1=Cagan |first1=Alex |last2=Blass |first2=Torsten |title=Identification of genomic variants putatively targeted by selection during dog domestication |journal=BMC Evolutionary Biology |date=December 2016 |volume=16 |issue=1 |page=10 |doi=10.1186/s12862-015-0579-7 |pmid=26754411 |pmc=4710014 |bibcode=2016BMCEE..16...10C |doi-access=free }} Traits of high sociability and lack of fear in dogs may include genetic modifications related to [[Williams-Beuren syndrome]] in humans, which cause [[hypersociability]] at the expense of [[Problem solving|problem-solving ability]].{{cite journal |last1=vonHoldt |first1=Bridgett M. |last2=Shuldiner |first2=Emily |last3=Koch |first3=Ilana Janowitz |last4=Kartzinel |first4=Rebecca Y. |last5=Hogan |first5=Andrew |last6=Brubaker |first6=Lauren |last7=Wanser |first7=Shelby |last8=Stahler |first8=Daniel |last9=Wynne |first9=Clive D. L. |last10=Ostrander |first10=Elaine A. |last11=Sinsheimer |first11=Janet S. |last12=Udell |first12=Monique A. R. |title=Structural variants in genes associated with human Williams-Beuren syndrome underlie stereotypical hypersociability in domestic dogs |journal=Science Advances |date=7 July 2017 |volume=3 |issue=7 |pages=e1700398 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.1700398 |pmid=28776031 |pmc=5517105 |bibcode=2017SciA....3E0398V }} In a 2023 study of 58 dogs, some dogs classified as [[attention deficit hyperactivity disorder]]-like showed lower [[serotonin]] and [[dopamine]] concentrations.{{Cite journal |last1=González-Martínez |first1=Ángela |last2=Muñiz de Miguel |first2=Susana |last3=Graña |first3=Noemi |last4=Costas |first4=Xiana |last5=Diéguez |first5=Francisco Javier |date=13 March 2023 |title=Serotonin and Dopamine Blood Levels in ADHD-Like Dogs |journal=Animals |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=1037 |doi=10.3390/ani13061037 |doi-access=free |pmid=36978578 |pmc=10044280 }} A similar study claims that hyperactivity is more common in male and young dogs.{{Cite journal |last1=Sulkama |first1=Sini |last2=Puurunen |first2=Jenni |last3=Salonen |first3=Milla |last4=Mikkola |first4=Salla |last5=Hakanen |first5=Emma |last6=Araujo |first6=César |last7=Lohi |first7=Hannes |date=October 2021 |title=Canine hyperactivity, impulsivity, and inattention share similar demographic risk factors and behavioural comorbidities with human ADHD |journal=Translational Psychiatry |volume=11 |issue=1 |page=501 |doi=10.1038/s41398-021-01626-x |pmid=34599148 |pmc=8486809 }} A dog can become aggressive because of trauma or abuse, fear or anxiety, territorial protection, or protecting an item it considers valuable.{{Cite web |title=How to Handle Aggression Between Dogs (Inter-Dog Aggressive Behavior) |url=https://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/behavioral/c_dg_AggressionInterdog |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=www.petmd.com |language=en |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329121301/https://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/behavioral/c_dg_AggressionInterdog |url-status=live }} [[Acute stress reaction]]s from [[post-traumatic stress disorder]] (PTSD) seen in dogs can evolve into [[chronic stress]].{{Cite journal |last1=Fan |first1=Zhicong |last2=Bian |first2=Zhaowei |last3=Huang |first3=Hongcan |last4=Liu |first4=Tingting |last5=Ren |first5=Ruiti |last6=Chen |first6=Xiaomin |last7=Zhang |first7=Xiaohe |last8=Wang |first8=Yingjia |last9=Deng |first9=Baichuan |last10=Zhang |first10=Lingna |date=21 February 2023 |title=Dietary Strategies for Relieving Stress in Pet Dogs and Cats |journal=Antioxidants |volume=12 |issue=3 |pages=545 |doi=10.3390/antiox12030545 |doi-access=free |pmid=36978793 |pmc=10045725 }} Police dogs with PTSD can often refuse to work.{{Cite web |date=22 May 2018 |publisher=American Kennel Club's Staff |title=Dogs and Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD) |url=https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/dogs-post-traumatic-stress-disorder/ |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=American Kennel Club |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330093436/https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/lifestyle/dogs-post-traumatic-stress-disorder/ |url-status=live }} [189] => [190] => Dogs have a natural instinct called ''[[prey drive]]'' (the term is chiefly used to describe [[Dog training|training dogs]]' habits) which can be influenced by breeding. These instincts can drive dogs to consider objects or other animals to be prey or drive possessive behavior. These traits have been enhanced in some breeds so that they may be used to hunt and kill [[vermin]] or other pests.{{Cite web |last=NutriSource |date=19 October 2022 |title=What Natural Instincts Do Dogs Have? |url=https://nutrisourcepetfoods.com/blog/pet-parents/what-natural-instincts-do-dogs-have/ |access-date=2 April 2024 |website=NutriSource Pet Foods |language=en-US |archive-date=2 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240402091139/https://nutrisourcepetfoods.com/blog/pet-parents/what-natural-instincts-do-dogs-have/ |url-status=live }} Puppies or dogs sometimes [[Hoarding (animal behavior)|bury food underground]]. One study found that wolves outperformed dogs in finding food caches, likely due to a "difference in motivation" between wolves and dogs.{{cite journal |last1=Vetter |first1=Sebastian G. |last2=Rangheard |first2=Louise |last3=Schaidl |first3=Lena |last4=Kotrschal |first4=Kurt |last5=Range |first5=Friederike |title=Observational spatial memory in wolves and dogs |journal=PLOS ONE |date=13 September 2023 |volume=18 |issue=9 |pages=e0290547 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0290547 |doi-access=free |pmid=37703235 |pmc=10499247 |bibcode=2023PLoSO..1890547V }} Some puppies and dogs engage in [[Coprophagia|coprophagy]] out of habit, stress, for attention, or boredom; most of them will not do it later in life. A study hypothesizes that the behavior was inherited from wolves, a behavior likely evolved to lessen the presence of [[Intestinal parasite infection|intestinal parasites]] in dens.{{cite journal |last1=Hart |first1=Benjamin L. |last2=Hart |first2=Lynette A. |last3=Thigpen |first3=Abigail P. |last4=Tran |first4=Alisha |last5=Bain |first5=Melissa J. |title=The paradox of canine conspecific coprophagy |journal=Veterinary Medicine and Science |date=May 2018 |volume=4 |issue=2 |pages=106–114 |doi=10.1002/vms3.92 |pmid=29851313 |pmc=5980124 }}[[File:2022-07-20 LJUBLJANA ŠPICA CARNIVORA Canis lupus familiaris DOMAČI PES.webm|300x300px|Dog swimming over to catch a ball|thumb]]Most dogs can swim. In a study of 412 dogs, around 36.5% of the dogs could not swim; the other 63.5% were able to swim without a trainer in a [[swimming pool]].{{cite journal |last1=Nganvongpanit |first1=Korakot |last2=Yano |first2=Terdsak |title=Side Effects in 412 Dogs from Swimming in a Chlorinated Swimming Pool |journal=The Thai Journal of Veterinary Medicine |date=September 2012 |volume=42 |issue=3 |pages=281–286 |doi=10.56808/2985-1130.2398 }} A study of 55 dogs found a correlation between swimming and improvement of the hip [[Osteoarthritis|osteoarthritis joint]].{{Cite journal |last1=Nganvongpanit |first1=Korakot |last2=Tanvisut |first2=Sikhrin |last3=Yano |first3=Terdsak |last4=Kongtawelert |first4=Prachya |date=9 January 2014 |title=Effect of Swimming on Clinical Functional Parameters and Serum Biomarkers in Healthy and Osteoarthritic Dogs |journal=ISRN Veterinary Science |volume=2014 |pages=459809 |doi=10.1155/2014/459809 |doi-access=free |pmc=4060742 |pmid=24977044 }} [191] => [192] => === Nursing === [193] => [[File:Säugende Hündin.JPG|thumb|A female dog is nursing her newborn puppies.|300x300px]]The female dog may produce [[colostrum]] 1–7 days before giving birth, lasting for around three months.{{Cite journal |last1=Rossi |first1=Luciana |last2=Valdez Lumbreras |first2=Ana Elena |last3=Vagni |first3=Simona |last4=Dell'Anno |first4=Matteo |last5=Bontempo |first5=Valentino |date=15 November 2021 |title=Nutritional and Functional Properties of Colostrum in Puppies and Kittens |journal=Animals |volume=11 |issue=11 |page=3260 |doi=10.3390/ani11113260 |doi-access=free |pmid=34827992 |pmc=8614261 }}{{Cite journal |last=Chastant |first=Sylvie |date=14 June 2023 |title=Lactation in domestic carnivores |journal=Animal Frontiers: The Review Magazine of Animal Agriculture |volume=13 |issue=3 |pages=78–83 |doi=10.1093/af/vfad027 |doi-access=free |pmid=37324213 |pmc=10266749 }} Colostrum peak production was around 3 weeks postpartum and increased with litter size. The dog can sometimes vomit and refuse food during [[Birth|child contractions]].{{Cite web |title=Dog Pregnancy, Birth, and Postpartum Care: The Complete Guide |url=https://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/reproductive/dog-pregnancy-birth-and-puppy-care-complete-guide |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=www.petmd.com |language=en |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324045503/https://www.petmd.com/dog/conditions/reproductive/dog-pregnancy-birth-and-puppy-care-complete-guide |url-status=live }} In the later stages of the dog's pregnancy, [[Nesting instinct|nesting behaviour]] may occur.{{Cite journal |title=Whelping your first litter |url=https://www.abbeyvetcentregrimsby.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Whelping-your-first-litter.pdf#:~:text=Signs%20your%20bitch%20is%20due%20to%20whelp:,up%20to%20a%20week%20prior%20to%20whelping. |journal=Abbey Vets |issue=2 |pages=1 |access-date=24 March 2024 |archive-date=18 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220818113710/https://www.abbeyvetcentregrimsby.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/2022/02/Whelping-your-first-litter.pdf#:~:text=Signs%20your%20bitch%20is%20due%20to%20whelp:,up%20to%20a%20week%20prior%20to%20whelping. |url-status=live }} Puppies are born with a [[Fetal membranes|protective fetal membrane]] that the mother usually removes shortly after birth. Dogs can have the maternal instincts to start grooming their puppies, consume their puppies' feces, and protect their puppies, likely due to their hormonal state.{{Cite web |title=Whelping - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/whelping#:~:text=Maternal%20(Parental)%20Aggression&text=This%20behavior%20is%20related%20to,puppies,%20not%20necessarily%20their%20own.&text=Over%20the%20next%20several%20weeks,not%20useful%20for%20maternal%20aggression. |access-date=31 March 2024 |website=www.sciencedirect.com |archive-date=31 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331003701/https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/whelping#:~:text=Maternal%20(Parental)%20Aggression&text=This%20behavior%20is%20related%20to,puppies,%20not%20necessarily%20their%20own.&text=Over%20the%20next%20several%20weeks,not%20useful%20for%20maternal%20aggression. |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Dodman |first=Nicholas |title=Coprophagia {{!}} Dog Behavior |url=https://www.tendercareanimalhospital.net/dog-coprophagia.html |access-date=31 March 2024 |website=www.tendercareanimalhospital.net |archive-date=31 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240331003703/https://www.tendercareanimalhospital.net/dog-coprophagia.html |url-status=live }} While male-parent dogs can show more disinterested behaviour toward their own puppies,{{Cite web |title=How Will the Male Dog React to the Newborn Puppies? {{!