Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Seed-bearing part of a flowering plant}} [1] => {{Other uses}} [2] => {{Pp-semiprotected|small=yes}} [3] => {{Pp-move-indef}} [4] => [[File:Municipal Market of São Paulo city.jpg|upright=2|thumb|Various fruits arranged at a stall at the [[Municipal Market of São Paulo]]|alt=see caption]] [5] => [[File:Blackberryraspberrystrawberry.jpg|thumb|Fresh fruit mix of [[Blackberry|blackberries]], [[Strawberry|strawberries]], and [[Raspberry|raspberries]]]] [6] => In [[botany]], a '''fruit''' is the [[seed]]-bearing structure in [[flowering plant]]s that is formed from the [[Ovary (plants)|ovary]] after [[flower|flowering]] (see [[Fruit anatomy]]). [7] => [8] => Fruits are the means by which flowering plants (also known as [[angiosperm]]s) disseminate their [[seed]]s. Edible fruits in particular have long propagated using the movements of humans and other animals in a [[Symbiosis|symbiotic relationship]] that is the means for [[seed dispersal]] for the one group and [[nutrition]] for the other; humans and many other animals have become dependent on fruits as a source of food.{{cite book |last=Lewis |first=Robert A. |title=CRC Dictionary of Agricultural Sciences |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwRUZK0WTWAC&q=fruit&pg=PA375 |year=2002 |publisher=[[CRC Press]] |isbn=978-0-8493-2327-0 |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053317/https://books.google.com/books?id=TwRUZK0WTWAC&q=fruit&pg=PA375#v=snippet&q=fruit&f=false |url-status=live }} Consequently, fruits account for a substantial fraction of the world's [[agriculture|agricultural]] output, and some (such as the [[apple]] and the [[pomegranate]]) have acquired extensive cultural and symbolic meanings. [9] => [10] => In common language usage, ''fruit'' normally means the seed-associated fleshy structures (or produce) of plants that typically are sweet or sour and edible in the raw state, such as apples, bananas, grapes, lemons, oranges, and strawberries. In botanical usage, the term ''fruit'' also includes many structures that are not commonly called 'fruits' in everyday language, such as nuts, bean pods, corn kernels, tomatoes, and wheat grains.{{cite book |last=Schlegel |first=Rolf H J |title=Encyclopedic Dictionary of Plant Breeding and Related Subjects |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7J-3fD67RqwC&q=acarpous&pg=PA177 |year=2003 |publisher=Haworth Press |isbn=978-1-56022-950-6 |page=177 |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053311/https://books.google.com/books?id=7J-3fD67RqwC&q=acarpous&pg=PA177 |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last=Mauseth |first=James D. |title=Botany: An Introduction to Plant Biology |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0DfYJsVRmUcC&pg=PA271 |year=2003 |publisher=Jones and Bartlett |isbn=978-0-7637-2134-3 |pages=271–72 |access-date=2020-05-09 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053426/https://books.google.com/books?id=0DfYJsVRmUcC&pg=PA271#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} [11] => [12] => == Botanical vs. culinary == [13] => {{Also|Vegetable#Terminology}} [14] => [[File:FruitArrangement.jpg|thumb|An arrangement of fruits commonly thought of as culinary vegetables, including [[maize|corn (maize)]], [[tomato]]es, and various [[Squash (fruit)|squash]]]] [15] => [16] => Many common language terms used for fruit and seeds differ from botanical classifications. For example, in botany, a ''fruit'' is a ripened [[ovary (botany)|ovary]] or [[carpel]] that contains seeds, e.g., an orange, pomegranate, tomato or a pumpkin. A ''[[Nut (fruit)|nut]]'' is a type of fruit (and not a seed), and a ''seed'' is a ripened [[ovule]]. [17] => [18] => In culinary language, a [[List of culinary fruits|''fruit'']] is the sweet- or not sweet- (even sour-) tasting produce of a specific plant (e.g., a peach, pear or lemon); ''nuts'' are hard, oily, non-sweet plant produce in shells ([[hazelnut]], [[acorn]]). ''[[Vegetables]]'', so-called, typically are [[Umami|savory]] or non-sweet produce ([[zucchini]], lettuce, broccoli, and tomato). but some may be sweet-tasting (sweet potato).For a [[Supreme Court of the United States]] ruling on the matter, see ''[[Nix v. Hedden]]''. [19] => [20] => Examples of botanically classified fruit that are typically called vegetables include [[cucumber]], [[pumpkin]], and [[Squash (plant)|squash]] (all are [[cucurbits]]); [[bean]]s, [[peanut]]s, and [[pea]]s (all [[legumes]]); and [[maize|corn]], [[eggplant]], [[bell pepper]] (or sweet pepper), and tomato. The spices [[chili pepper]] and [[allspice]] are fruits, botanically speaking.{{cite book |last=McGee |first=Harold |author-link=Harold McGee |title=On Food and Cooking: The Science and Lore of the Kitchen |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C&q=On+Food+And+Cooking&pg=PA247 |year=2004 |publisher=[[Simon & Schuster]] |isbn=978-0-684-80001-1 |pages=247–48 |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053312/https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C&q=On+Food+And+Cooking&pg=PA247#v=snippet&q=On%20Food%20And%20Cooking&f=false |url-status=live }} In contrast, [[rhubarb]] is often called a fruit when used in making [[pies]], but the edible produce of rhubarb is actually the leaf stalk or [[petiole (botany)|petiole]] of the plant.{{cite book |last=McGee |title=On Food and Cooking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C&q=On+Food+And+Cooking&pg=PA367 |page=367 |isbn=978-0-684-80001-1 |year=2004 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053419/https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C&q=On+Food+And+Cooking&pg=PA367#v=snippet&q=On%20Food%20And%20Cooking&f=false |url-status=live }} Edible [[gymnosperm]] seeds are often given fruit names, e.g., [[Ginkgo biloba|ginkgo]] nuts and [[pine nut]]s. [21] => [22] => Botanically, a [[cereal]] grain, such as [[maize|corn]], [[rice]], or [[wheat]] is a kind of fruit (termed a [[caryopsis]]). However, the fruit wall is thin and fused to the seed coat, so almost all the edible grain-fruit is actually a seed.{{cite book |last=Lewis |title=CRC Dictionary of Agricultural Sciences |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TwRUZK0WTWAC&q=fruit&pg=PA238 |page=238 |isbn=978-0-8493-2327-0 |year=2002 |publisher=CRC Press |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053313/https://books.google.com/books?id=TwRUZK0WTWAC&q=fruit&pg=PA238#v=snippet&q=fruit&f=false |url-status=live }} [23] => [24] => == Structure == [25] => {{Main|Fruit anatomy}} [26] => [[File:Pomegranate fruit - whole and piece with arils.jpg|thumb|Pomegranate fruit – whole and piece with arils]] [27] => The outer layer, often edible, of most fruits is called the ''pericarp''. Typically formed from the ovary, it surrounds the seeds; in some species, however, other structural tissues contribute to or form the edible portion. The pericarp may be described in three layers from outer to inner, i.e., the ''epicarp'', ''mesocarp'' and ''endocarp''. [28] => [29] => Fruit that bears a prominent pointed terminal projection is said to be ''beaked''.