Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Structural rules of a language}} [1] => {{About||the rules of the English language|English grammar|other uses|Grammar (disambiguation)}} [2] => {{Use British English Oxford spelling|date=October 2017}} [3] => {{Use dmy dates|date=November 2021}} [4] => {{Linguistics|Grammar}} [5] => In [[linguistics]], the '''grammar''' of a [[natural language]] is its set of [[structure|structural]] rules on speakers' or writers' usage and creation of [[clause (linguistics)|clauses]], [[phrase]]s, and [[words]]. The term can also refer to the study of such rules, a subject that includes [[phonology]], [[morphology (linguistics)|morphology]], and [[syntax]], together with [[phonetics]], [[semantics]], and [[pragmatics]]. There are, broadly speaking, two different ways to study grammar: [[traditional grammar]] and [[Grammar#Theoretical frameworks|theoretical grammar]]. [6] => [7] => [[Fluency|Fluent]] speakers of a [[variety (linguistics)|language variety]] or ''[[Variety (linguistics)|lect]]'' have internalised these rules.Traditionally, the mental information used to produce and process languages is referred to as "rules". However, other sources use different terms, with certain effects. [[Optimality theory]], for example, is defined by such "rules", while [[construction grammar]], [[cognitive grammar]], and other theories based on usage refer to patterns, constructions, and representations of models the vast majority of which – at least in the case of one's [[First language|native language(s)]] – are [[language acquisition|acquired]] not by intentional study or [[language teaching|instruction]] but by hearing other speakers. Much of this internalisation occurs during early childhood; learning a language later in life usually involves more direct instruction.{{Cite book |last1=O'Grady |first1=William |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=djhsAAAAIAAJ&q=Contemporary+Linguistics |title=Contemporary Linguistics: An Introduction |last2=Dobrovolsky |first2=Michael |last3=Katamba |first3=Francis |publisher=Longman |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-582-24691-1 |location=Harlow, Essex |pages=4–7; 464–539 |access-date=11 November 2020 |archive-date=13 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220113035607/https://books.google.com/books?id=djhsAAAAIAAJ&q=Contemporary+Linguistics |url-status=live }} [8] => [9] => The term "grammar" can also describe the linguistic behaviour of groups of speakers and writers rather than individuals. Differences in scale are important to this meaning: for example, the term "English grammar" could refer to the whole of English grammar (that is, to the grammar of all the language's speakers) in which case it covers lots of [[variation (linguistics)|variation]].{{Cite book |last=Holmes |first=Janet |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=qjdqxecifHcC&q=Introduction+to+Sociolinguistics+Holmes |title=An Introduction to Sociolinguistics |publisher=Longman |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-582-32861-7 |edition=second |location=Harlow, Essex |pages=73–94 |access-date=11 November 2020 |archive-date=13 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210713112935/https://books.google.com/books?id=qjdqxecifHcC&q=Introduction+to+Sociolinguistics+Holmes |url-status=live }}; for more discussion of sets of grammars as populations, see: {{Cite book [10] => | last = Croft [11] => | first = William [12] => | author-link = William Croft (linguist) [13] => | title = Explaining Language Change: An Evolutionary Approach [14] => | publisher = Longman [15] => | year = 2000 [16] => | location = Harlow, Essex [17] => | pages = 13–20 [18] => | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5_Ka7zLl9HQC&q=Explaining+Language+Change+Croft [19] => | isbn = 978-0-582-35677-1 [20] => | access-date = 11 November 2020 [21] => | archive-date = 13 July 2021 [22] => | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210713112935/https://books.google.com/books?id=5_Ka7zLl9HQC&q=Explaining+Language+Change+Croft [23] => | url-status = live [24] => }} At a smaller scale, it may refer only to what is shared among the grammars of all or most English speakers (such as [[subject–verb–object]] word order in [[simple sentence]]s). At the smallest scale, this sense of "grammar" can describe the [[Convention (norm)|conventions]] of just one form of English that is better defined than others (such as [[standard English]] for a region). [25] => [26] => A description, study, or analysis of such rules may also be known as ''a grammar'', or as a ''[[grammar book]]''. A [[reference book]] describing the grammar of a language is called a "reference grammar" or simply "a grammar" (see [[History of English grammars]]). A fully revealed grammar, which describes the [[grammaticality|grammatical]] constructions of a particular speech type in great detail is called descriptive grammar. This kind of [[linguistic description]] contrasts with [[linguistic prescription]], a plan to actively ban, or lessen the use of, some constructions while [[codification (linguistics)|popularising]] and starting others, either absolutely or about a [[standard variety]]. For example, some pedants insist that sentences in English should not end with prepositions, a ban that has been traced to [[John Dryden]] (1631–1700). His unjustified rejection of the practice may have led other English speakers to avoid it and discourage its use.Rodney Huddleston and Geoffrey K. Pullum, 2002, ''The Cambridge Grammar of the English Language''. Cambridge (UK): Cambridge University Press, p. 627f.