}} Cuteness |url=https://www.cuteness.com/article/male-dog-react-newborn-puppies |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=Cuteness.com |language=en |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324082858/https://www.cuteness.com/article/male-dog-react-newborn-puppies |url-status=live }} most can play with the young pups as they would with other dogs or humans.{{Cite web |date=16 June 2019 |title=Do male dogs have paternal instincts? |url=https://www.wisdompanel.com/en-us/blog/do-male-dogs-have-paternal-instincts |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=Wisdom Panel™ |language=en-us |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324082858/https://www.wisdompanel.com/en-us/blog/do-male-dogs-have-paternal-instincts |url-status=live }} A female dog may abandon or attack her puppies or her male partner dog if she is stressed or in pain.{{Cite web |date=17 December 2018 |title=What to Do If Your Dog Rejects Her Puppies |url=https://www.pbspettravel.co.uk/blog/what-to-do-if-your-dog-rejects-her-puppies/ |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=PBS Pet Travel |language=en-US |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324082858/https://www.pbspettravel.co.uk/blog/what-to-do-if-your-dog-rejects-her-puppies/ |url-status=live }} [194] => [195] => === Intelligence === [196] => {{Main|Dog intelligence}} [197] => [198] => Researchers have tested dogs' ability to perceive information, retain it as knowledge, and apply it to solve problems. Studies of two dogs suggest that dogs can learn by [[inference]]. A study with [[Rico (Border Collie)|Rico]], a [[Border Collie]], showed that he knew the labels of over 200 different items. He inferred the names of novel things by exclusion learning and correctly retrieved those new items after four weeks of the initial exposure. A study of another Border Collie, Chaser, documented that he had learned the names and could associate them by verbal command with over 1,000 words.{{cite book|author=Pilley, John |year=2013|title=Chaser: Unlocking the genius of the dog who knows a thousand words|publisher = [[Houghton Mifflin Harcourt]]|isbn=978-0-544-10257-6}} [199] => [200] => One study of canine cognitive abilities found that dogs' capabilities are similar to those of [[horse]]s, [[Common chimpanzee|chimpanzees]], or [[cat]]s. One study of 18 household dogs found that the dogs could not distinguish food bowls at specific locations without distinguishing cues; the study stated that this indicates a lack of [[spatial memory]]. Dogs demonstrate a [[theory of mind]] by engaging in deception.{{cite journal |last1=Piotti |first1=Patrizia |last2=Kaminski |first2=Juliane |title=Do Dogs Provide Information Helpfully? |journal=PLOS ONE |date=10 August 2016 |volume=11 |issue=8 |pages=e0159797 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0159797 |pmid=27508932 |pmc=4980001 |bibcode=2016PLoSO..1159797P |doi-access=free }} Another experimental study showed evidence that Australian [[dingo]]s can outperform domestic dogs in non-social problem-solving, indicating that domestic dogs may have lost much of their original problem-solving abilities once they joined humans.{{cite journal | last1 = Smith | first1 = B. | last2 = Litchfield | first2 = C. | year = 2010 | title = How well do dingoes (''Canis dingo'') perform on the detour task | journal = Animal Behaviour | volume = 80 | pages = 155–162 | doi=10.1016/j.anbehav.2010.04.017| s2cid = 53153703 }} Another study showed that after undergoing training to solve a simple manipulation task, dogs faced with an unsolvable version of the same problem look at humans, while socialized wolves do not.{{cite journal |last1=Miklósi |first1=A. |last2=Kubinyi |first2=E. |last3=Topál |first3=J. |last4=Gácsi |first4=M. |last5=Virányi |first5=Z. |last6=Csányi |first6=V. |date=Apr 2003 |title=A simple reason for a big difference: wolves do not look back at humans, but dogs do |journal=Curr Biol |volume=13 |issue=9 |pages=763–766 |bibcode=2003CBio...13..763M |doi=10.1016/S0960-9822(03)00263-X |pmid=12725735 |s2cid=10200094 |doi-access=free}} [201] => [202] => === Communication === [203] => {{Main|Dog communication}} [204] => {{Listen [205] => |filename=A dog making noises and barking.flac [206] => |title=Dog sounds [207] => |description=A dog making noises and barking [208] => |format=[[Ogg]]}} [209] => [210] => Dog communication is how dogs convey information to other dogs, understand messages from humans, and translate the information that dogs are transmitting.Coren, Stanley [https://books.google.com/books?id=zBjqAgAAQBAJ ''How To Speak Dog: Mastering the Art of Dog-Human Communication''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825180856/https://books.google.com/books?id=zBjqAgAAQBAJ |date=25 August 2023 }}, 2000 Simon & Schuster, New York.{{rp|xii}} Communication behaviors of dogs include eye gaze, facial expression,{{cite journal |last1=Kaminski |first1=Juliane |last2=Hynds |first2=Jennifer |last3=Morris |first3=Paul |last4=Waller |first4=Bridget M. |title=Human attention affects facial expressions in domestic dogs |journal=[[Scientific Reports]] |date=2017 |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=12914 |doi=10.1038/s41598-017-12781-x |pmid=29051517 |pmc=5648750 |bibcode=2017NatSR...712914K |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |last1=Kaminski |first1=Juliane |last2=Waller |first2=Bridget M. |last3=Diogo |first3=Rui |last4=Hartstone-Rose |first4=Adam |last5=Burrows |first5=Anne M. |title=Evolution of facial muscle anatomy in dogs |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] |date=2019 |volume=116 |issue=29 |pages=14677–14681 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1820653116 |pmid=31209036 |pmc=6642381 |bibcode=2019PNAS..11614677K |doi-access=free}} vocalization, body posture (including movements of bodies and limbs), and gustatory communication (scents, pheromones, and taste). Dogs' scent marks their [[Territory (animal)|territories]] by urinating on them, which is more likely when entering a new environment.{{Cite web |last1=Lindell |first1=Ellen |last2=Feyrecilde |first2=Monique |last3=Horwitz |first3=Debra |last4=Landsberg |first4=Gary |title=Dog Behavioral Problems: Marking Behavior |url=https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/dog-behavior-problems-marking-behavior |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240121214453/https://vcahospitals.com/know-your-pet/dog-behavior-problems-marking-behavior |archive-date=21 January 2024 |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=[[VCA Animal Hospitals]] |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Curbing the Issue of Dog Marking |url=https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/curbing-marking/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230929091137/https://www.akc.org/expert-advice/training/curbing-marking/ |archive-date=29 September 2023 |access-date=13 March 2024 |website=American Kennel Club |language=en}} Both sexes of dogs may also urinate to communicate anxiety or frustration, submissiveness, or when in exciting or relaxing situations.{{Cite web |title=Why Do Dogs Pee When They're Excited or Fearful? |url=https://www.thesprucepets.com/fixing-submissive-excitement-urination-1118271 |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=The Spruce Pets |language=en |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330093436/https://www.thesprucepets.com/fixing-submissive-excitement-urination-1118271 |url-status=live }} Aroused dogs can be a result of the dogs' higher [[cortisol]] levels.{{Cite web |date=26 May 2023 |title=What is Overarousal in Dogs? {{!}} FOTP |url=https://fotp.com/learn/dog-lifestyle/what-is-overarousal-in-dogs |access-date=30 March 2024 |website=Front of the Pack |language=en-US |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330093437/https://fotp.com/learn/dog-lifestyle/what-is-overarousal-in-dogs |url-status=live }} Between 3 and 8 weeks of age, dogs tend to focus on other dogs for social interaction, and between 5 and 12 weeks of age, they shift their focus to people.{{Cite web |title=Normal Social Behavior in Dogs - Dog Owners |url=https://www.msdvetmanual.com/dog-owners/behavior-of-dogs/normal-social-behavior-in-dogs |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=MSD Veterinary Manual |language=en |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329121024/https://www.msdvetmanual.com/dog-owners/behavior-of-dogs/normal-social-behavior-in-dogs |url-status=live }} Belly exposure in dogs can be a defensive behavior that can lead to a bite or to seek comfort. [211] => [212] => Humans communicate with dogs by using vocalization, hand signals, and body posture. With their acute sense of hearing, dogs rely on the auditory aspect of communication for understanding and responding to various cues, including the distinctive [[bark (sound)|barking]] patterns that convey different messages. A study using [[functional magnetic resonance imaging]] (fMRI) has shown that dogs respond to both vocal and nonvocal voices using the brain's region towards the [[Cerebral hemisphere|temporal pole]], similar to that of humans' brains. Most dogs also looked significantly longer at the face whose expression matched the [[Valence (psychology)|valence of vocalization]].{{cite journal |last1=Nagasawa |first1=Miho |last2=Murai |first2=Kensuke |last3=Mogi |first3=Kazutaka |last4=Kikusui |first4=Takefumi |date=2011 |title=Dogs can discriminate human smiling faces from blank expressions |journal=[[Animal Cognition]] |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=525–533 |doi=10.1007/s10071-011-0386-5 |pmid=21359654 |s2cid=12354384}}{{cite journal |last1=Albuquerque |first1=Natalia |last2=Guo |first2=Kun |last3=Wilkinson |first3=Anna |last4=Savalli |first4=Carine |last5=Otta |first5=Emma |last6=Mills |first6=Daniel |date=2016 |title=Dogs recognize dog and human emotions |journal=[[Biology Letters]] |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=20150883 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2015.0883 |pmc=4785927 |pmid=26763220 |doi-access=free}} A study of [[Caudate nucleus|caudate responses]] shows that dogs tend to respond more positively to social rewards than to food rewards.{{Citation |last1=Cook |first1=Peter F. |title=Awake Canine fMRI Predicts Dogs' Preference for Praise Versus Food |date=7 July 2016 |url=https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/062703v1 |access-date=30 March 2024 |language=en |doi=10.1101/062703 |last2=Prichard |first2=Ashley |last3=Spivak |first3=Mark |last4=Berns |first4=Gregory S. |archive-date=30 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240330093436/https://www.biorxiv.org/content/10.1101/062703v1 |url-status=live }} [213] => [214] => == Ecology == [215] => === Population === [216] => The dog is probably the most widely abundant large [[carnivora]]n living in the human environment.{{cite journal |last1=Young |first1=Julie K. |last2=Olson |first2=Kirk A. |last3=Reading |first3=Richard P. |last4=Amgalanbaatar |first4=Sukh |last5=Berger |first5=Joel |title=Is Wildlife Going to the Dogs? Impacts of Feral and Free-roaming Dogs on Wildlife Populations |journal=BioScience |date=February 2011 |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=125–132 |doi=10.1525/bio.2011.61.2.7 }}{{cite journal |last1=Daniels |first1=T. J. |last2=Bekoff |first2=M. |title=Population and Social Biology of Free-Ranging Dogs, Canis familiaris |journal=Journal of Mammalogy |date=27 November 1989 |volume=70 |issue=4 |pages=754–762 |doi=10.2307/1381709 |jstor=1381709 }} In 2013, the estimated global dog population was between 700 million{{cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Joelene |last2=Macdonald |first2=David W. |title=A review of the interactions between free-roaming domestic dogs and wildlife |journal=Biological Conservation |date=January 2013 |volume=157 |pages=341–351 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2012.07.005 |bibcode=2013BCons.157..341H }} and 987 million.