{{cite web|url=https://florabase.dpaw.wa.gov.au/help/glossary#B|title=Glossary of Botanical Terms|work=FloraBase|publisher=Western Australian Herbarium|access-date=23 July 2014|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141008190434/https://florabase.dpaw.wa.gov.au/help/glossary#B|archive-date=8 October 2014}} [30] => [31] => == Development == [32] => A fruit results from the fertilizing and maturing of one or more flowers. The [[gynoecium]], which contains the ''[[stigma (botany)#Description|stigma-style-ovary]]'' system, is centered in the flower-head, and it forms all or part of the fruit.Esau, K. 1977. ''Anatomy of seed plants''. John Wiley and Sons, New York. Inside the [[ovary (botany)|ovary(ies)]] are one or more [[ovule]]s. Here begins a complex sequence called ''[[double fertilization]]'': a female [[double fertilization|gametophyte]] produces an egg cell for the purpose of fertilization.[http://www.palaeos.com/Plants/Lists/Glossary/GlossaryL.html#M] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101220200017/http://www.palaeos.com/Plants/Lists/Glossary/GlossaryL.html#M|date=December 20, 2010}} (A female gametophyte is called a ''[[double fertilization#Megagametophyte|megagametophyte]]'', and also called the ''[[embryo sac]]''.) After double fertilization, the ovules will become seeds. [33] => [34] => Ovules are fertilized in a process that starts with [[pollination]], which is the movement of pollen from the stamens to the stigma-style-ovary system within the flower-head. After pollination, a [[pollen tube]] grows from the (deposited) pollen through the stigma down the style into the ovary to the ovule. Two sperm are transferred from the pollen to a megagametophyte. Within the megagametophyte, one sperm unites with the egg, forming a [[zygote]], while the second sperm enters the central cell forming the endosperm mother cell, which completes the double fertilization process.{{cite book |author=Mauseth, James D. |title=Botany: an introduction to plant biology |year=2003 |publisher=Jones and Bartlett Publishers |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-7637-2134-3 |page=258}}{{cite book |author1=Rost, Thomas L. |author2=Weier, T. Elliot |author3=Weier, Thomas Elliot |title=Botany: a brief introduction to plant biology |year=1979 |publisher=Wiley |location=New York |isbn=978-0-471-02114-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/botanybriefintro00rost/page/135 135–37] |url=https://archive.org/details/botanybriefintro00rost/page/135 }} Later, the zygote will give rise to the embryo of the seed, and the endosperm mother cell will give rise to [[endosperm]], a nutritive tissue used by the embryo. [35] => [36] => As the ovules develop into seeds, the ovary begins to ripen and the ovary wall, the ''pericarp'', may become fleshy (as in berries or [[drupe]]s), or it may form a hard outer covering (as in nuts). In some multi-seeded fruits, the extent to which a fleshy structure develops is proportional to the number of fertilized ovules.{{cite book |last=Mauseth |title=Botany |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0DfYJsVRmUcC&pg=PP14 |pages=Chapter 9: Flowers and Reproduction |no-pp=true |isbn=978-0-7637-2134-3 |year=2003 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning |access-date=2020-05-09 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053426/https://books.google.com/books?id=0DfYJsVRmUcC&pg=PP14#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} The pericarp typically is differentiated into two or three distinct layers; these are called the ''exocarp'' (outer layer, also called epicarp), ''mesocarp'' (middle layer), and ''endocarp'' (inner layer). [37] => [38] => In some fruits, the [[sepal]]s, [[petal]]s, [[stamen]]s and/or [[Gynoecium|the style]] of the flower fall away as the fleshy fruit ripens. However, for simple fruits derived from an ''[[inferior ovary#Classification based on position|inferior ovary]]'' – i.e., one that lies {{em|below}} the attachment of other floral parts – there are parts (including petals, sepals, and stamens) that fuse with the ovary and ripen with it. For such a case, when floral parts other than the ovary form a significant part of the fruit that develops, it is called an [[#accessory fruit|accessory fruit]]. Examples of accessory fruits include apple, rose hip, strawberry, and pineapple. [39] => [40] => Because several parts of the flower besides the ovary may contribute to the structure of a fruit, it is important to understand how a particular fruit forms. There are three general modes of fruit development: [41] => [42] => * [[gynoecium#Types|Apocarpous]] fruits develop from a ''single flower'' (while having one or more separate, unfused, carpels); they are the [[#Simple fruit|simple fruits]]. [43] => * [[gynoecium#Types|Syncarpous]] fruits develop from a ''single [[gynoecium]]'' (having two or more carpels fused together). [44] => * [[#Multiple fruits|Multiple fruits]] form from many flowers – i.e., an inflorescence of flowers. [45] => [46] => [47] => File:Nectarine Fruit Development.jpg|The development sequence of a typical [[drupe]], the [[nectarine]] (''Prunus persica'') over a 7.5-month period, from bud formation in early winter to fruit [[ripening]] in midsummer [48] => File:Mature flower diagram.svg|right|The parts of a flower, showing the stigma-style-ovary system. [49] => File:Pome apples text.jpg|An apple is a simple, fleshy fruit. Key parts are the epicarp, or exocarp, or outer skin (not labelled); and the mesocarp and endocarp (labelled). [50] => image:Ovary position.svg|right|upright 1.5|Insertion point: There are three positions of insertion of the ovary at the base of a flower: I superior; II half-inferior; III inferior. The 'insertion point' is where the [[androecium]] parts (a), the petals (p), and the sepals (s) all converge and attach to the receptacle (r). (Ovary=gynoecium (g).) [51] => File:Noni fruit dev.jpg|upright 1.5|In the [[noni]], flowers are produced in time-sequence along the stem. It is possible to see a progression of flowering, fruit development, and fruit ripening. [52] => Tweelinggroei appels.jpg|Twin apples. [53] => [54] => [55] => ==Classification of fruits== [56] => [[File:DewberriesWeb.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dewberry]] flowers. Note the multiple [[pistil]]s, each of which will produce a [[drupe]]let. Each flower will become a blackberry-like [[aggregate fruit]].]] [57] => [[File:Rubus caesius fruit - Keila.jpg|thumb|upright|Dewberry fruit]] [58] => [59] => Consistent with the three modes of fruit development, plant scientists have classified fruits into three main groups: simple fruits, aggregate fruits, and multiple (or composite) fruits.{{cite book |last1= Singh |first1= Gurcharan |title= Plants Systematics: An Integrated Approach |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=In_Lv8iMt24C&pg=PA83 |year= 2004 |publisher= Science Publishers |isbn= 978-1-57808-351-0 |page= 83 |access-date= 2020-05-09 |archive-date= 2024-01-30 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053419/https://books.google.com/books?id=In_Lv8iMt24C&pg=PA83#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status= live }} The groupings reflect how the ovary and other flower organs are arranged and how the fruits develop, but they are not evolutionarily relevant as diverse plant [[taxa]] may be in the same group. [60] => [61] => While the section of a [[fungus]] that produces [[spore]]s is called a ''fruiting'' body,{{cite web|title=Sporophore from Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/560984/sporophore|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110222204440/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/560984/sporophore|archive-date=2011-02-22}} fungi are members of the [[Fungi|fungi kingdom]] and not of the [[Plantae|plant kingdom]]. [62] => [63] => === Simple fruits === [64] => [[Image:Milkweed-in-seed.jpg|thumb|right|upright 1.02|A dry simple fruit: milkweed (''[[Asclepias syriaca]]''); dehiscence of the [[Follicle (fruit)|follicular]] fruit reveals seeds within.]] [65] => Simple fruits are the result of the ripening-to-fruit of a simple or compound ovary in a ''single flower'' with a ''single [[Carpel|pistil]]''. In contrast, a single flower with numerous pistils typically produces an [[#Aggregate fruit|aggregate fruit]]; and the merging of several flowers, or a 'multiple' of flowers, results in a 'multiple' fruit.