{{Cite web |last=Lundin |first=Leigh |date=23 September 2007 |title=The Power of Prepositions |url=http://criminalbrief.com/?p=216 |website=On Writing |publisher=Criminal Brief |location=Cairo |access-date=18 July 2012 |archive-date=8 July 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110708204135/http://criminalbrief.com/?p=216 |url-status=live }} Yet [[preposition stranding|ending sentences with a preposition]] has a long history in [[Germanic languages]] like English, where it is so widespread as to be the norm.{{source?|date=November 2023}} [27] => [28] => Outside linguistics, the word ''grammar'' often has a different meaning. It may be used more widely to include rules of [[orthography|spelling and punctuation]], which linguists would not typically consider as part of grammar but rather of [[orthography]], the [[convention (norm)|conventions]] used for writing a language. It may also be used more narrowly to refer to a set of [[linguistic prescription|prescriptive norms]] only, excluding the aspects of a language's grammar which do not [[variation (linguistics)|change]] or are clearly acceptable (or not) without the need for discussions. Jeremy Butterfield claimed that, for non-linguists, "Grammar is often a generic way of referring to any aspect of English that people object to".Jeremy Butterfield, (2008). ''Damp Squid: The English Language Laid Bare'', Oxford University Press, Oxford. {{ISBN|978-0199574094}}. p. 142. [29] => [30] => == Etymology == [31] => The word ''grammar'' is derived from [[Ancient Greek language|Greek]] {{lang|grc|γραμματικὴ τέχνη}} (''grammatikḕ téchnē''), which means "art of letters", from {{lang|grc|γράμμα}} (''grámma''), "letter", itself from {{lang|grc|γράφειν}} (''gráphein''), "to draw, to write".{{Cite web |last=Harper |first=Douglas |author-link=Douglas Harper |title=Grammar |url=http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=grammar |access-date=8 April 2010 |website=Online Etymological Dictionary |archive-date=9 March 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130309182125/http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?term=grammar |url-status=live }} The same Greek root also appears in the words ''[[graphics]]'', ''[[grapheme]]'', and ''photograph''. [32] => [33] => == History == [34] => {{Further|History of linguistics}} [35] => [36] => The first systematic grammar of [[Sanskrit]] originated in [[Iron Age India]], with [[Yaska]] (6th century BC), [[Pāṇini]] (6th–5th century BC{{Cite book |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ashtadhyayi |title=Ashtadhyayi, Work by Panini |publisher=Encyclopædia Britannica |year=2013 |quote=Ashtadhyayi, Sanskrit Aṣṭādhyāyī ("Eight Chapters"), Sanskrit treatise on grammar written in the 6th to 5th century BCE by the Indian grammarian Panini. |access-date=23 October 2017 |archive-date=5 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805063047/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Ashtadhyayi |url-status=live }}) and his commentators [[Pingala]] ({{Circa|200 BC}}), [[Katyayana]], and [[Patanjali]] (2nd century BC). [[Tolkāppiyam]], the earliest [[Tamil language|Tamil]] grammar, is mostly dated to before the 5th century AD. The [[Babylonia]]ns also made some early attempts at language description.{{Cite book |last=McGregor |first=William B.|author-link=William B. McGregor |title=Linguistics: An Introduction |publisher=Bloomsbury Academic |year=2015|edition=2nd |isbn=978-0-567-58352-9 |pages=15–16}} [37] => [38] => Grammar appeared as a discipline in [[Hellenistic period|Hellenism]] from the 3rd century BC forward with authors such as [[Rhyanus]] and [[Aristarchus of Samothrace]]. The oldest known grammar handbook is the ''[[Art of Grammar]]'' ({{lang|grc|Τέχνη Γραμματική}}), a succinct guide to speaking and writing clearly and effectively, written by the ancient Greek scholar [[Dionysius Thrax]] ({{circa}} 170–{{circa}} 90 BC), a student of Aristarchus of Samothrace who founded a school on the Greek island of Rhodes. Dionysius Thrax's grammar book remained the primary grammar textbook for Greek schoolboys until as late as the twelfth century AD. The Romans based their grammatical writings on it and its basic format remains the basis for grammar guides in many languages even today.