{{cite book|last1=Gompper|first1=Matthew E.|title=Free-Ranging Dogs and Wildlife Conservation|publisher=Oxford University Press|editor1-last=Gompper|editor1-first=Matthew E|year=2013|chapter=Ch.1-The dog–human–wildlife interface: assessing the scope of the problem|pages=25|isbn=978-0-19-181018-3|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdPDAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA25|access-date=4 March 2019|archive-date=14 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314003523/https://books.google.com/books?id=MdPDAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA25#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} About 20% of dogs live as pets in [[Developed country|developed countries]]. In the [[Developing country|developing world]], it is estimated that three-quarters of the world's dog population lives in the developing world as [[feral]], [[Free-ranging dog|village]], or community dogs.{{Cite book |author=Coppinger |first1=Raymond |url=https://archive.org/details/dogsstartlingnew00raym |title=Dogs: a Startling New Understanding of Canine Origin, Behavior and Evolution |last2=Coppinger |first2=Lorna |publisher=[[Charles Scribner's Sons]] |others=Information contributed by [[Internet Archive]] |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-684-85530-1 |location=New York |language=en}} Most of these dogs live as [[scavenger]]s and have never been owned by humans, with one study showing that village dogs' most common response when approached by strangers is to run away (52%), or respond aggressively (11%).{{Cite journal| last = Ortolani|first = A|title = Ethiopian village dogs: Behavioural responses to a stranger's approach|year=2009|doi=10.1016/j.applanim.2009.03.011|volume=119|issue = #3–4|journal=Applied Animal Behaviour Science|pages=210–218}} [217] => [218] => === Competitors and predators === [219] => Feral and [[free-ranging dogs]]' potential to compete with other large carnivores is limited by their strong association with humans. Although wolves are known to kill dogs, they tend to live in pairs in areas where they are highly persecuted, giving them a disadvantage when facing large dog groups.{{sfn|Boitani|Mech|2003|pp=259–264}} In some instances, wolves have displayed an uncharacteristic fearlessness of humans and buildings when attacking dogs, to the extent that they have to be beaten off or killed.{{cite journal |last1=Kojola |first1=Ilpo |last2=Ronkainen |first2=Seppo |last3=Hakala |first3=Antero |last4=Heikkinen |first4=Samuli |last5=Kokko |first5=Sanna |year=2004 |title=Interactions between wolves ''Canis lupus'' and dogs ''C. familiaris'' in Finland |journal=Wildlife Biology |volume=10 |issue=2 |pages=101–105 |doi=10.2981/wlb.2004.014 |s2cid=85973414}} Although the numbers of dogs killed each year are relatively low, it induces a fear of wolves entering villages and farmyards to take dogs, and losses of dogs to wolves have led to demands for more liberal wolf hunting regulations. [220] => [221] => [[Coyote]]s and [[big cat]]s have also been known to attack dogs. In particular, [[leopard]]s are known to have a preference for dogs and have been recorded to kill and consume them, no matter their size.{{Cite book|author1=Scott, Jonathan |author2=Scott, Angela |title = Big Cat Diary: Leopard|year = 2006|isbn = 978-0-00-721181-4|publisher=Collins|location = London|page = 108}} [[Siberian tiger]]s in the [[Amur river|Amur River]] region have killed dogs in the middle of villages. Amur tigers will not tolerate wolves as competitors within their territories, and the tigers could be considering dogs in the same way. [[Striped hyena]]s are known to kill dogs in their range.{{cite web| url = http://www.hyaena.ge/striped.htm|title = Striped Hyaena ''Hyaena (Hyaena) hyaena'' (Linnaeus, 1758)|publisher=IUCN Species Survival Commission Hyaenidae Specialist Group|access-date =21 May 2008|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070928225108/http://www.hyaena.ge/striped.htm| archive-date=28 September 2007}} [222] => [223] => === Diet === [224] => {{See also|Dog food}} [225] => [[File:Golden retriever eating pigs foot.jpg|thumb|A [[Golden Retriever]] gnawing on a pig's foot|330x330px]] [226] => [227] => Dogs have been described as [[omnivore]]s.{{Cite book | title=Biology of the pancreas in growing animals | volume=28 | author1=S.G. Pierzynowski | author2=R. Zabielski | publisher=Elsevier Health Sciences | year=1999 | isbn=978-0-444-50217-9 | page=417 | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=W5NKvgAACAAJ | oclc=247092084 | access-date=23 April 2023 | archive-date=12 May 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230512215727/https://books.google.com/books?id=W5NKvgAACAAJ | url-status=live }}{{Cite book | title=Grab Life by the Leash: A Guide to Bringing Up and Bonding with Your Four-Legged Friend | author=Smith, Cheryl S. | publisher=John Wiley and Sons | year=2008 | isbn=978-0-470-17882-9 | chapter=Chapter 6: Omnivores Together |page=77| chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p0y9b9voiI8C&pg=PA77 | url=https://archive.org/details/grablifebyleashg0000smit }} Compared to wolves, dogs from agricultural societies have [[Amylase#Evolution|extra copies of amylase]] and other genes involved in starch digestion that contribute to an increased ability to thrive on a starch-rich diet. Similar to humans, some dog breeds produce amylase in their [[saliva]] and are classified as having a high-starch diet.{{cite journal |last1=Pajic |first1=Petar |last2=Pavlidis |first2=Pavlos |last3=Dean |first3=Kirsten |last4=Neznanova |first4=Lubov |last5=Romano |first5=Rose-Anne |last6=Garneau |first6=Danielle |last7=Daugherity |first7=Erin |last8=Globig |first8=Anja |last9=Ruhl |first9=Stefan |last10=Gokcumen |first10=Omer |title=Independent amylase gene copy number bursts correlate with dietary preferences in mammals |journal=eLife |date=14 May 2019 |volume=8 |doi=10.7554/eLife.44628 |pmid=31084707 |pmc=6516957 |doi-access=free}} [228] => * {{cite magazine |author=Mareike C Janiak |date=14 May 2019 |title=Evolution: Of starch and spit |magazine=eLife |url=https://elifesciences.org/articles/47523 |access-date=5 February 2020 |archive-date=12 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191212195213/https://elifesciences.org/articles/47523 |url-status=live }} However, more like cats and less like other omnivores, dogs can only produce [[bile acid]] with [[taurine]], and they cannot produce [[vitamin D]], which they obtain from animal flesh. Of the [[Essential amino acid|twenty-one amino acids common to all life forms]] (including [[selenocysteine]]), dogs cannot synthesize ten: [[arginine]], [[histidine]], [[isoleucine]], [[leucine]], [[lysine]], [[methionine]], [[phenylalanine]], [[threonine]], [[tryptophan]], and [[valine]].{{Cite web |title=The Essentials of Canine Nutrition: Amino Acids and Other Nutrients |url=https://www.thewildest.com/dog-nutrition/essential-canine-nutrition |access-date=15 June 2023 |website=www.thewildest.com |language=en |archive-date=30 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630142421/https://www.thewildest.com/dog-nutrition/essential-canine-nutrition |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Amino Acids for Dogs- Fortitude Canine |url=https://fortitudecanine.com/ingredients/amino-acids/ |access-date=15 June 2023 |website=Fortitude |language=en-US |archive-date=30 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630142422/https://fortitudecanine.com/ingredients/amino-acids/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=12 January 2019 |title=NRC Essential Nutrients: Amino Acids |url=https://perfectlyrawsome.com/raw-feeding-knowledgebase/nrc-essential-nutrients-amino-acids/ |access-date=15 June 2023 |website=Perfectly Rawsome |language=en-US |archive-date=30 June 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230630142422/https://perfectlyrawsome.com/raw-feeding-knowledgebase/nrc-essential-nutrients-amino-acids/ |url-status=live }} Like cats, dogs require arginine to maintain [[nitrogen balance]]. These nutritional requirements place dogs halfway between carnivores and omnivores.{{cite book|title=Applied Veterinary Clinical Nutrition|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|editor1-last=Fascetti|editor1-first=Andrea J.|editor2-last=Delaney|editor2-first=Sean J.|edition=1st|year=2012|chapter=7|pages=76|isbn=978-0-8138-0657-0|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIyL9qss6qsC&pg=PA76|access-date=4 March 2019|archive-date=14 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314003643/https://books.google.com/books?id=eIyL9qss6qsC&pg=PA76#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} [229] => [230] => === Range === [231] => As a domesticated or semi-domesticated animal, the dog has notable exceptions of presence in: [232] => * The [[Aboriginal Tasmanians]], who were separated from Australia before the arrival of [[dingo]]s on that continent [233] => * The [[Andamanese peoples]], who were isolated when [[Sea level rise|rising sea levels]] covered the [[land bridge]] to Myanmar [234] => * The [[Fuegians]], who instead domesticated the [[Fuegian dog]], an already extinct different canid species [235] => * Individual Pacific islands whose maritime settlers did not bring dogs or where the dogs died out after original settlement, notably the [[Mariana Islands]],{{cite journal |last1=Hung |first1=H. |last2=Carson |first2=Mike T. |last3=Bellwood |first3=Peter |last4=Campos |first4= Fredeliza Z. |date=2011 |title=The first settlement of Remote Oceania: The Philippines to the Marianas |journal=Antiquity |volume=85 |issue=329 |pages=909–926 |doi=10.1017/S0003598X00068393 |doi-access=free }} [[Palau]]{{cite book |last=Osborne |first=Douglas |date=1966 |title=The archaeology of the Palau Islands |series=Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin |volume=230 |page=29 |isbn=978-0-910240-58-1}} and most of the [[Caroline Islands]] with exceptions such as [[Fais Island]] and [[Nukuoro]],{{cite journal |last1=Intoh |first1=Michiko |last2=Shigehara |first2=Nobuo |date=2004 |title=Prehistoric pig and dog remains from Fais Island, Micronesia |journal=Anthropological Science |volume=112 |issue=3 |pages=257–267 |doi=10.1537/ase.040511|doi-access=free }} the [[Marshall Islands]],{{cite book |last=Urban |first=Manfred |date=1961 |title=Die Haustiere der Polynesier |location=Göttingen |publisher=Häntzschel }} the [[Gilbert Islands]], [[New Caledonia]],{{cite journal |last=Matisoo-Smith |first=Elizabeth |date=Feb 2015 |title=Ancient DNA and the human settlement of the Pacific: A review |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=79 |pages=93–104 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.10.017 |pmid=25556846 }} [[Vanuatu]],{{cite book |last=Forster |first=Johann Reinhold |date=1778 |title=Observations Made During a Voyage Round the World |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VI8-AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA188 |page=188 }} [[Tonga]], [[Marquesas]], [[Mangaia]] in the [[Cook Islands]], [[Rapa Iti]] in [[French Polynesia]], [[Easter Island]], the [[Chatham Islands]]{{cite book |last=Sharp |first=Andrew |date=1964 |title=Ancient Voyagers in Polynesia |url=https://archive.org/details/ancientvoyagersi0000shar |url-access=registration |location=Berkeley |publisher=University of California Press |page=[https://archive.org/details/ancientvoyagersi0000shar/page/120 120] }} and [[Pitcairn Island]] (settled by the [[Mutiny on the Bounty|''Bounty'' mutineers]], who killed off their dogs to escape discovery by passing ships).