{{cite book |last=Schlegel |title=Encyclopedic Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7J-3fD67RqwC&q=acarpous&pg=PA16 |page=16 |isbn=978-1-56022-950-6 |year=2003 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053820/https://books.google.com/books?id=7J-3fD67RqwC&q=acarpous&pg=PA16 |url-status=live }} A simple fruit is further classified as either dry or fleshy. [66] => [67] => To distribute their seeds, dry fruits may split open and discharge their seeds to the winds, which is called [[dehiscence (botany)|dehiscence]].{{cite book |last=Schlegel |title=Encyclopedic Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7J-3fD67RqwC&q=acarpous&pg=PA123 |page=123 |isbn=978-1-56022-950-6 |year=2003 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053820/https://books.google.com/books?id=7J-3fD67RqwC&q=acarpous&pg=PA123 |url-status=live }} Or the distribution process may rely upon the decay and degradation of the fruit to expose the seeds; or it may rely upon the eating of fruit and excreting of seeds by [[frugivores]] – both are called [[dehiscence (botany)|indehiscence]]. Fleshy fruits do not split open, but they also are indehiscent and they may also rely on frugivores for distribution of their seeds. Typically, the entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible [[pericarp]]. [68] => [69] => Types of dry simple fruits, (with examples) include: [70] => * [[Achene]] – most commonly seen in aggregate fruits (e.g., [[strawberry]], see below). [71] => * [[Capsule (fruit)|Capsule]] – ([[Brazil nut]]: botanically, it is not a nut). [72] => * [[Caryopsis]] – (cereal grains, including [[wheat]], [[rice]], [[oats]], [[barley]]). [73] => * [[Achene|Cypsela]] – an achene-like fruit derived from the individual florets in a [[Head (botany)|capitulum]]: ([[dandelion]]). [74] => * [[Drupe|Fibrous drupe]] – ([[coconut]], [[walnut]]: botanically, neither is a true nut.). [75] => * [[Follicle (fruit)|Follicle]] – follicles are formed from a single carpel, and opens by one suture: ([[milkweed]]); also commonly seen in aggregate fruits: ([[magnolia]], [[peony]]). [76] => * [[Legume]] – ([[bean]], [[pea]], [[peanut]]: botanically, the peanut is the seed of a legume, not a nut). [77] => * [[Loment]] – a type of [[indehiscent]] legume: ([[Hedysarum|sweet vetch or wild potato]]). [78] => * [[Nut (fruit)|Nut]] – ([[beech#Description|beechnut]], [[hazelnut]], [[acorn]] (of the [[oak]]): botanically, these are true nuts). [79] => * [[Samara (fruit)|Samara]] – ([[Ash tree|ash]], [[elm]], [[maple|maple key]]). [80] => * [[Schizocarp]], see below – ([[carrot#Description|carrot seed]]). [81] => * [[Silique]] – ([[radish]] seed). [82] => * Silicle – ([[shepherd's purse]]). [83] => * [[Utricle (fruit)|Utricle]] – ([[beet]], ''[[Rumex]]''). [84] => [85] => Fruits in which part or all of the [[Fruit anatomy#Pericarp layers|''pericarp'' (fruit wall)]] is fleshy at maturity are termed ''fleshy simple fruits''. [86] => [87] => Types of fleshy simple fruits, (with examples) include: [88] => * [[Berry (botany)|Berry]] – the berry is the most common type of fleshy fruit. The entire outer layer of the ovary wall ripens into a potentially edible "pericarp", (see below). [89] => * [[Stone fruit]] or drupe – the definitive characteristic of a drupe is the hard, "lignified" stone (sometimes called the "pit"). It is derived from the ovary wall of the flower: [[apricot]], [[cherry]], [[olive]], [[peach]], [[plum]], [[mango]]. [90] => * [[Pome]] – the pome fruits: [[apple]]s, [[pear]]s, [[rosehip]]s, [[saskatoon berry]], etc., are a [[syncarpous#Types|syncarpous]] (fused) fleshy fruit, a simple fruit, developing from a half-inferior ovary.{{cite book |title= Evolutionary trends in flowering plants |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=c11HBwElG-4C&pg=PA209 |year= 1991 |publisher= Columbia University Press |location= New York |isbn= 978-0-231-07328-8 |page= 209 |access-date= 2020-05-09 |archive-date= 2024-01-30 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053820/https://books.google.com/books?id=c11HBwElG-4C&pg=PA209#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status= live }} Pomes are of the family [[Rosaceae]]. [91] => [92] => ==== Berries ==== [93] => {{Main|Berry (botany)|Berry}} [94] => [[File:Bananavarieties.jpg|thumb|Fruits of four different [[List of banana cultivars|banana cultivars]] (Bananas are berries.)]] [95] => [[File:Strawberry surface close up macro.jpg|thumb|Strawberry, showing achenes attached to surface. Botanically, strawberries are not berries; they are classified as an [[aggregate fruit|aggregate]] [[accessory fruit]].]] [96] => [[File:Magnolia wieseneri - labelled gynoecium.jpg|thumb|Flower of [[Magnolia × wieseneri|''Magnolia'' × ''wieseneri'']] showing the many pistils making up the [[gynoecium]] in the middle of the flower. The fruit of this flower is an aggregation of follicles.]] [97] => [98] => Berries are a type of simple fleshy fruit that issue from a single ovary.{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1qwuBXeczzgC&q=berry+type+of+fleshy+fruit+are+simple+fruit+created+from+single+ovary&pg=PT56|title=Handbook of Fruits and Fruit Processing|last1=Sinha|first1=Nirmal|last2=Sidhu|first2=Jiwan|last3=Barta|first3=Jozsef|last4=Wu|first4=James|last5=Cano|first5=M. Pilar|year=2012|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-118-35263-2|access-date=2020-10-06|archive-date=2024-01-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053821/https://books.google.com/books?id=1qwuBXeczzgC&q=berry+type+of+fleshy+fruit+are+simple+fruit+created+from+single+ovary&pg=PT56#v=snippet&q=berry%20type%20of%20fleshy%20fruit%20are%20simple%20fruit%20created%20from%20single%20ovary&f=false|url-status=live}} (The ovary itself may be compound, with several carpels.) The botanical term ''true berry'' includes grapes, currants, cucumbers, eggplants (aubergines), tomatoes, chili peppers, and bananas, but excludes certain fruits that are called "-berry" by culinary custom or by common usage of the term – such as strawberries and raspberries. Berries may be formed from one or more carpels (i.e., from the simple or compound ovary) from the same, single flower. Seeds typically are embedded in the fleshy interior of the ovary. [99] => [100] => Examples include: [101] => * [[Tomato]] – in culinary terms, the tomato is regarded as a vegetable, but it is botanically classified as a fruit and a berry.