{{Cite book |last=Casson |first=Lionel |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ECBkVPQkNSsC&q=Library+of+Alexandria |title=Libraries in the Ancient World |date=2001 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=978-0-300-09721-4 |location=New Haven, Connecticut |page=45 |author-link=Lionel Casson |access-date=11 November 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210824033514/https://books.google.com/books?id=ECBkVPQkNSsC&q=Library+of+Alexandria |archive-date=24 August 2021 |url-status=live}} [[Latin grammar]] developed by following Greek models from the 1st century BC, due to the work of authors such as [[Orbilius Pupillus]], [[Remmius Palaemon]], [[Marcus Valerius Probus]], [[Verrius Flaccus]], and [[Aemilius Asper]]. [39] => [40] => The grammar of [[Old Irish|Irish]] originated in the 7th century with [[Auraicept na n-Éces]]. [[Arabic grammar]] emerged with [[Abu al-Aswad al-Du'ali]] in the 7th century. The first treatises on [[Hebrew grammar]] appeared in the [[High Middle Ages]], in the context of [[Midrash]] (exegesis of the [[Hebrew Bible]]). The [[Karaite Judaism|Karaite]] tradition originated in [[Abbasid]] [[Baghdad]]. The ''[[Diqduq]]'' (10th century) is one of the earliest grammatical commentaries on the Hebrew Bible.G. Khan, J. B. Noah, ''The Early Karaite Tradition of Hebrew Grammatical Thought'' (2000) [[Ibn Barun]] in the 12th century, compares the Hebrew language with Arabic in the [[Islamic grammatical tradition]].Pinchas Wechter, Ibn Barūn's Arabic Works on Hebrew Grammar and Lexicography (1964) [41] => [42] => Belonging to the ''[[trivium]]'' of the seven [[liberal arts]], grammar was taught as a core discipline throughout the [[Middle Ages]], following the influence of authors from [[Late Antiquity]], such as [[Priscian]]. Treatment of vernaculars began gradually during the [[High Middle Ages]], with isolated works such as the [[First Grammatical Treatise]], but became influential only in the [[Renaissance]] and [[Baroque]] periods. In 1486, [[Antonio de Nebrija]] published ''Las introduciones Latinas contrapuesto el romance al Latin'', and the first [[Spanish grammar]], ''[[Gramática de la lengua castellana]]'', in 1492. During the 16th-century [[Italian Renaissance]], the ''[[Questione della lingua]]'' was the discussion on the status and ideal form of the Italian language, initiated by [[Dante]]'s ''[[de vulgari eloquentia]]'' ([[Pietro Bembo]], ''Prose della volgar lingua'' Venice 1525). The first grammar of [[Slovene language|Slovene]] was written in 1583 by [[Adam Bohorič]], and ''[[Grammatica Germanicae Linguae]]'', the first grammar of German, was published in 1578. [43] => [44] => Grammars of some languages began to be compiled for the purposes of evangelism and [[Bible translation]] from the 16th century onward, such as ''Grammatica o Arte de la Lengua General de Los Indios de Los Reynos del Perú'' (1560), a [[Quechua languages|Quechua]] grammar by [[Fray Domingo de Santo Tomás]]. [45] => [46] => From the latter part of the 18th century, grammar came to be understood as a subfield of the emerging discipline of modern linguistics. The ''Deutsche Grammatik'' of [[Jacob Grimm]] was first published in the 1810s. The ''Comparative Grammar'' of [[Franz Bopp]], the starting point of modern [[comparative linguistics]], came out in 1833. [47] => [48] => == {{anchor|Frameworks}} Theoretical frameworks == [49] => {{Further|Syntax#Theoretical syntactic models}} [50] => [[File:Parse tree 1.jpg|thumb|A generative [[parse tree]]: the sentence is divided into a [[noun phrase]] (subject), and a [[verb phrase]] which includes the object. This is in contrast to structural and functional grammar which consider the subject and object as equal constituents.{{Cite book |last=Schäfer |first=Roland |url=https://www.oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=620310 |title=Einführung in die grammatische Beschreibung des Deutschen |edition=2nd|date=2016 |publisher=Language Science Press |isbn=978-1-5375-0495-7 |location=Berlin |author-link=Roland Schäfer |access-date=17 January 2020 |archive-date=28 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170728232919/http://oapen.org/download?type=document&docid=620310 |url-status=live }}{{Cite book |last=Butler |first=Christopher S. |url=https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/270688/mod_folder/content/0/v.%20e%20vi.%20Butler%20-%20Structure%20and%20Function.pdf?forcedownload=1 |title=Structure and Function: A Guide to Three Major Structural-Functional Theories, part 1 |date=2003 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-1-58811-358-0 |pages=121–124 |access-date=19 January 2020 |archive-date=22 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200122000540/https://edisciplinas.usp.br/pluginfile.php/270688/mod_folder/content/0/v.%20e%20vi.