{{cite journal|title=Pitcairn's Island|journal=The Asiatic Journal and Monthly Register for British and Foreign India, China, and Australia|volume=10|page=38|year=1820|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x6o3AQAAMAAJ&pg=PA38}} [236] => [237] => Dogs were introduced to [[Antarctica]] as [[sled dog]]s. Starting practice in December 1993, dogs were later outlawed by the [[Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty|Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty international agreement]] due to the possible risk of spreading infections.{{Cite web |title=Did you know that dogs are banned from Antarctica? {{!}} South Pole 1911-2011 |url=https://nettarkiv.npolar.no/sorpolen2011.npolar.no/en/did-you-know/2011-11-12-dogs-are-banned-from-antarctica.html |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=nettarkiv.npolar.no |archive-date=29 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200729232554/https://nettarkiv.npolar.no/sorpolen2011.npolar.no/en/did-you-know/2011-11-12-dogs-are-banned-from-antarctica.html |url-status=live }} [238] => {{Quote|text=Dogs shall not be introduced onto land, ice shelves or sea ice.|title=Protocol on Environmental Protection to the Antarctic Treaty, signed in 1991 in Madrid|source=amended version of Annex II, Article 4 (number two)}}{{-}} [239] => [240] => == Roles with humans == [241] => {{Main|Human–canine bond}} [242] => Domestic dogs inherited complex behaviors, such as [[bite inhibition]], from their wolf ancestors, who would have been [[pack hunter]]s with complex body language. These sophisticated forms of social cognition and communication may account for their trainability, playfulness and ability to fit into human households and social situations,{{cite book|author=Miklósi, Adám|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnVEIrVNGhIC|title=Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2007|isbn=978-0-19-929585-2|pages=95–136|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199295852.001.0001|access-date=30 October 2020|archive-date=14 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314003541/https://books.google.com/books?id=KnVEIrVNGhIC|url-status=live}} probably also for early human hunter-gatherers. [243] => [244] => Dogs perform many roles for people, such as [[Hunting dog|hunting]], [[Herding dog|herding]], [[Sled dog|pulling loads]], [[Guard dog|protection]], [[Police dog|assisting police]] and the [[Dogs in warfare|military]], [[Pet|companionship]] and [[Assistance dog|aiding disabled individuals]]. This influence on human society has given them the nickname "[[man's best friend]]" in the [[Western world]]. In some cultures, however, dogs [[#Food|are also a source of meat]].{{cite news |last=Wingfield-Hayes |first=Rupert |date=29 June 2002 |title=China's taste for the exotic |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2074073.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107021312/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/from_our_own_correspondent/2074073.stm |archive-date=7 January 2019 |access-date=14 December 2011 |work=BBC News}}{{cite news |date=31 December 2001 |title=Vietnam's dog meat tradition |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1735647.stm |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190107021323/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/1735647.stm |archive-date=7 January 2019 |access-date=14 December 2011 |work=BBC News}} [245] => [246] => === Pets === [247] => [[File:Siberian Husky pho.jpg|thumb|A [[Siberian Husky]] with a human as companionship]] [248] => [249] => The keeping of dogs as companions, particularly by elites, has a long history.{{Cite book |last=Derr |first=Mark |url=https://archive.org/details/dogsbestfriendan00derr |title=Dog's Best Friend |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-226-14280-7 |location=Chicago |url-access=registration}} Pet dog populations grew significantly after [[World War II]] as [[suburbanization]] increased. In the 1980s, there have been changes in the pet dog's role, such as the increased role of dogs in the [[Emotional support animal|emotional support]] of their human guardians.{{Cite book |last= Katz | first= Jon | title= The New Work of Dogs |publisher= Villard Books | location= New York | year= 2003 | isbn= 978-0-375-76055-6}}{{page needed|date=May 2021}}{{Cite book | last= Haraway | first= Donna | author-link=Donna Haraway | title= The Companion Species manifesto: Dogs, People and Significant Otherness | publisher= Prickly Paradigm Press | location= Chicago | year= 2003 | isbn= 978-0-9717575-8-5}}{{page needed|date=May 2021}}{{cite journal |last1=Power |first1=Emma |title=Furry families: making a human–dog family through home |journal=Social & Cultural Geography |date=August 2008 |volume=9 |issue=5 |pages=535–555 |doi=10.1080/14649360802217790 }} Within the second half of the 20th century, the first dogs' social status major shift has been "[[Commodity status of animals|commodification]]", shaping it to conform to social expectations of personality and behavior. The second has been the broadening of the family's concept and the home to include dogs-as-dogs within everyday routines and practices. [250] => [251] => A vast range of commodity forms aim to transform a pet dog into an ideal companion.{{cite journal |last1=Nast |first1=Heidi J. |title=Loving….Whatever: Alienation, Neoliberalism and Pet-Love in the Twenty-First Century |journal=ACME |date=2006 |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=300–327 |url=https://acme-journal.org/index.php/acme/article/view/761 }} The list of goods and services available for dogs, such as dog training books, classes, and television programs, has increased.{{Cite Q|Q115264477}} The majority of contemporary dog owners describe their pet as part of the family, although some state that it is an ambivalent relationship. Some dog trainers, such as on the television program ''[[Dog Whisperer]]'', have promoted a [[Dominance (ethology)|dominance model]] of dog-human relationships. However, the idea of the "[[Pack (canine)#Use in dog training|alpha dog]]" trying to be dominant is based on a controversial theory about wolf packs.{{Cite book |last=Miklósi |first=Ádám |title=The Dog: A Natural History |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2018 |isbn=978-0-691-17693-2 |pages=75}}{{cite journal |last1=Mech |first1=L David |title=Alpha status, dominance, and division of labor in wolf packs |journal=Canadian Journal of Zoology |date=November 1999 |volume=77 |issue=8 |pages=1196–1203 |doi=10.1139/z99-099 |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/usgsnpwrc/353 }} It has been disputed that "trying to achieve status" is characteristic of dog-human interactions.{{cite journal |last1=Bradshaw |first1=John W.S. |last2=Blackwell |first2=Emily J. |last3=Casey |first3=Rachel A. |title=Dominance in domestic dogs—useful construct or bad habit? |journal=Journal of Veterinary Behavior |date=May 2009 |volume=4 |issue=3 |pages=135–144 |doi=10.1016/j.jveb.2008.08.004 }} Activities in which the dog is an integral partner, such as [[Musical canine freestyle|dog dancing]] and [[Doga (Dog Yoga)|dog yoga]], have increased in participation by human family members. [252] => [253] => According to statistics published by the [[American Pet Products Manufacturers Association]] in the National Pet Owner Survey in 2009–2010, an estimated 77.5 million people in the United States have pet dogs.{{Cite web |date=2 May 2010 |title=U.S. Pet Ownership Statistics |url=http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html |access-date=2 April 2024 |publisher=[[Humane Society of the United States]]|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100502015231/http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html |archive-date=2 May 2010 }} The source shows that nearly 40% of American households own at least one dog, of which 67% own just one dog, 25% own two dogs, and nearly 9% own more than two dogs. The data also shows an equal number of male and female pet dogs, and less than one-fifth of the owned dogs come from [[Animal shelter|shelters]].{{cite web |title=U.S. Pet Ownership Statistics |url=http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120407193941/http://www.humanesociety.org/issues/pet_overpopulation/facts/pet_ownership_statistics.html |archive-date=7 April 2012 |access-date=24 June 2010}} [254] => [255] => === Workers === [256] => In addition to dogs' role as companion animals, dogs have been bred for [[Herding dog|herding livestock]] (such as [[collie]]s and [[sheepdog]]s); hunting; [[Pest control|rodent control]] (such as terriers); [[search and rescue dog]]s;Vikki Fenton, [https://www.wemjournal.org/article/S0953-9859(92)71243-1/pdf The use of dogs in search, rescue and recovery] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323225204/https://www.wemjournal.org/article/S0953-9859(92)71243-1/pdf |date=23 March 2023 }}, ''Journal of Wilderness Medicine'' Vol. 3, Issue 3, August 1992, pp. 292–300. [[detection dog]]s (such as those trained to detect [[Illegal drug trade|illicit drugs]] or [[chemical weapon]]s);John J. Ensminger, ''Police and Military Dogs: Criminal Detection, Forensic Evidence, and Judicial Admissibility'' (CRC Press, 2012).Philip Shernomay, [https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/13/us/aftereffects-chemical-weapons-dogs-take-their-place-arsenal-against-chemical.html "Dogs Take Their Place in Arsenal Against Chemical Attack"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180613001401/https://www.nytimes.com/2003/05/13/us/aftereffects-chemical-weapons-dogs-take-their-place-arsenal-against-chemical.html |date=13 June 2018 }}, ''[[The New York Times]]'' (13 May 2003). homeguard dogs; [[police dog]]s (K-9); [[Dogs in warfare|welfare-purpose dogs]]; dogs who assist fishermen retrieve their nets; and dogs that pull loads (such as [[sled dog]]s). In 1957, the dog [[Laika]] became one of the first animals to be launched into [[Geocentric orbit|Earth orbit]] aboard the [[Soviet space program|Soviets]]' ''[[Sputnik 2]]''; she died during the flight from [[Hyperthermia|overheating]].{{cite news|url=https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/remembering-laika-space-dog-and-soviet-hero|title=Remembering Laika, Space Dog and Soviet Hero|magazine=[[The New Yorker]]|author=Alex Wellerstein|date=3 November 2017|access-date=9 June 2018|archive-date=12 June 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612140755/https://www.newyorker.com/tech/elements/remembering-laika-space-dog-and-soviet-hero|url-status=live}}{{cite news |url=https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-space-dog-idUSL1117596720080411 |title=Russia fetes dog Laika, first earthling in space |editor1=Solovyov, Dmitry |editor2=Pearce, Tim |date=11 April 2008 |work=[[Reuters]] |access-date=5 July 2021 |archive-date=17 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517190200/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-russia-space-dog-idUSL1117596720080411 |url-status=live }} [257] => [258] => Various kinds of [[service dog]]s and [[assistance dog]]s, including [[guide dog]]s, [[hearing dog]]s, [[mobility assistance dog]]s, and [[psychiatric service dog]]s, assist individuals with disabilities.