{{cite web |author1=Mark Abadi |title=A tomato is actually a fruit — but it's a vegetable at the same time |url=https://www.businessinsider.com/tomato-fruit-or-vegetable-2018-5 |publisher=Business Insider |access-date=21 November 2019 |date=26 May 2018 |archive-date=15 February 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215004602/https://www.businessinsider.com/tomato-fruit-or-vegetable-2018-5 |url-status=live }} [102] => * [[Banana]] – the fruit has been described as a "leathery berry".Smith, James P. (1977). Vascular Plant Families. Eureka, Calif.: Mad River Press. ISBN 978-0-916422-07-3. In cultivated varieties, the seeds are diminished nearly to non-existence. [103] => * [[Pepo (botany)|Pepo]] – berries with skin that is hardened: [[Cucurbitaceae|cucurbits]], including gourds, squash, melons. [104] => * [[Hesperidium]] – berries with a rind and a juicy interior: most [[citrus]] fruit. [105] => * [[Cranberry]], [[gooseberry]], [[redcurrant]], [[grape]]. [106] => [107] => The strawberry, regardless of its appearance, is classified as a dry, not a fleshy fruit. Botanically, it is not a [[berry (botany)#Accessory fruits|berry]]; it is an [[accessory fruit|aggregate-accessory]] fruit, the latter term meaning the fleshy part is derived not from the plant's ovaries but from the [[Receptacle (botany)|receptacle]] that holds the [[Ovary (botany)|ovaries]].Esau, K. (1977). ''Anatomy of seed plants''. John Wiley and Sons, New York. {{ISBN|0-471-24520-8}} Numerous dry [[achene]]s are attached to the outside of the fruit-flesh; they appear to be seeds but each is actually an ovary of a flower, with a seed inside. [108] => [109] => [[Schizocarp]]s are dry fruits, though some appear to be fleshy. They originate from syncarpous ovaries but do not actually [[dehiscence (botany)|dehisce]]; rather, they split into segments with one or more seeds. They include a number of different forms from a wide range of families, including [[carrot]], [[parsnip]], [[parsley]], [[cumin]]. [110] => [111] => === Aggregate fruits === [112] => {{Main|Aggregate fruit}} [113] => [[File:Longitudinal section of raspberry flower.gif|upright 1.5|thumb|Detail of the raspberry flower: there is a clustering of pistils at the center of the flower. (A pistil consists of stigma, style, and ovary.) The [[stigma (botany)|stigma]] is the apical (at the apex) nodule that receives pollen; the [[Style (botany)|style]] is the stem-like column that extends down to the [[ovary (botany)|ovary]], which is the basal part that contains the seed-forming [[ovule]].]] [114] => [[File:Lilyfruit.jpg|upright 1.02|thumb|''[[Lilium]]'' unripe capsule fruit; an aggregate fruit.]] [115] => An aggregate fruit is also called an aggregation, or ''[[etaerio]]''; it develops from a single flower that presents numerous simple [[pistil]]s. Each pistil contains one [[carpel]]; together, they form a fruitlet. The ultimate (fruiting) development of the aggregation of pistils is called an ''aggregate fruit'', ''etaerio fruit'', or simply an ''etaerio''. [116] => [117] => Different types of aggregate fruits can produce different etaerios, such as achenes, drupelets, follicles, and berries. [118] => [119] => * For example, the Ranunculaceae species, including ''[[Clematis]]'' and ''[[Ranunculus]]'', produces an etaerio of [[achene]]s; [120] => * ''[[Rubus]]'' species, including raspberry: an etaerio of [[drupelet]]s; [121] => * ''[[Calotropis]]'' species: an etaerio of [[Follicle (fruit)|follicle]]s fruit; [122] => * ''[[Annona]]'' species: an etaerio of [[berries]].{{cite book|title=Genetics Classical To Modern|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uIfSEdff6YgC&pg=RA1-PA2134|author=Gupta, Prof. P.K.|publisher=Rastogi Publication|pages=2–134|isbn=978-81-7133-896-2|year=2007|access-date=2015-11-28|archive-date=2024-01-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053940/https://books.google.com/books?id=uIfSEdff6YgC&pg=RA1-PA2134#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|url=http://www.rkv.rgukt.in/content/Biology/47Module/47fruit.pdf|title=Rgukt.in|website=www.rkv.rgukt.in}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [123] => [124] => Some other broadly recognized species and their etaerios (or aggregations) are: [125] => * [[Teasel]]; fruit is an aggregation of [[cypsela (botany)|cypsela]]s. [126] => * [[tuliptree#Description|Tuliptree]]; fruit is an aggregation of [[samara (fruit)|samaras]]. [127] => * [[Magnolia]] and [[peony#Morphology|peony]]; fruit is an aggregation of follicles. [128] => * [[liquidambar#Species|American sweet gum]]; fruit is an aggregation of capsules. [129] => * [[Platanus occidentalis#Description|Sycamore]]; fruit is an aggregation of achenes. [130] => [131] => The pistils of the [[raspberry]] are called ''drupelets'' because each pistil is like a small [[drupe]] attached to the receptacle. In some [[bramble]] fruits, such as [[blackberry]], the receptacle, an accessory part, elongates and then develops as part of the fruit, making the blackberry an [[#Accessory fruit|aggregate-accessory]] fruit.{{cite book |last=McGee |title=On Food and Cooking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C&q=On+Food+And+Cooking&pg=PA361 |pages=361–62 |isbn=978-0-684-80001-1 |year=2004 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053822/https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C&q=On+Food+And+Cooking&pg=PA361#v=snippet&q=On%20Food%20And%20Cooking&f=false |url-status=live }} The strawberry is also an aggregate-accessory fruit, of which the seeds are contained in the [[achene]]s.{{cite book |last=McGee |title=On Food and Cooking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C&q=On+Food+And+Cooking&pg=PA364 |pages=364–65 |isbn=978-0-684-80001-1 |year=2004 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053947/https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C&q=On+Food+And+Cooking&pg=PA364#v=snippet&q=On%20Food%20And%20Cooking&f=false |url-status=live }} Notably in all these examples, the fruit develops from a single flower, with numerous pistils. [132] => [133] => === Multiple fruits === [134] => {{Main|Multiple fruit}} [135] => A multiple fruit is formed from a cluster of flowers, (a 'multiple' of flowers) – also called an ''[[inflorescence]]''. Each ('smallish') flower produces a single fruitlet, which, as all develop, all merge into one mass of fruit.{{cite book |last=Schlegel |title=Encyclopedic Dictionary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7J-3fD67RqwC&q=acarpous&pg=PA282 |page=282 |isbn=978-1-56022-950-6 |year=2003 |publisher=Taylor & Francis |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130053823/https://books.google.com/books?id=7J-3fD67RqwC&q=acarpous&pg=PA282 |url-status=live }} Examples include [[pineapple]], [[ficus|fig]], [[mulberry]], [[Osage orange]], and [[breadfruit]]. An inflorescence (a cluster) of white flowers, called a head, is produced first. After [[Fertilization#Fertilisation in plants|fertilization]], each flower in the cluster develops into a drupe; as the drupes expand, they develop as a ''[[connation|connate]]'' organ, merging into a multiple fleshy fruit called a ''syncarp''. [136] => [137] => Progressive stages of multiple flowering and fruit development can be observed on a single branch of the Indian mulberry, or ''[[noni]]''. During the sequence of development, a progression of second, third, and more inflorescences are initiated in turn at the head of the branch or stem. [138] => [139] => === Accessory fruit forms === [140] => {{Main|Accessory fruit}} [141] => Fruits may incorporate tissues derived from other floral parts besides the ovary, including the receptacle, hypanthium, petals, or sepals. Accessory fruits occur in all three classes of fruit development – simple, aggregate, and multiple. Accessory fruits are frequently designated by the hyphenated term showing both characters. For example, a pineapple is a multiple-accessory fruit, a blackberry is an aggregate-accessory fruit, and an apple is a simple-accessory fruit. [142] => [143] => === Table of fleshy fruit examples === [144] => {| class="wikitable" [145] => |+ Types of fleshy fruits [146] => ! Type [147] => ! Examples [148] => |- [149] => | Simple fleshy fruit [150] => | [[Berry|True berry]], [[stone fruit]], [[pome]] [151] => |- [152] => | Aggregate fruit [153] => | [[Boysenberry]], [[lilium]], [[magnolia]], [[raspberry]], [[asimina|pawpaw]], [[blackberry]], [[strawberry]] [154] => |- [155] => | Multiple fruit [156] => | [[ficus|Fig]], [[osage orange]], [[mulberry]], [[pineapple]] [157] => |- [158] => | True berry [159] => | [[Banana]], [[blackcurrant]], [[blueberry]], [[chili pepper]], [[cranberry]], [[eggplant]], [[gooseberry]], [[grape]], [[guava]], [[kiwifruit]], [[lucuma]], [[pomegranate]], [[redcurrant]], [[tomato]], [[watermelon]] [160] => |- [161] => | True berry: Pepo [162] => | [[Cucumber]], [[gourd]], [[melon]], [[pumpkin]] [163] => |- [164] => | True berry: Hesperidium [165] => | [[Grapefruit]], [[lemon]], [[Lime (fruit)|lime]], [[Orange (fruit)|orange]] [166] => |- [167] => | Accessory fruit [168] => | [[Apple]], [[rose hip]], [[prunus|stone fruit]], pineapple, blackberry, strawberry [169] => |} [170] => [171] => == Seedless fruits == [172] => [[File:Pineapple and cross section.jpg|thumb|right|The fruit of a pineapple includes tissue from the [[sepal]]s as well as the [[pistil]]s of many flowers. It is a [[#Accessory fruit|multiple-accessory fruit]].]] [173] => Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial [[cultivar]]s of bananas and pineapples are examples of [[seedless fruit]]s. Some cultivars of [[citrus]] fruits (especially [[grapefruit]], [[mandarin orange]]s, [[navel orange]]s), [[Mikan|satsumas]], [[table grape]]s, and of [[watermelon]]s are valued for their seedlessness. In some species, seedlessness is the result of ''[[parthenocarpy]]'', where fruits set without fertilization. Parthenocarpic fruit-set may (or may not) require pollination, but most seedless citrus fruits require a stimulus from pollination to produce fruit.{{cite book |last1=Agusti |first1=Manuel |last2=Primo-Millo |first2=Eduardo |date=2020 |title=The Genus Citrus |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128121634000115 |publisher=Woodhead Publishing |pages=219–244 |isbn=978-0-12-812163-4 |access-date=2021-10-28 |archive-date=2021-10-28 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211028010214/https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780128121634000115 |url-status=live }} Seedless bananas and grapes are [[triploid]]s, and seedlessness results from the abortion of the [[embryo]]nic plant that is produced by fertilization, a phenomenon known as ''[[stenospermocarpy]]'', which requires normal pollination and fertilization.{{cite book |last=Spiegel-Roy |first=P. |author2=E.E. Goldschmidt |title=The Biology of Citrus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SmRJnd73dbYC&q=parthenocarpy&pg=PA87 |year=1996 |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-0-521-33321-4 |pages=87–88 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [174] => [175] => == Seed dissemination == [176] => Variations in fruit structures largely depend on the [[Biological dispersal|modes of dispersal]] applied to their seeds. Dispersal is achieved by wind or water, by [[explosive dehiscence]], and by interactions with animals.{{cite book |last=Capon |first=Brian |title=Botany for Gardeners |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2s9v__6rp4C&q=coconut+dispersal&pg=PA198 |year=2005 |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=978-0-88192-655-2 |pages=198–99 |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054356/https://books.google.com/books?id=Z2s9v__6rp4C&q=coconut+dispersal&pg=PA198 |url-status=live }} [177] => [178] => Some fruits present their outer skins or shells coated with spikes or hooked burrs; these evolved either to deter would-be foragers from feeding on them or to serve to attach themselves to the hair, feathers, legs, or clothing of animals, thereby using them as dispersal agents. These plants are termed [[zoochorous]]; common examples include [[cocklebur]], [[unicorn plant]], and [[beggarticks|beggarticks (or Spanish needle)]].{{cite book |last=Heiser |first=Charles B. |title=Weeds in My Garden: Observations on Some Misunderstood Plants |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nN1ohECdSC8C&q=cocklebur&pg=PA93 |year=2003 |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=978-0-88192-562-3 |pages=93–95 |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054449/https://books.google.com/books?id=nN1ohECdSC8C&q=cocklebur&pg=PA93 |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last=Heiser |title=Weeds in My Garden |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nN1ohECdSC8C&q=cocklebur&pg=PA164 |pages=162–64 |isbn=978-0-88192-562-3 |year=2003 |publisher=Timber Press |access-date=2020-10-06 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054359/https://books.google.com/books?id=nN1ohECdSC8C&q=cocklebur&pg=PA164 |url-status=live }} [179] => [180] => By developments of mutual evolution, the fleshy produce of fruits typically appeals to hungry animals, such that the seeds contained within are taken in, carried away, and later deposited (i.e., [[Defecation|defecated]]) at a distance from the parent plant. Likewise, the nutritious, oily kernels of [[Nut (fruit)|nuts]] typically motivate birds and [[squirrel]]s to [[hoarding|hoard]] them, burying them in soil to retrieve later during the winter of scarcity; thereby, uneaten seeds are sown effectively under natural conditions to [[Germination|germinate]] and grow a new plant some distance away from the parent. [181] => [182] => Other fruits have evolved flattened and elongated wings or helicopter-like blades, e.g., [[elm]], [[maple]], and [[tuliptree]]. This mechanism increases dispersal distance away from the parent via wind. Other wind-dispersed fruit have tiny "[[Pappus (flower structure)|parachutes]]", e.g., [[dandelion]], [[Asclepias|milkweed]], [[Tragopogon|salsify]]. [183] => [184] => [[Coconut]] fruits can float thousands of miles in the ocean, thereby spreading their seeds. Other fruits that can disperse via water are [[nipa palm]] and [[screw pine]]. [185] => [186] => Some fruits have evolved propulsive mechanisms that fling seeds substantial distances – perhaps up to {{cvt|100|m}} in the case of the [[sandbox tree]] – via explosive dehiscence or other such mechanisms (see [[impatiens]] and [[squirting cucumber]]).{{cite book |last=Feldkamp |first=Susan |title=Modern Biology |url=https://archive.org/details/modernbiology00feld |url-access=registration |year=2002 |publisher=Holt, Rinehart, and Winston |isbn=978-0-88192-562-3 |page=[https://archive.org/details/modernbiology00feld/page/634 634]}} [187] => [188] => == Food uses == [189] => [[File:Picking blackberries in Oklahoma.jpg|thumb|Picking blackberries in [[Oklahoma]]]] A [[cornucopia]] of fruits – fleshy (simple) fruits from apples to berries to watermelon; dry (simple) fruits including beans and rice and coconuts; aggregate fruits including strawberries, raspberries, blackberries, pawpaw; and multiple fruits such as pineapple, fig, mulberries – are commercially valuable as human food. They are eaten both fresh and as jams, marmalade and other [[fruit preserves]]. They are used extensively in manufactured and processed foods (cakes, cookies, baked goods, flavorings, ice cream, yogurt, canned vegetables, frozen vegetables and meals) and beverages such as fruit juices and [[alcoholic beverages]] (brandy, [[fruit beer]], wine).