%20Butler%20-%20Structure%20and%20Function.pdf?forcedownload=1 |url-status=live }}]] [51] => Frameworks of grammar which seek to give a precise scientific theory of the syntactic rules of grammar and their function have been developed in [[theoretical linguistics]]. [52] => {{Expand list|date=March 2018}} [53] => [54] => * [[Dependency grammar]]: dependency relation ([[Lucien Tesnière]] 1959) [55] => ** [[Link grammar]] [56] => * [[Functional theories of grammar|Functional grammar]] (structural–functional analysis): [57] => ** [[Danish Functionalism]] [58] => ** [[Functional Discourse Grammar]] [59] => ** [[Role and reference grammar]] [60] => ** [[Systemic functional grammar]] [61] => * [[Montague grammar]] [62] => [63] => Other frameworks are based on an innate "[[universal grammar]]", an idea developed by [[Noam Chomsky]]. In such models, the object is placed into the verb phrase. The most prominent biologically-oriented theories are: [64] => [65] => * [[Cognitive grammar]] / [[Cognitive linguistics]] [66] => ** [[Construction grammar]] [67] => *** [[Fluid Construction Grammar]] [68] => ** [[Word grammar]] [69] => * [[Generative grammar]]: [70] => ** [[Transformational grammar]] (1960s) [71] => ** [[Generative semantics]] (1970s) and [[Semantic Syntax]] (1990s) [72] => ** [[Phrase structure grammar]] (late 1970s) [73] => *** [[Generalised phrase structure grammar]] (late 1970s) [74] => **** [[Head-driven phrase structure grammar]] (1985) [75] => **** [[Principles and parameters]] grammar ([[Government and binding theory]]) (1980s) [76] => ** [[Lexical functional grammar]] [77] => ** [[Categorial grammar]] ([[lambda calculus]]) [78] => ** [[Minimalist program]]-based grammar (1993) [79] => * [[Stochastic grammar]]: probabilistic [80] => ** [[Operator grammar]] [81] => [82] => [[Parse tree]]s are commonly used by such frameworks to depict their rules. There are various alternative schemes for some grammar: [83] => * [[Affix grammar over a finite lattice]] [84] => * [[Backus–Naur form]] [85] => * [[Constraint grammar]] [86] => * [[Lambda calculus]] [87] => * [[Tree-adjoining grammar]] [88] => * [[X-bar theory]] [89] => [90] => == Development of grammar == [91] => {{more citations needed section|date=June 2020}} [92] => {{Main|Historical linguistics|History of English grammars}} [93] => Grammars evolve through [[Usage (language)|usage]]. Historically, with the advent of [[Writing|written representations]], formal rules about [[language usage]] tend to appear also, although such rules tend to describe writing conventions more accurately than conventions of speech.{{Cite journal |last1=Carter |first1=Ronald |last2=McCarthy |first2=Michael |date=2017 |title=Spoken Grammar: Where are We and Where are We Going? |journal=Applied Linguistics |volume=38 |pages=1–20 |doi=10.1093/applin/amu080}} [[Formal grammar]]s are [[codification (linguistics)|codifications]] of usage which are developed by repeated documentation and [[observation]] over time. As rules are established and developed, the prescriptive concept of [[grammatical correctness]] can arise. This often produces a discrepancy between contemporary usage and that which has been accepted, over time, as being standard or "correct". Linguists tend to view prescriptive grammar as having little justification beyond their authors' aesthetic tastes, although style guides may give useful advice about ''standard language employment'' based on descriptions of usage in contemporary writings of the same language. Linguistic prescriptions also form part of the explanation for variation in speech, particularly variation in the speech of an individual speaker (for example, why some speakers say "I didn't do nothing", some say "I didn't do anything", and some say one or the other depending on social context). [94] => [95] => The formal study of grammar is an important part of children's schooling from a young age through advanced [[learning]], though the rules taught in schools are not a "grammar" in the sense that most [[linguistics|linguists]] use, particularly as they are [[prescriptive]] in intent rather than [[descriptive]]. [96] => [97] => [[Constructed language]]s (also called ''planned languages'' or ''conlangs'') are more common in the modern-day, although still extremely uncommon compared to natural languages. Many have been designed to aid human communication (for example, naturalistic [[Interlingua]], schematic [[Esperanto]], and the highly logical [[Lojban]]). Each of these languages has its own grammar. [98] => [99] => [[Syntax]] refers to the linguistic structure above the word level (for example, how sentences are formed){{snd}}though without taking into account [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], which is the domain of phonology. Morphology, by contrast, refers to the structure at and below the word level (for example, how [[Compound (linguistics)|compound words]] are formed), but above the level of individual sounds, which, like intonation, are in the domain of phonology.