{{cite journal |last1=Audrestch |first1=Hilary M. |last2=Whelan |first2=Chantelle T. |last3=Grice |first3=David |last4=Asher |first4=Lucy |last5=England |first5=Gary C.W. |last6=Freeman |first6=Sarah L. |title=Recognizing the value of assistance dogs in society |journal=Disability and Health Journal |date=October 2015 |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=469–474 |doi=10.1016/j.dhjo.2015.07.001 |pmid=26364936 }}{{cite journal |last1=Walther |first1=Sandra |last2=Yamamoto |first2=Mariko |last3=Thigpen |first3=Abigail Paige |last4=Garcia |first4=Anaissa |last5=Willits |first5=Neil H. |last6=Hart |first6=Lynette A. |title=Assistance Dogs: Historic Patterns and Roles of Dogs Placed by ADI or IGDF Accredited Facilities and by Non-Accredited U.S. Facilities |journal=Frontiers in Veterinary Science |date=19 January 2017 |volume=4 |page=1 |doi=10.3389/fvets.2017.00001 |pmid=28154816 |pmc=5243836 |doi-access=free }} A study of 29 dogs reported that 9 dogs owned by people with epilepsy were reported to exhibit attention-getting behavior to their handler 30 seconds to 45 minutes prior to an impending seizure; there was no significant correlation between the patients' demographics, health, or attitude towards their pets.{{cite journal |last1=Dalziel |first1=Deborah J |last2=Uthman |first2=Basim M |last3=Mcgorray |first3=Susan P |last4=Reep |first4=Roger L |title=Seizure-alert dogs: a review and preliminary study |journal=Seizure |date=March 2003 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=115–120 |doi=10.1016/s105913110200225x |pmid=12566236 |doi-access=free }} [259] => [260] => === Shows === [261] => {{See also|Dog show}} [262] => [263] => There are breed-conformation shows or [[List of dog sports|sports]], including [[racing]], [[sledding]] and [[Dog agility|agility competitions]], for dogs to participate in with their guardians. In dog shows, also referred to as breed shows, a judge familiar with the specific dog breed evaluates individual purebred dogs for conformity with their established breed type as described in the [[breed standard]].{{Cite web |title=Dog show {{!}} Description & History {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/sports/dog-show |access-date=27 March 2024 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=12 May 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512001155/https://www.britannica.com/sports/dog-show |url-status=live }} [[Weight pulling]], a dog sport involving pulling weight, has been criticized for promoting [[Doping in sport|doping]] and for its risk of injury.{{Cite web |last=DogTime |date=16 April 2014 |title=Critics divided on controversial sport of dog "weight-pulling" |url=https://dogtime.com/dog-health/general/19644-critics-divided-on-controversial-sport-of-dog-weight-pulling |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=DogTime |language=en-US |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329003644/https://dogtime.com/dog-health/general/19644-critics-divided-on-controversial-sport-of-dog-weight-pulling |url-status=live }} [264] => [265] => === Food === [266] => {{Main|Dog meat}} [267] => Dog meat is consumed in some [[East Asian]] countries, including [[China]], [[Vietnam]], [[Korea]],{{Cite web |last=Stone |first=Kristin |date=21 February 2019 |title=Closing South Korea's dog meat farms |url=https://www.hsi.org/news-resources/closing-south-koreas-dog-meat-farms/ |access-date=1 April 2024 |website=Humane Society International |language=en-US |archive-date=1 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240401132701/https://www.hsi.org/news-resources/closing-south-koreas-dog-meat-farms/ |url-status=live }} [[Indonesia]],{{Cite web |title=Indonesian Capital City Jakarta Bans Dog Meat Trade |url=https://www.four-paws.org/our-stories/press-releases/march-2023/indonesian-capital-city-jakarta-bans-dog-meat-trade |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=FOUR PAWS International - Animal Welfare Organisation |language=en |archive-date=29 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240329122526/https://www.four-paws.org/our-stories/press-releases/march-2023/indonesian-capital-city-jakarta-bans-dog-meat-trade |url-status=live }} and the [[Philippines]],{{Cite news|last=Anna Bueno|date=6 January 2017|title=The legal and cultural implications of killing a dog for film|work=[[CNN Philippines]]|url=https://cnnphilippines.com/life/entertainment/film/2017/01/05/oro-dog-killing-scene.html|access-date=15 December 2020|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416114758/https://cnnphilippines.com/life/entertainment/film/2017/01/05/oro-dog-killing-scene.html|url-status=dead}} which date back to antiquity.{{Cite book|title=Eat not this flesh: food avoidances from prehistory to the present|author=Simoons, Frederick J.|edition=second|publisher=University of Wisconsin Press|year=1994|isbn=978-0-299-14254-4|pages=208–212|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA208|access-date=6 June 2020|archive-date=14 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240314003648/https://books.google.com/books?id=JwGZTQunH00C&pg=PA208#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} It is estimated that 30 million dogs are killed and consumed in Asia every year. Han Chinese traditionally ate dog meat.{{Cite web |last=Wangyun |first=Dai |date=14 February 2018 |title=7,000 Years of the Dog: A History of China's Canine Companions |url=https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1001742 |access-date=1 April 2024 |website=#SixthTone |archive-date=1 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240401134456/https://www.sixthtone.com/news/1001742 |url-status=live }} China is the world's largest consumer of dogs, with an estimated 10 to 20 million dogs killed every year for human consumption, derived from [[Extrapolation|extrapolating]] industry reports on meat tonnage.{{Cite web |last=VnExpress |title=47 dogs seized as police bust dog meat ring in southern Vietnam - VnExpress International |url=https://e.vnexpress.net/news/news/47-dogs-seized-as-police-bust-dog-meat-ring-in-southern-vietnam-3518518.html |access-date=1 April 2024 |website=VnExpress International – Latest news, business, travel and analysis from Vietnam |language=en |archive-date=16 April 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230416214712/https://e.vnexpress.net/news/news/47-dogs-seized-as-police-bust-dog-meat-ring-in-southern-vietnam-3518518.html |url-status=live }} [[Switzerland]], [[Polynesia]], and [[pre-Columbian Mexico]] also consumed dog meat in their histories.{{cite book|last=Schwabe|first=Calvin W.|title=Unmentionable Cuisine|publisher=University Press of Virginia|year=1979|isbn=978-0-8139-1162-5|location=Charlottesville|page=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SiBntk9jGmoC&pg=PA173 173]}}{{Cite journal |last=Bay-Petersen |first=Jan |date=1983 |title=Competition for resources : the role of pig and dog in the Polynesian agricultural economy. |url=https://www.persee.fr/doc/jso_0300-953x_1983_num_39_77_2793 |journal=Journal de la Société des Océanistes |volume=39 |issue=77 |pages=121–129 |doi=10.3406/jso.1983.2793 |access-date=27 March 2024 |archive-date=27 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240327085846/https://www.persee.fr/doc/jso_0300-953x_1983_num_39_77_2793 |url-status=live }}{{Cite journal |last=Stephen J. Hernandez-Divers |first=BVetMed |date=30 March 2015 |title=World Small Animal Veterinary Association World Congress Proceedings, 2005 |url=http://www.vin.com/doc/?id=6694579 |website=VIN.com |access-date=27 March 2024 |archive-date=20 April 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240420222357/https://www.vin.com/apputil/project/defaultadv1.aspx?pid=11196&catid=&id=&meta=&authorid= |url-status=live }} In some parts of [[Poland]]{{Cite news |date=10 August 2009 |title=Poland prosecutors probe dog lard sale |url=https://www.upi.com/Top_News/2009/08/10/Poland-prosecutors-probe-dog-lard-sale/63511249914379/?ur3=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416102745/https://www.upi.com/Top_News/2009/08/10/Poland-prosecutors-probe-dog-lard-sale/63511249914379/?ur3=1 |archive-date=16 April 2021 |access-date=15 December 2020 |work=[[United Press International]]}}{{cite news |last=Day |first=Matthew |date=7 August 2009 |title=Polish couple accused of making dog meat delicacy |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/5985367/Polish-couple-accused-of-making-dog-meat-delicacy.html |url-access=subscription |url-status=live |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/europe/poland/5985367/Polish-couple-accused-of-making-dog-meat-delicacy.html |archive-date=10 January 2022 |access-date=21 December 2010 |publisher=Telegraph.co.uk |location=London}}{{cbignore}} and [[Central Asia]],{{Cite web |last=Ayzirek Imanaliyeva |date=13 August 2020 |title=Fighting COVID in Kyrgyzstan: Dog fat, ginger and bloodletting |url=https://eurasianet.org/fighting-covid-in-kyrgyzstan-dog-fat-ginger-and-bloodletting |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201217070504/https://eurasianet.org/fighting-covid-in-kyrgyzstan-dog-fat-ginger-and-bloodletting |archive-date=17 December 2020 |access-date=11 December 2020 |website=[[Eurasianet]]}}{{cite web |date=2009 |title=Dog meat restaurants spring up in Uzbekistan |url=http://www.uznews.net/news_single.php?lng=en&sub=&cid=2&nid=12323 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616084942/http://uznews.net/news_single.php?lng=en&sub=&cid=2&nid=12323 |archive-date=16 June 2010 |access-date=24 October 2012 |publisher=[[Uznews.net]]}} dog fat is reportedly believed to be beneficial for the lungs. [268] => [269] => Eating dog meat is a [[Taboo|social taboo]] in most parts of the world; debates have ensued over banning the consumption of dog meat.{{Cite news |title=China bans dog meat at infamous Yulin festival |url=https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/yulin-dog-meat-festival-ban-china-authorities-a7741431.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181011224646/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/asia/yulin-dog-meat-festival-ban-china-authorities-a7741431.html |archive-date=11 October 2018 |access-date=11 October 2018 |work=The Independent}} The [[Sui dynasty|Sui]] emperors attempted to outlaw dog meat consumption, with the [[Tang dynasty]] partially prohibiting dog meat consumption at events.{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Peter J. |last2=Sun |first2=Jiang |last3=Yu |first3=Dezhi |title=Dog 'Meat' Consumption in China |journal=Society & Animals |date=20 October 2017 |volume=25 |issue=6 |pages=513–532 |doi=10.1163/15685306-12341471 }} Proponents of eating dog meat have argued that placing a distinction between livestock and dogs is [[Western esotericism|Western hypocrisy]] and that there is no difference in eating different animals' meat.