{{cite book |last=McGee |title=On Food and Cooking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C&pg=PA350 |pages=Chapter 7: A Survey of Common Fruits |no-pp=true |isbn=978-0-684-80001-1 |year=2004 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |access-date=2020-05-09 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054329/https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C&pg=PA350#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} Spices like vanilla, black pepper, paprika, and [[allspice]] are derived from berries. [[Olive|Olive fruit]] is pressed for [[olive oil]] and similar processing is applied to other oil-bearing fruits and vegetables.{{cite book |last=Farrell |first=Kenneth T. |title=Spices, Condiments and Seasonings |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ehAFUhWV4QMC&pg=PA17 |year=1999 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-8342-1337-1 |pages=17–19 |access-date=2020-05-09 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054326/https://books.google.com/books?id=ehAFUhWV4QMC&pg=PA17#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} Some fruits are available all year round, while others (such as blackberries and apricots in the UK) are subject to [[seasonal food|seasonal]] availability.[[National Farmers' Union of England and Wales|NFU]], [https://www.countrysideonline.co.uk/articles/a-guide-to-british-fruit-and-vegetables/ A guide to British fruit and vegetables] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230625035429/https://www.countrysideonline.co.uk/articles/a-guide-to-british-fruit-and-vegetables/ |date=2023-06-25 }}, ''Countryside'', published 6 October 2022, accessed 25 June 2023 [190] => [191] => Fruits are also used for socializing and gift-giving in the form of [[fruit basket]]s and [[fruit bouquet]]s.{{Cite web|title=Best Gift Baskets for the Holidays - Consumer Reports|url=https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2015/11/best-gift-baskets-for-the-holidays/index.htm|access-date=2021-03-13|website=www.consumerreports.org|language=en-US|archive-date=2021-06-02|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210602214831/https://www.consumerreports.org/cro/magazine/2015/11/best-gift-baskets-for-the-holidays/index.htm|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|last=O'Connor|first=Clare|title=How Edible Arrangements Sold $500 Million Of Fruit Bouquets In 2013|url=https://www.forbes.com/sites/clareoconnor/2014/04/08/how-edible-arrangements-sold-500-million-of-fruit-bouquets-in-2013/|access-date=2021-03-13|website=Forbes|language=en|archive-date=2022-05-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220521010141/https://www.forbes.com/sites/clareoconnor/2014/04/08/how-edible-arrangements-sold-500-million-of-fruit-bouquets-in-2013/|url-status=live}} [192] => [193] => Typically, many botanical fruits – "vegetables" in culinary parlance – (including tomato, green beans, leaf greens, bell pepper, cucumber, eggplant, okra, pumpkin, squash, zucchini) are bought and sold daily in fresh produce markets and [[greengrocer]]ies and carried back to kitchens, at home or restaurant, for preparation of meals.{{cite book |last=McGee |title=On Food and Cooking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C&pg=PA300 |pages=Chapter 6: A Survey of Common Vegetables |no-pp=true |isbn=978-0-684-80001-1 |year=2004 |publisher=Simon and Schuster |access-date=2020-05-09 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054327/https://books.google.com/books?id=iX05JaZXRz0C&pg=PA300#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} [194] => [195] => === Storage === [196] => All fruits benefit from proper post-harvest care, and in many fruits, the plant hormone [[Ethylene-ripened fruits|ethylene]] causes [[ripening]]. Therefore, maintaining most fruits in an efficient [[cold chain]] is optimal for post-harvest storage, with the aim of extending and ensuring shelf life.Why Cold Chain for Fruits: {{cite web |first= Pawanexh |last= Kohli |year= 2008 |title= Fruits and Vegetables Post-Harvest Care: The Basics |url= http://crosstree.info/Documents/Care%20of%20F%20n%20V.pdf |publisher= Crosstree Techno-visors |url-status= dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20161204061346/http://www.crosstree.info/Documents/Care |archive-date= 2016-12-04 |access-date= 2009-09-28 }} [197] => [198] => === Nutritional value === [199] => [[File:Fruit Nutrition.png|thumb|upright=1.8|Comparing fresh fruits for fiber, potassium (K), and vitamin C.{{citation needed|date=August 2021}} Each disk-point refers to a {{cvt|100|g}} serving of the fresh fruit named. The size of the disk represents the amount of fiber (as percentage of the [[recommended daily allowance|recommended daily allowance, RDA]]) in a serving of fruit (see key at upper right). The amount of vitamin C (as percent RDA) is plotted on the x–axis and the amount of potassium (K), in mg on the y–axis. Bananas are high in value for fiber and potassium, and oranges for fiber and vitamin C. (Apricots are highest in potassium; strawberries are rich in vitamin C.) Watermelon, providing low levels of both K and vitamin C and almost no fiber, is of least value for the three [[nutrient]]s together.]] [200] => [201] => Various culinary fruits provide significant amounts of [[Dietary fiber|fiber]] and water, and many are generally high in [[vitamin C]].{{cite book |year=1970 |author =Hulme AC |title=The Biochemistry of Fruits and Their Products |place=London & New York |publisher=Academic Press }} An overview of numerous studies showed that fruits (e.g., whole apples or whole oranges) are satisfying (filling) by simply eating and chewing them.{{Cite journal|last1=Holt|first1=S. H.|last2=Miller|first2=J. C. |last3=Petocz|first3=P. |last4=Farmakalidis|first4=E.|date=September 1995 |title=A satiety index of common foods|journal=European Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=49 |issue=9|pages=675–690|issn=0954-3007|pmid=7498104}} [202] => [203] => The dietary fiber consumed in eating fruit promotes [[satiety]], and may help to control body weight and aid reduction of blood [[cholesterol]], a [[risk factor]] for [[cardiovascular diseases]].{{Cite journal|last1=Brown|first1=L.|last2=Rosner|first2=B.|last3=Willett|first3=W. W.|last4=Sacks|first4=F. M.|date=January 1999|title=Cholesterol-lowering effects of dietary fiber: a meta-analysis|journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|volume=69|issue=1|pages=30–42|doi=10.1093/ajcn/69.1.30|issn=0002-9165|pmid=9925120|doi-access=free}} Fruit consumption is under preliminary research for the potential to improve nutrition and affect chronic diseases.{{cite journal|author=Aune D, Giovannucci E, Boffetta P, Fadnes LT, Keum N, Norat T, Greenwood DC, Riboli E, Vatten LJ, Tonstad S.|title=Fruit and vegetable intake and the risk of cardiovascular disease|journal=International Journal of Epidemiology|date=2017|url=https://academic.oup.com/ije/article/46/3/1029/3039477|volume=46|issue=3|pages=1029–1056|doi=10.1093/ije/dyw319|pmid=28338764|pmc=5837313|access-date=2021-09-12|archive-date=2017-10-06|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006100306/https://academic.oup.com/ije/article/doi/10.1093/ije/dyw319/3039477/Fruit-and-vegetable-intake-and-the-risk-of|url-status=live}}{{cite journal|author=Angelino D, Godos J, Ghelfi F, Tieri M, Titta L, Lafranconi A, Marventano S, Alonzo E, Gambera A, Sciacca S, Buscemi S, Ray S, Galvano F, Del Rio D, Grosso G.|title=Fruit and vegetable consumption and health outcomes: an umbrella review of observational studies|journal=International Journal of Food Sciences and Nutrition|date=2019|volume=70|issue=6|pages=652–667|doi=10.1080/09637486.2019.1571021|pmid=30764679|s2cid=73455999|url=https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/7725224|access-date=2023-06-19|archive-date=2024-01-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054332/https://figshare.com/articles/journal_contribution/Fruit_and_vegetable_consumption_and_health_outcomes_an_umbrella_review_of_observational_studies/7725224|url-status=live}} Regular consumption of fruit is generally associated with reduced risks of several diseases and functional declines associated with aging.{{Cite journal|last1=Lim|first1=Stephen S.|last2=Vos|first2=Theo|last3=Flaxman|first3=Abraham D.|last4=Danaei|first4=Goodarz|last5=Shibuya|first5=Kenji|last6=Adair-Rohani|first6=Heather|last7=Amann|first7=Markus|last8=Anderson|first8=H. Ross|last9=Andrews|first9=Kathryn G.|date=2012-12-15|title=A comparative risk assessment of burden of disease and injury attributable to 67 risk factors and risk factor clusters in 21 regions, 1990-2010: a systematic analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study 2010|journal=Lancet|volume=380|issue=9859|pages=2224–60|doi=10.1016/S0140-6736(12)61766-8|issn=1474-547X|pmc=4156511|pmid=23245609}}{{cite journal|journal=BMJ|year=2014|issue=Jul 29|volume=349|page=g4490|doi=10.1136/bmj.g4490|title= Fruit and vegetable consumption and mortality from all causes, cardiovascular disease, and cancer: systematic review and dose-response meta-analysis of prospective cohort studies|vauthors=Wang X, Ouyang Y, Liu J, Zhu M, Zhao G, Bao W, Hu FB |pmid=25073782|pmc=4115152}}{{Cite journal|last1=Yip|first1=Cynthia Sau Chun|last2=Chan|first2=Wendy|last3=Fielding|first3=Richard|date=March 2019|title=The Associations of Fruit and Vegetable Intakes with Burden of Diseases: A Systematic Review of Meta-Analyses|journal=Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics|volume=119|issue=3|pages=464–481|doi=10.1016/j.jand.2018.11.007|issn=2212-2672|pmid=30639206|s2cid=58628014}} [204] => [205] => === Food safety === [206] => For [[food safety]], the [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|CDC]] recommends proper fruit handling and preparation to reduce the risk of [[food contamination]] and [[foodborne illness]]. Fresh fruits and vegetables should be carefully selected; at the store, they should not be damaged or bruised; and precut pieces should be refrigerated or surrounded by ice. [207] => [208] => All fruits and vegetables should be rinsed before eating. This recommendation also applies to produce with rinds or skins that are not eaten. It should be done just before preparing or eating to avoid premature spoilage. [209] => [210] => Fruits and vegetables should be kept separate from raw foods like meat, poultry, and seafood, as well as from utensils that have come in contact with raw foods. Fruits and vegetables that are not going to be cooked should be thrown away if they have touched raw meat, poultry, seafood, or eggs. [211] => [212] => All cut, peeled, or cooked fruits and vegetables should be refrigerated within two hours. After a certain time, harmful bacteria may grow on them and increase the risk of foodborne illness.{{cite web|url=http://www.fruitsandveggiesmatter.gov/health_professionals/food_safety.html|title=Nutrition for Everyone: Fruits and Vegetables – DNPAO – CDC|work=fruitsandveggiesmatter.gov|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090509004401/http://www.fruitsandveggiesmatter.gov/health_professionals/food_safety.html|archive-date=2009-05-09}} [213] => [214] => === Allergies === [215] => Fruit allergies make up about 10 percent of all food-related allergies.{{cite web |url=http://www.aafa.org/display.cfm?id=9&sub=20&cont=286 |title=Asthma and Allergy Foundation of America |publisher=Aafa.org |access-date=2014-04-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121006052320/http://aafa.org/display.cfm?id=9&sub=20&cont=286 |archive-date=2012-10-06 }}{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qS8DqmZLHPUC&q=fruit+peel+allergen&pg=PA171 |title=The Wellness Project |author=Roy Mankovitz |date=2010 |publisher=Montecito Wellness LLC |access-date=2014-04-25 |isbn=978-0-9801584-4-1 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054434/https://books.google.com/books?id=qS8DqmZLHPUC&q=fruit+peel+allergen&pg=PA171#v=snippet&q=fruit%20peel%20allergen&f=false |url-status=live }} [216] => [217] => == Nonfood uses == [218] => [[File:PorcelainBerry.JPG|thumb|[[Ampelopsis glandulosa var. brevipedunculata|Porcelain vine]] is usually planted for its [[ornamental plant|showy]], colourful berries.{{cite web |url= https://www.mortonarb.org/trees-plants/tree-plant-descriptions/porcelain-vine#destination |title= Porcelain vine |access-date= 2020-11-24 |publisher= The Morton Arboretum |archive-date= 2020-12-25 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201225184959/https://www.mortonarb.org/trees-plants/tree-plant-descriptions/porcelain-vine#destination |url-status= dead }}]] [219] => Because fruits have been such a major part of the human diet, various cultures have developed many different uses for fruits they do not depend on for food. For example: [220] => [221] => * [[Bayberry]] fruits provide a wax often used to make candles;{{cite book |last=K |first=Amber |title=Candlemas: Feast of Flames |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WQL4W13EYlUC&q=bayberry&pg=PA155 |date=December 1, 2001 |publisher=Llewellyn Worldwide |isbn=978-0-7387-0079-3 |page=155 |access-date=October 6, 2020 |archive-date=January 30, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054858/https://books.google.com/books?id=WQL4W13EYlUC&q=bayberry&pg=PA155#v=snippet&q=bayberry&f=false |url-status=live }} [222] => * Many dry fruits are used as decorations or in dried flower arrangements (e.g., [[annual honesty]], [[cotoneaster]], [[Nelumbo|lotus]], [[milkweed]], [[unicorn plant]], and [[wheat]]). [[Ornamental tree]]s and shrubs are often cultivated for their colorful fruits, including [[beautyberry]], [[cotoneaster]], [[holly]], [[pyracantha]], [[skimmia]], and [[viburnum]].{{cite book |last=Adams |first=Denise Wiles |title=Restoring American Gardens: An Encyclopedia of Heirloom Ornamental Plants, 1640–1940 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=J30SOqPLMOEC&pg=PA3 |year=2004 |publisher=Timber Press |isbn=978-0-88192-619-4 |access-date=2020-05-09 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054835/https://books.google.com/books?id=J30SOqPLMOEC&pg=PA3 |url-status=live }} [223] => * Fruits of [[opium poppy]] are the source of [[opium]], which contains the drugs [[codeine]] and [[morphine]], as well as the biologically inactive chemical theabaine from which the drug [[oxycodone]] is synthesized.{{cite book |last=Booth |first=Martin |author-link=Martin Booth |title=Opium: A History |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kHRyZEQ5rC4C |year=1999 |publisher=St. Martin's Press |isbn=978-0-312-20667-3 |access-date=2020-05-09 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054836/https://books.google.com/books?id=kHRyZEQ5rC4C |url-status=live }} [224] => * [[Osage orange]] fruits are used to repel [[cockroach]]es.{{cite book |last=Cothran |first=James R. |title=Gardens and Historic Plants of the Antebellum South |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s8OcSmOKeCkC&q=cockroaches&pg=PA221 |year=2003 |publisher=University of South Carolina Press |isbn=978-1-57003-501-2 |page=221 }}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [225] => * Many fruits provide [[natural dye]]s (e.g., [[cherry]], [[mulberry]], [[sumac]], and [[walnut]]).