{{cite journal |author=William Saletan |author-link=William Saletan |date=16 January 2002 |title=Wok The Dog – What's wrong with eating man's best friend? |url=http://www.slate.com/id/2060840/ |url-status=live |journal=Slate |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120419051241/http://www.slate.com/articles/news_and_politics/frame_game/2002/01/wok_the_dog.html |archive-date=19 April 2012 |access-date=23 July 2007}}{{Cite news |date=27 December 2017 |title=Korea dog meat campaigners accused of hypocrisy |url=https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/korea-dog-meat-campaigners-accused-of-hypocrisy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408065014/https://www.straitstimes.com/asia/east-asia/korea-dog-meat-campaigners-accused-of-hypocrisy |archive-date=8 April 2022 |access-date=18 December 2020 |work=[[The Straits Times]] |agency=[[Agence France-Presse]]}}{{cite web |author=Ahmed Zihni |year=2004 |title=Dog Meat Dilemma |url=http://www.sunysb.edu/writrhet/philosophy/handbook/essaycontest/2004essaywinners/2004+Ahmet+Zihni.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070811115017/http://www.sunysb.edu/writrhet/philosophy/handbook/essaycontest/2004essaywinners/2004%20Ahmet%20Zihni.htm |archive-date=11 August 2007 |access-date=11 May 2008 |publisher=[[Stony Brook University]] – The Program in Writing and Rhetoric}}{{cite web |author=[[John Feffer]] |date=2 June 2002 |title=The Politics of Dog – When globalization and culinary practice clash |url=http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/10/feffer-j.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060427201343/http://www.prospect.org/print/V13/10/feffer-j.html |archive-date=27 April 2006 |access-date=11 May 2007 |website=[[The American Prospect]]}} In some countries, [[Dog meat#Current laws|saling or slaughtering dogs for human consumption is prohibited]], though some still consume it in [[Modern era|modern times]]. [270] => [271] => ==== In Korea ==== [272] => {{Main articles|Dog meat consumption in South Korea}} [273] => The most popular Korean dog dish is called ''[[bosintang]]'', a spicy stew meant to balance the body's heat during the summer months. Some followers of the custom claim this is done to ensure good health by balancing one's [[Qi|''gi'']], or the body's 'vital energy'. Dogs are not as widely consumed as beef, pork and chicken.Pettid, Michael J., ''Korean Cuisine: An Illustrated History'', London: [[Reaktion Books|Reaktion Books Ltd.]], 2008, 25. {{ISBN|978-1-86189-348-2}} [274] => [275] => The primary dog breed raised for meat in South Korea is the [[Nureongi]], an unrecognized breed by international body.{{Cite web |last=Hussain |first=Grace |date=1 September 2023 |title=The Dog Meat Trade Is in Decline — but It's Far from Gone |url=https://sentientmedia.org/korean-dog-meat/ |access-date=29 March 2024 |website=Sentient Media |language=en-US |archive-date=27 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231227024233/https://sentientmedia.org/korean-dog-meat/ |url-status=live }} In 2018, the [[Government of South Korea|South Korean government]] passed a bill for restaurants that sell dog meat to stop doing so during the year's [[2018 Winter Olympics|Winter Olympics]].{{Cite web |date=9 January 2024 |title=South Korea parliament passes bill banning dog meat trade |url=https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2024/01/09/asia-pacific/politics/south-korea-dog-meat-ban/ |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=The Japan Times |language=en |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324094547/https://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2024/01/09/asia-pacific/politics/south-korea-dog-meat-ban/ |url-status=live }} On 9 January 2024, the [[National Assembly (South Korea)|South Korean parliament]] passed a law banning the distribution and sale of dog meat, to take effect in three years.{{Cite web |date=9 January 2024 |title=Selling dog meat will soon be illegal in South Korea |url=https://www.euronews.com/green/2024/01/09/south-korea-plans-to-ban-the-consumption-of-dog-meat-by-the-end-of-the-year |access-date=27 March 2024 |website=euronews |language=en |archive-date=9 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240209195336/https://www.euronews.com/green/2024/01/09/south-korea-plans-to-ban-the-consumption-of-dog-meat-by-the-end-of-the-year |url-status=live }} [276] => [277] => === Health risks === [278] => {{Further|Dog bite|Canine vector-borne disease|Dog bite prevention}} [279] => [280] => In 2018, the [[World Health Organization]] (WHO) reported that 59,000 people died globally from [[rabies]], with 59.6% in Asia and 36.4% in Africa. Rabies is a disease for which dogs are the most significant vector.{{citation|title=WHO expert consultation on rabies: Third report|series=WHO Technical Report Series, 931|publisher=World Health Organization|year=2018|hdl=10665/272364|isbn=978-92-4-121021-8|url=https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/272364|access-date=30 May 2021|archive-date=2 June 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602213657/https://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/272364|url-status=live}} Dog bites affect tens of millions of people globally each year. Children in mid-to-late childhood are the largest percentage bitten by dogs, with a greater risk of injury to the head and neck. They are more likely to need medical treatment and have the highest death rate.{{cite web|title=Animal bites Fact sheet|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs373/en/|website=World Health Organization|access-date=29 May 2021|date=February 2018|archive-date=4 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150504100257/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs373/en/|url-status=live}} Sharp claws can lacerate flesh, which can lead to serious infections.{{cite journal |last1=Tierney |first1=David M. |last2=Strauss |first2=Leigh P. |last3=Sanchez |first3=Jason L. |title=Capnocytophaga canimorsus Mycotic Abdominal Aortic Aneurysm: Why the Mailman Is Afraid of Dogs |journal=Journal of Clinical Microbiology |date=February 2006 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=649–651 |doi=10.1128/JCM.44.2.649-651.2006 |pmid=16455937 |pmc=1392675 }} [[Dogs in the United States|In the United States]], cats and dogs are a factor in more than 86,000 falls each year.{{Cite news|title=Injury Prevention Bulletin |url=http://www.hlthss.gov.nt.ca/english/services/health_promotion/pdf/injury_prevention_bulletin.pdf |publisher=Northwest Territories Health and Social Services |date=25 March 2009 |access-date=7 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110322113606/http://www.hlthss.gov.nt.ca/english/services/health_promotion/pdf/injury_prevention_bulletin.pdf |archive-date=22 March 2011 }} It has been estimated that around 2% of dog-related injuries treated in U.K. hospitals are domestic accidents. The same study concluded that dog-associated [[Traffic collision|road accidents]] involving injuries are more commonly involving [[Two-wheeler|two-wheeled vehicles]].{{Cite journal| last=Bewley |first= BR |title=Medical hazards from dogs |journal=British Medical Journal |volume= 291 |issue=6498 |pages=760–761 |year=1985 |pmid=3929930 |pmc=1417177 |doi=10.1136/bmj.291.6498.760}} [281] => [282] => ''[[Toxocara canis]]'' (dog [[roundworm]]) eggs in dog feces can cause [[toxocariasis]]. In the United States, about 10,000 cases of ''Toxocara'' infection are reported in humans each year, and almost 14% of the U.S. population is infected.{{cite web | url= http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-overview | title= Toxocariasis | date= 20 August 2008 | publisher= Medscape.com | first1= Sun | last1= Huh | first2= Sooung | last2= Lee | access-date= 15 February 2013 | archive-date= 9 February 2013 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20130209162930/http://emedicine.medscape.com/article/229855-overview | url-status= live }} Untreated toxocariasis can cause retinal damage and decreased vision.{{cite web|year=2010|title=Toxocariasis|url=http://kidshealth.org/parent/infections/parasitic/toxocariasis.html|access-date=12 February 2010|work=Kids' Health|publisher=The Nemours Foundation|archive-date=18 February 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100218140629/http://kidshealth.org/parent/infections/parasitic/toxocariasis.html|url-status=live}} Dog feces can also contain [[hookworm]]s that cause [[cutaneous larva migrans]] in humans.{{Cite journal |doi= 10.1590/S0074-02762006000400009 |pmid=16951810 |title=Related factors to human toxocariasis in a rural community of Argentina |year=2006 |last1=Chiodo |first1=Paula |last2=Basualdo |first2=Juan |last3=Ciarmela |first3=Laura |last4=Pezzani |first4=Betina |last5=Apezteguía |first5=María |last6=Minvielle |first6=Marta |journal=Memórias do Instituto Oswaldo Cruz |volume=101 |issue=4 |pages=397–400|doi-access=free |s2cid=18882843 }}{{cite journal |first1= AH |last1= Talaizadeh |first2=S |last2= Maraghi |first3= A |last3= Jelowdar |first4= M |last4= Peyvasteh |url= http://pjms.com.pk/issues/octdec107/article/casereport6.html |title= Human toxocariasis: A report of 3 cases |journal= Pakistan Journal of Medical Sciences Quarterly |volume= 23 |issue= #5 |date= October–December 2007 |at= Part I |access-date= 28 June 2009 |archive-date= 22 September 2009 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20090922163749/http://pjms.com.pk/issues/octdec107/article/casereport6.html |url-status= live }} [283] => [284] => === Health benefits === [285] => [[File:Walking the dog (1945527533).jpg|thumb|Walking a dog]] [286] => [287] => The scientific evidence is mixed as to whether a dog's companionship can enhance human physical and psychological well-being.{{cite journal |doi=10.1136/bmj.331.7527.1252 |title=Pet ownership and human health: A brief review of evidence and issues |year=2005 |last1=McNicholas |first1=June |journal=BMJ |volume=331 |issue=7527 |pages=1252–1254 |pmid=16308387 |last2=Gilbey |first2=Andrew |last3=Rennie |first3=Ann |last4=Ahmedzai |first4=Sam |last5=Dono |first5=Jo-Ann |last6=Ormerod |first6=Elizabeth |pmc=1289326}} Studies suggest that there are benefits to physical health and psychological well-being, but they have been criticized for being 'poorly controlled'.{{cite journal |doi=10.1080/10705500802365532 |title=Health effects of ownership of and attachment to companion animals in an older population |year=2008 |last1=Winefield |first1=Helen R. |last2=Black |first2=Anne |last3=Chur-Hansen |first3=Anna |journal=International Journal of Behavioral Medicine |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=303–310 |pmid=19005930|s2cid=30808366 }}{{Cite journal |last=Podberscek |first=A.L. |year=2006 |title=Positive and Negative Aspects of Our Relationship with Companion Animals |journal=Veterinary Research Communications |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=21–27 |doi=10.1007/s11259-006-0005-0 |s2cid=43327044 }} It states that "the health of elderly people is related to their health habits and [[social support]]s but not to their ownership of, or attachment to, a companion animal." Earlier studies have shown that pet dog or cat guardians make fewer hospital visits and are less likely to be on medication for heart problems and sleeping difficulties than non-guardians.{{Cite journal| author=Headey B.|year = 1999|title = Health benefits and health cost savings due to pets: preliminary estimates from an Australian national survey|journal=Social Indicators Research|volume = 47|pages = 233–243|doi = 10.1023/A:1006892908532| issue=2|s2cid = 142618092}} People with pet dogs took considerably more physical exercise than those with cats and those without pets; these effects are relatively long-term. Pet guardianship has also been associated with increased [[coronary artery disease]] survival. Human guardians are significantly less likely to die within one year of an acute [[myocardial infarction]] than those who do not own dogs.