{{cite book |last=Adrosko |first=Rita J. |title=Natural Dyes and Home Dyeing: A Practical Guide with over 150 Recipes |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EElNckPn0FUC |year=1971 |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |isbn=978-0-486-22688-0 |access-date=2020-05-09 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054946/https://books.google.com/books?id=EElNckPn0FUC |url-status=live }} [226] => * Dried [[gourd]]s are used as bird houses, cups, decorations, dishes, musical instruments, and water jugs. [227] => * [[Pumpkin]]s are carved into [[Jack-o'-lantern]]s for [[Halloween]].Nathaniel Hawthorne, "The Great Carbuncle", in ''Twice-Told Tales'', 1837: Hide it [the great carbuncle] under thy cloak, say'st thou? Why, it will gleam through the holes, and make thee look like a jack-o'-lantern! [228] => * The fibrous core of the mature and dry [[Luffa]] fruit is used as a sponge.{{Cite web |title=Grow Your Own Loofah Sponges at Home for Pennies (Yes, You Really Can!) |url=https://draxe.com/beauty/loofah-sponge/ |access-date=2023-01-02 |website=Dr. Axe |language=en-US |archive-date=2023-01-02 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230102232850/https://draxe.com/beauty/loofah-sponge/ |url-status=live }} [229] => * The spiny fruit of [[burdock]] or [[cocklebur]] inspired the invention of [[Velcro]].{{cite book |last=Wake |first=Warren |title=Design Paradigms: A Sourcebook for Creative Visualization |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j2n1BCqxWjcC&pg=PA162 |year=2000 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |pages=162–63 |isbn=978-0-471-29976-9 |access-date=2020-05-09 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054941/https://books.google.com/books?id=j2n1BCqxWjcC&pg=PA162#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} [230] => * [[Coir]] fiber from [[coconut]] shells is used for brushes, doormats, floor tiles, insulation, mattresses, sacking, and as a growing medium for container plants. The shell of the coconut fruit is used to make bird houses, bowls, cups, musical instruments, and souvenir heads.{{cite web |url= http://www.coconut.com/museum/uses.html |title= The Many Uses of the Coconut |access-date= 2006-09-14 |publisher= The Coconut Museum |url-status=dead |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20060906231208/http://www.coconut.com/museum/uses.html |archive-date= 2006-09-06 }} [231] => * The hard and colorful grain fruits of [[Job's tears]] are used as decorative beads for jewelry, garments, and ritual objects.{{cite journal |last1=Watt |first1=George |author1-link=George Watt (botanist) |title=Coix spp. (Job's tears) |journal=Agricultural Ledger |volume=11 |number=13 |date=1904 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nlbyAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA189 |pages=191 |access-date=2023-01-02 |archive-date=2024-01-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240130054942/https://books.google.com/books?id=nlbyAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA189#v=onepage&q&f=false |url-status=live }} [232] => * Fruit is often a subject of [[still life]] paintings. [233] => [234] => == See also == [235] => {{Portal|Food|Plants}} [236] => * [[Fruit tree]] [237] => * [[Fruitarianism]] [238] => * [[List of countries by fruit production]] [239] => * [[List of culinary fruits]] [240] => * [[List of foods]] [241] => * [[List of fruit dishes]] [242] => [243] => == References == [244] => {{reflist}} [245] => [246] => == Further reading == [247] => * Gollner, Adam J. (2010). ''The Fruit Hunters: A Story of Nature, Adventure, Commerce, and Obsession''. Scribner. {{ISBN|978-0-7432-9695-3}}. [248] => * Watson, R. R., and Preedy, V.R. (2010, eds.). ''Bioactive Foods in Promoting Health: Fruits and Vegetables''. Academic Press. {{ISBN|978-0-12-374628-3}}. [249] => [250] => == External links == [251] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070218043544/http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/pages/fruit-devel.htm Images of fruit development from flowers] at bioimages.Vanderbilt.edu (archived 18 February 2007) [252] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20170425010454/http://www.cas.vanderbilt.edu/bioimages/pages/fruit-seed-dispersal.htm Fruit and seed dispersal images] at bioimages.Vanderbilt.edu (archived 25 April 2017) [253] => * [http://www.crfg.org/pubs/frtfacts.html Fruit Facts] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200712003428/http://www.crfg.org/pubs/frtfacts.html |date=2020-07-12 }} from California Rare Fruit Growers, Inc.) [254] => * [http://crosstree.info/Documents/Fruit%20ID0.pdf Photo ID of Fruits] ({{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210109110037/http://www.crosstree.info/Documents/Fruit%20ID0.pdf |date=2021-01-09 }} by Capt. Pawanexh Kohli) [255] => * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Fruit|short=x}} [256] => [257] => {{Sister bar|auto=yes|wikt=fruit|cookbook=Fruit}} [258] => {{Fruits}} [259] => {{Botany}} [260] => {{Agriculture country lists}} [261] => {{Veganism and vegetarianism}} [262] => {{Plant-based diets}} [263] => {{Authority control}} [264] => [265] => [[Category:Fruit]] [266] => [[Category:Pollination]] [267] => [[Category:Types of food]] [] => )
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Fruit

The Wikipedia page on fruit provides a comprehensive overview of fruits, typically derived from flowering plants and containing seeds. The article covers the classification, biological structure, nutritional value, cultivation, and culinary uses of fruits.

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The article covers the classification, biological structure, nutritional value, cultivation, and culinary uses of fruits. The page begins with a definition of fruit and its importance in the plant kingdom. It explains how fruits develop from the fertilized ovary of a flower and describes the different types of fruits, including fleshy fruits like apples and oranges, and dry fruits like nuts and grains. The article then explores the biological structure of fruits, highlighting the three main parts - the pericarp, which includes the exocarp, mesocarp, and endocarp, as well as the seed. It discusses the different types of pericarps and explains the importance of fruits in seed dispersal. In terms of nutrition, the page explains the rich content of vitamins, minerals, and dietary fiber in fruits, which make them essential for a balanced diet. It also discusses the health benefits associated with fruit consumption, such as reduced risk of chronic diseases and improved digestion. The article further delves into the cultivation of fruits, discussing various factors like climate, soil, and pollination that affect their growth. It also examines the impact of human intervention, including fruit breeding and genetic modification, on the development of new fruit varieties. Lastly, the page highlights the culinary uses of fruits, including their consumption fresh, dried, or processed into juices, jams, and desserts worldwide. It also touches upon the cultural significance of certain fruits and their roles in festivals and traditional practices in different regions. Throughout the article, numerous examples and specific details are provided to illustrate the concepts and facts discussed. The page concludes with a list of external resources and references for further exploration.

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