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Friedmann E, Thomas SA |year=1995 |title=Pet ownership, social support, and one-year survival after acute myocardial infarction in the Cardiac Arrhythmia Suppression Trial (CAST) |journal=The American Journal of Cardiology |volume=76 |issue=17 |pages=1213–1217 |doi=10.1016/S0002-9149(99)80343-9 |pmid=7502998}} Studies have found a small to moderate correlation between dog ownership and increased adult physical activity levels.{{cite journal |last1=Christian |first1=Hayley E. |last2=Westgarth |first2=Carri |last3=Bauman |first3=Adrian |last4=Richards |first4=Elizabeth A. |last5=Rhodes |first5=Ryan E. |last6=Evenson |first6=Kelly R. |last7=Mayer |first7=Joni A. |last8=Thorpe |first8=Roland J. |title=Dog Ownership and Physical Activity: A Review of the Evidence |journal=Journal of Physical Activity and Health |date=July 2013 |volume=10 |issue=5 |pages=750–759 |doi=10.1123/jpah.10.5.750 |pmid=23006510 |url=https://cdr.lib.unc.edu/downloads/9p290k34g }} [288] => [289] => A 2005 paper states, "recent research has failed to support earlier findings that pet ownership is associated with a reduced risk of [[cardiovascular disease]], a reduced use of [[general practitioner]] services, or any psychological or physical benefits on health for community dwelling older people. Research has, however, pointed to significantly less absenteeism from school through sickness among children who live with pets." In one study, new guardians reported a significant reduction in minor health problems during the first month following pet acquisition, which was sustained through the 10-month study.{{cite journal |last1=Serpell |first1=James |title=Beneficial Effects of Pet Ownership on Some Aspects of Human Health and Behaviour |journal=Journal of the Royal Society of Medicine |date=December 1991 |volume=84 |issue=12 |pages=717–720 |doi=10.1177/014107689108401208 |pmid=1774745 |pmc=1295517 }} [290] => [291] => The health benefits of dogs can result from contact with dogs in general, not solely from having dogs as pets. For example, when in a pet dog's presence, people show reductions in cardiovascular, behavioral, and psychological indicators of anxiety,{{Cite journal |author=Wilson |first=Cindy C. |title=The pet as an anxiolytic intervention |journal=The Journal of Nervous and Mental Disease |publication-date=August 1991 |volume=179 |issue=8 |pages=482–489 |doi=10.1097/00005053-199108000-00006 |pmid=1856711 |s2cid=22321266}} and are exposed to immune-stimulating microorganisms, which can protect against allergies and autoimmune diseases according to the [[hygiene hypothesis]]. Other benefits include dogs as social support.{{Cite book|last1=McNicholas |first1=J. |last2=Collis |first2=G. M. |chapter=Animals as social supports: Insights for understanding animal assisted therapy |editor=Fine, Aubrey H. |title=Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice |publisher=Elsevier/Academic Press |location=Amsterdam |year=2006 |pages=49–71 |isbn=978-0-12-369484-3}} One study indicated that wheelchair users experience more positive social interactions with strangers when accompanied by a dog than when they are not.{{Cite journal|vauthors=Eddy J, Hart LA, Boltz RP |title=The effects of service dogs on social acknowledgments of people in wheelchairs |journal=The Journal of Psychology |volume=122 |issue=1 |pages=39–45 |year=1988 |pmid=2967371|doi=10.1080/00223980.1988.10542941|s2cid=26115902 }} In 2015, a study found that pet owners were significantly more likely to get to know people in their neighborhood than non-pet owners.{{cite journal|doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0122085 | pmid=25924013 | volume=10 | issue=4 | title=The Pet Factor – Companion Animals as a Conduit for Getting to Know People, Friendship Formation and Social Support | journal=PLOS ONE | pages=e0122085| year=2015 | last1=Wood | first1=Lisa | last2=Martin | first2=Karen | last3=Christian | first3=Hayley | last4=Nathan | first4=Andrea | last5=Lauritsen | first5=Claire | last6=Houghton | first6=Steve | last7=Kawachi | first7=Ichiro | last8=McCune | first8=Sandra | pmc=4414420| bibcode=2015PLoSO..1022085W | doi-access=free }} [292] => [293] => Using dogs and other animals as a part of therapy dates back to the late 18th century, when animals were introduced into mental institutions to help socialize patients with [[mental disorder]]s.Kruger, K.A. & Serpell, J.A. (2006). Animal-assisted interventions in mental health: Definitions and theoretical foundations, In Fine, A.H. (ed.), Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: Theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice. San Diego, CA, Academic Press: 21–38. {{ISBN|978-0-12-369484-3}} Animal-assisted intervention research has shown that animal-assisted therapy with a dog can increase smiling and laughing among people with [[Alzheimer's disease]].{{Cite book|author1=Batson, K. |author2=McCabe, B. |author3=Baun, M.M. |author4=Wilson, C. |chapter=The effect of a therapy dog on socialization and psychological indicators of stress in persons diagnosed with Alzheimer's disease |editor1=Turner, Dennis C. |editor2=Wilson, Cindy C. |title=Companion animals in human health |publisher=Sage Publications |location=Thousand Oaks, CA |year=1998 |pages=203–215 |isbn=978-0-7619-1061-9}} One study demonstrated that children with ADHD and [[conduct disorder]]s who participated in an education program with dogs and other animals showed increased attendance, knowledge, and skill objectives and decreased [[Anti-social behaviour|antisocial]] and [[Violence|violent behavior]] compared with those not in an animal-assisted program.{{Cite book|author1=Katcher, A.H. |author2=Wilkins, G.G. |chapter=The Centaur's Lessons: Therapeutic education through care of animals and nature study |editor=Fine, Aubrey H. |title=Handbook on animal-assisted therapy: theoretical foundations and guidelines for practice |publisher=Elsevier/Academic Press |location=Amsterdam |year=2006 |pages=153–177 |isbn=978-0-12-369484-3}} [294] => [295] => === Cultural importance === [296] => {{Main|Cultural depictions of dogs|Dogs in religion}} [297] => {{Further|List of fictional dogs}} [298] => [[File:Cerberus-Blake.jpeg|thumb|right|[[Cerberus]], with the gluttons in [[Dante]]'s [[Third Circle of Hell|third circle of hell]], depicted by [[William Blake]]]] [299] => Dogs were depicted to symbolize [[Guide|guidance]], [[protection]], [[loyalty]], [[fidelity]], [[faithfulness]], [[alertness]], and [[love]].{{Cite news|url=https://www.incredibleart.org/lessons/middle/animals2.htm|title=Animal Symbolism in Art and Culture|website=www.incredibleart.org|access-date=30 November 2021|archive-date=30 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211130234950/https://www.incredibleart.org/lessons/middle/animals2.htm|url-status=live}} In ancient [[Mesopotamia]], from the [[Babylonia|Old Babylonian period]] until the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire|Neo-Babylonian period]], dogs were the symbol of [[Ninisina]], the goddess of healing and medicine,{{cite book|last1=Black|first1=Jeremy|first2=Anthony|last2=Green|title=Gods, Demons and Symbols of Ancient Mesopotamia: An Illustrated Dictionary|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ&q=Inana|publisher=The British Museum Press|year=1992|isbn=978-0-7141-1705-8|pages=70, 101|access-date=6 June 2020|archive-date=17 March 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230317010626/https://books.google.com/books?id=05LXAAAAMAAJ&q=Inana|url-status=live}} and her worshippers frequently dedicated small models of seated dogs to her. In the [[Neo-Assyrian Empire|Neo-Assyrian]] and Neo-Babylonian periods, dogs were used as emblems of magical protection. In [[China]], [[Korea]] and [[Japan]], dogs are viewed as kind protectors. [300] => [301] => In mythology, dogs often serve as pets or as watchdogs.{{cite book|author=Sherman, Josepha |title=Storytelling: An Encyclopedia of Mythology and Folklore|year=2008|publisher=Sharpe Reference|isbn=978-0-7656-8047-1|pages=118–121}} Stories of dogs guarding the gates of the underworld recur throughout Indo-European mythologies{{cite q|Q115264582|page=439}}{{cite book|last=West|first=Martin Litchfield|author-link=Martin Litchfield West|title=Indo-European Poetry and Myth|date=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=978-0-19-928075-9|page=392}} and may originate from [[Proto-Indo-European religion]]. In [[Greek mythology]], [[Cerberus]] is a three-headed, [[dragon]]-tailed watchdog who guards the gates of [[Hades]]. Dogs are also associated with the Greek goddess [[Hecate]].{{cite book|author=Oskar Seyffert|title=A Dictionary of Classical Antiquities: Mythology, Religion, Literature and Art|url=https://archive.org/details/b3135841x/page/270/mode/2up?view=theater|publisher=[[William Swan Sonnenschein|Swan Sonnenschein and Co]]|edition=6|date=1901|page=271|access-date=14 January 2022}} In [[Norse mythology]], a dog called [[Garmr]] guards [[Hel (location)|Hel]], a [[Death in Norse paganism#Afterlives and rebirth|realm of the dead]]. In [[Persian mythology]], two four-eyed dogs guard the [[Chinvat Bridge]]. In [[Welsh mythology]], [[Annwn]] is guarded by [[Cŵn Annwn]]. In [[Hindu mythology]], [[Yama]], the god of death, owns two watchdogs named [[Sharvara and Shyama|Shyama and Sharvara]] who have four eyes. They are said to watch over the gates of [[Naraka]].{{cite web |url=http://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/iml/iml08.htm |title=Indian Myth and Legend: Chapter III. Yama, the First Man, and King of the Dead |publisher=Sacred-texts.com |access-date=4 July 2013 |archive-date=23 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210423065558/https://www.sacred-texts.com/hin/iml/iml08.htm |url-status=live }} A black dog is also considered to be the ''[[vahana]]'' (vehicle) of [[Bhairava]] (an incarnation of Shiva).{{Cite web |date=23 August 2015 |title=Dogs in Hinduism |publisher=Hindu Human Rights Worldwide |url=https://www.hinduhumanrights.info/dogs-in-hinduism/ |access-date=28 February 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220228112236/https://www.hinduhumanrights.info/dogs-in-hinduism/ |url-status=live }} [302] => [303] => In [[Christianity]], dogs represent faithfulness. Within the [[Roman Catholic]] denomination specifically, the iconography of [[Saint Dominic]] includes a dog, after the saint's mother dreamt of a dog springing from her womb and becoming pregnant shortly after that.{{cite web|url=https://churchpop.com/2017/08/07/hounds-of-the-lord-the-little-known-meaning-of-the-dominican-dog/|title="Hounds of the Lord": The Little-Known Meaning of the Dominican Dog|date=7 August 2017|publisher=ChurchPOP|access-date=9 December 2017|archive-date=2 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170902173732/https://churchpop.com/2017/08/07/hounds-of-the-lord-the-little-known-meaning-of-the-dominican-dog/|url-status=live}} As such, the [[Dominican Order]] ([[Ecclesiastical Latin]]: ''Domini canis'') means "dog of the Lord" or "hound of the Lord" (Ecclesiastical Latin: ''Domini canis''). In Christian folklore, a [[church grim]] often takes the form of a black dog to guard Christian churches and their [[churchyard]]s from [[sacrilege]].{{cite book|last=Dyer|first=Thomas Firminger Thiselton|title=The Ghost World|year=1898|publisher=Ward & Downey|pages=125–126|isbn=978-1-85958-547-4 |url=https://archive.org/details/ghostworld0000this/page/125/mode/2up}} [[Jewish law]] does not prohibit keeping dogs and other pets. Jewish law requires Jews to feed dogs (and other animals that they own) before themselves and make arrangements for feeding them before obtaining them.{{Cite web |last=Citron |first=Aryeh |date= |title=Feeding Animals |url=https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1008420/jewish/Feeding-Animals.htm#:~:text=In%20fact%2C%20the%20Torah%20commands,will%20eat%20and%20be%20sated.%E2%80%9D |website=Chabad |access-date=24 March 2024 |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324082858/https://www.chabad.org/library/article_cdo/aid/1008420/jewish/Feeding-Animals.htm#:~:text=In%20fact%2C%20the%20Torah%20commands,will%20eat%20and%20be%20sated.%E2%80%9D |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Judaism, Lessons, Times {{!}} Yeshiva.co |url=https://www.yeshiva.co/?ignoreuniversal=1 |access-date=24 March 2024 |website=Yeshiva Site |language=en |archive-date=24 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240324082858/https://www.yeshiva.co/?ignoreuniversal=1 |url-status=live }} The view on dogs in [[Islam]] is mixed, with some schools of thought viewing them as unclean, although [[Khaled Abou El Fadl]] states that this view is based on "pre-Islamic Arab mythology" and "a tradition to be falsely attributed to the Prophet."{{cite encyclopedia|title=Dogs in the Islamic Tradition and Nature|author=Khaled Abou El Fadl|year=2004|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Religion and Nature|publisher=Scholar of the House|location=New York|url=http://scholarofthehouse.org/dinistrandna.html|access-date=19 November 2022|archive-date=2 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202110428/http://www.scholarofthehouse.org/dinistrandna.html|url-status=live}} The Sunni Maliki School jurists disagree with the idea that dogs are unclean.{{cite web|title=Dogs and Islam: The Devil and the Seeing-Eye Dog |url=https://www.psychologytoday.com/blog/canine-corner/201003/dogs-and-islam-the-devil-and-the-seeing-eye-dog |work=Psychology Today|last=Coren|first=Stanley|date=23 March 2010|access-date=26 May 2014}} [304] => [305] => == Terminology == [306] => * ''Dog'' – the species (or subspecies) as a whole, also any male member of the same.{{sfnp|HarperCollins|2021|loc=[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/dog "dog"]}} [307] => * ''Bitch'' – any female member of the species (or subspecies).{{sfnp|HarperCollins|2021|loc=[https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/bitch "bitch"]}} [308] => * ''[[Puppy]]'' or ''pup'' – a young member of the species (or subspecies) under 12 months old.{{cite book |last=Alderton |first=David |author-link=David Alderton |date=1987 |title=The dog: the most complete, illustrated, practical guide to dogs and their world |location=London |publisher=New Burlington Books |pages=200–203|isbn=978-0-948872-13-6}} [309] => * ''Sire'' – the male parent of a litter.{{r|Alderton}} [310] => * ''Dam'' – the female parent of a litter.{{r|Alderton}} [311] => * ''[[Litter (animal)|Litter]]'' – all of the puppies resulting from a single whelping.{{r|Alderton}} [312] => * ''Whelping'' – the act of a bitch giving birth.{{r|Alderton}} [313] => * ''Whelps'' – puppies still dependent upon their dam.{{r|Alderton}} [314] => [315] => == See also == [316] => {{Div col|colwidth=20em}} [317] => * [[Cat–dog relationship]] [318] => * [[Cynanthropy]] [319] => * [[Dognapping]] [320] => * [[Domesticated silver fox]] [321] => * [[Lists of dogs]] [322] => * [[List of individual dogs]] [323] => * [[List of oldest dogs]] [324] => {{Div col end}} [325] => [326] => == References == [327] => {{Reflist|refs= [328] => [329] => {{cite web|first1=Francisco|last1=Alvares|first2=Wieslaw|last2=Bogdanowicz|first3=Liz A.D.|last3=Campbell|first4=Rachel|last4=Godinho|first5=Jennifer|last5=Hatlauf|first6=Yadvendradev V.|last6=Jhala|author6-link=Yadvendradev Vikramsinh Jhala|first7=Andrew C.|last7=Kitchener|first8=Klaus-Peter|last8=Koepfli|first9=Miha|last9=Krofel|first10=Patricia D.|last10=Moehlman|first11=Helen|last11=Senn|first12=Claudio|last12=Sillero-Zubiri|author12-link=Claudio Sillero-Zubiri|first13=Suvi|last13=Viranta|first14=Geraldine|last14=Werhahn|year=2019|website=IUCN/SSC Canid Specialist Group|url=https://www.canids.org/CBC/Old_World_Canis_Taxonomy_Workshop.pdf|title=Old World ''Canis'' spp. with taxonomic ambiguity: Workshop conclusions and recommendations. 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David |title=Wolves: Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |location=Chicago |year=2003 |pages=482 |isbn=978-0-226-51696-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zhwfmQEACAAJ |oclc=904338888}} [396] => * {{cite book |last1=Coppinger |first1=Raymond |author-link1=Raymond Coppinger |last2=Schneider |first2=Richard |chapter=Evolution of working dogs |date=1995 |editor-last=Serpell |editor-first=James |title=The domestic dog: its evolution, behaviour, and interactions with people |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42537-7}} [397] => * {{cite book |last=Cunliffe |first=Juliette |date=2004 |title=The encyclopedia of dog breeds |location=Bath |publisher=Paragon Books |isbn=978-0-7525-8018-0}} [398] => * {{cite book |last=Fogle |first=Bruce |author-link=Bruce Fogle|date=2009 |title=The encyclopedia of the dog |location=New York |publisher=DK Publishing |isbn=978-0-7566-6004-8 }} [399] => * {{cite web |author=HarperCollins |title=Collins Dictionary |date=2021 |url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/ |publisher=HarperCollins Publishers L.L.C. }} [400] => * {{cite book |last1=Jones|first1=Arthur F. |last2=Hamilton |first2=Ferelith |date=1971 |title=The world encyclopedia of dogs |location=New York |publisher=Galahad Books |isbn=978-0-88365-302-9 }} [401] => * {{cite book|author=Miklósi, Adám |title=Dog Behaviour, Evolution, and Cognition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KnVEIrVNGhIC|year=2007|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-929585-2|doi=10.1093/acprof:oso/9780199295852.001.0001}} [402] => * {{cite book|title=The Dingo Debate: Origins, Behaviour and Conservation|publisher=CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, Australia|editor-last=Smith|editor-first=Bradley|year=2015|isbn=978-1-4863-0030-3|url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=j6omCgAAQBAJ}}}} [403] => * {{cite book|last1=Wang|first1=Xiaoming|author-link1=Xiaoming Wang (paleontologist)|last2=Tedford|first2=Richard H.|author-link2=Richard H. Tedford|title=Dogs: Their Fossil Relatives and Evolutionary History|publisher=[[Columbia University Press]], New York|year=2008|pages=1–232|isbn=978-0-231-13529-0|oclc=502410693|url={{Google books|plainurl=yes|id=LnWdpK7ctI0C|page=}}}} [404] => [405] => == External links == [406] => {{Sister project links|wikt=dog|auto=1|n=yes|s=1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Dog}} [407] => * [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/name/Canis_lupus_familiaris Biodiversity Heritage Library bibliography] for ''Canis lupus familiaris'' [408] => * [http://www.fci.be/ Fédération Cynologique Internationale (FCI) – World Canine Organisation] [409] => * [https://www.worldhistory.org/article/184/dogs-in-the-ancient-world/ Dogs in the Ancient World], an article on the history of dogs [410] => * View the [http://www.ensembl.org/Canis_familiaris/Info/Index dog genome] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131213145734/http://www.ensembl.org/Canis_familiaris/Info/Index |date=13 December 2013 }} on [[Ensembl]] [411] => * [https://genome.ucsc.edu/cgi-bin/hgTracks?db=canFam4&lastVirtModeType=default&lastVirtModeExtraState=&virtModeType=default&virtMode=0&nonVirtPosition=&position=chr14%3A4739511%2D11213510&hgsid=1430153621_Itf5zwuMWjkMYyVclRNzVMNAp83j Genome of ''Canis lupus familiaris'' (version UU_Cfam_GSD_1.0/canFam4)], via [[UCSC Genome Browser]] [412] => * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/genome/85 Data of the genome of ''Canis lupus familiaris''], via [[NCBI]] [413] => * [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/assembly/GCF_011100685.1/ Data of the genome assembly of ''Canis lupus familiaris'' (version UU_Cfam_GSD_1.0/canFam4)], via [[NCBI]] [414] => [415] => {{Dog nav}} [416] => {{Carnivora|Ca.}} [417] => {{Grey wolf subspecies}} [418] => {{Animal actors}} [419] => {{Portal bar|Animal|Mammal}} [420] => {{Taxonbar|from=Q26972265|from2=Q20717272}} [421] => {{Authority control}} [422] => [423] => [[Category:Dogs| ]] [424] => [[Category:Wolves]] [425] => [[Category:Scavengers]] [426] => [[Category:Cosmopolitan mammals]] [427] => [[Category:Animal models]] [428] => [[Category:Extant Late Pleistocene first appearances]] [429] => [[Category:Mammals described in 1758]] [430] => [[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]] [431] => [[Category:English words]] [] => )
good wiki

Dog

The Wikipedia page on dogs provides a comprehensive overview of the domestic dog, a highly popular and beloved companion animal. The page begins by discussing the history of dog domestication, tracing it back to ancient times when dogs were first domesticated from wolves.

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The page begins by discussing the history of dog domestication, tracing it back to ancient times when dogs were first domesticated from wolves. The page covers the different breeds of dogs, their classifications, and the various purposes for which they have been bred, such as herding, hunting, and companionship. The article explains the anatomy and physical characteristics of dogs, including their senses, locomotion, and reproductive system. It also delves into their behavior and intelligence, highlighting their ability to understand human commands and emotions. The section on communication sheds light on how dogs utilize body language and vocalizations to convey their intentions and emotions. The Wikipedia page delves into the role of dogs in human society, covering their varied uses and roles throughout history. It discusses their work as search and rescue dogs, therapy dogs, police and military dogs, and guide dogs for the visually impaired. The section also touches upon the cultural significance of dogs, their role in art, literature, and religious ceremonies. The page acknowledges the ongoing debate surrounding the ethical considerations of dog breeding, pet ownership, and the treatment of dogs in different countries. It also covers various health issues, diseases, and medical concerns that can affect dogs, as well as the importance of regular veterinary care and responsible pet ownership. Furthermore, the Wikipedia page provides information on dog training, grooming, and diet, as well as the importance of exercise and socialization for a dog's overall well-being. It also includes sections on dog shows and competitions, where dogs are judged for their adherence to breed standards and their abilities in specific activities. In conclusion, the Wikipedia page on dogs offers an extensive and detailed overview of the domestic dog, covering its history, breeds, behavior, role in society, health concerns, and care. It serves as a valuable resource for individuals interested in learning more about our loyal and beloved four-legged companions.

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