{{Cite book |last1=Gussenhoven |first1=Carlos |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gHp_QgAACAAJ&q=Understanding+Phonology |title=Understanding Phonology |last2=Jacobs |first2=Haike |publisher=Hodder Arnold |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-340-80735-4 |edition=2nd |location=London |access-date=11 November 2020 |archive-date=19 August 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210819045723/https://books.google.com/books?id=gHp_QgAACAAJ&q=Understanding+Phonology |url-status=live }} However, no clear line can be drawn between syntax and morphology. [[Analytic languages]] use syntax to convey information that is encoded by [[inflection]] in [[synthetic language]]s. In other words, word order is not significant, and morphology is highly significant in a purely synthetic language, whereas morphology is not significant and syntax is highly significant in an analytic language. For example, Chinese and [[Afrikaans language|Afrikaans]] are highly analytic, thus meaning is very context-dependent. (Both have some inflections, and both have had more in the past; thus, they are becoming even less synthetic and more "purely" analytic over time.) [[Latin]], which is highly [[synthetic language|synthetic]], uses [[affix]]es and [[inflection]]s to convey the same information that Chinese does with syntax. Because Latin words are quite (though not totally) self-contained, an intelligible Latin [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentence]] can be made from elements that are arranged almost arbitrarily. Latin has a complex affixation and simple syntax, whereas Chinese has the opposite. [100] => [101] => == Education == [102] => {{more citations needed section|date=December 2021}} [103] => [[Prescriptive]] grammar is taught in primary and secondary school. The term "grammar school" historically referred to a school (attached to a cathedral or monastery) that teaches Latin grammar to future priests and monks. It originally referred to a school that taught students how to read, scan, interpret, and declaim Greek and Latin poets (including Homer, Virgil, Euripides, and others). These should not be mistaken for the related, albeit distinct, modern British grammar schools. [104] => [105] => A [[standard language]] is a dialect that is promoted above other dialects in writing, education, and, broadly speaking, in the public sphere; it contrasts with [[nonstandard dialect|vernacular dialects]], which may be the objects of study in academic, [[linguistic description|descriptive linguistics]] but which are rarely taught prescriptively. The standardized "[[first language]]" taught in primary education may be subject to [[language politics|political]] controversy because it may sometimes establish a standard defining nationality or [[ethnicity]]. [106] => [107] => Recently, efforts have begun to update [[Linguistics in Education|grammar instruction]] in primary and secondary education. The main focus has been to prevent the use of outdated prescriptive rules in favor of setting norms based on earlier descriptive research and to change perceptions about the relative "correctness" of prescribed standard forms in comparison to non-standard dialects. A series of metastudies have found that the explicit teaching of grammatical parts of speech and syntax has little or no effect on the improvement of student writing quality in elementary school, middle school of high school; other methods of writing instruction had far greater positive effect, including strategy instruction, collaborative writing, summary writing, process instruction, sentence combining and inquiry projects.Graham, S., & Perin, D. (2007). Writing next: Effective strategies to improve writing of adolescents in middle and high schools – A report to Carnegie Corporation of New York.Washington, DC:Alliance for Excellent Education.{{cite journal| url=https://doi.org/10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.445| doi=10.1037/0022-0663.99.3.445| title=A meta-analysis of writing instruction for adolescent students| year=2007| last1=Graham| first1=Steve| last2=Perin| first2=Dolores| journal=Journal of Educational Psychology| volume=99| issue=3| pages=445–476| citeseerx=10.1.1.462.2356}}{{cite journal| url=https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029185| doi=10.1037/a0029185| title=A meta-analysis of writing instruction for students in the elementary grades| year=2012| last1=Graham| first1=Steve| last2=McKeown| first2=Debra| last3=Kiuhara| first3=Sharlene| last4=Harris| first4=Karen R.| journal=Journal of Educational Psychology| volume=104| issue=4| pages=879–896| url-access=subscription}} [108] => [109] => The preeminence of [[Parisian French]] has reigned largely unchallenged throughout the history of modern French literature. Standard Italian is based on the speech of Florence rather than the capital because of its influence on early literature. Likewise, standard Spanish is not based on the speech of Madrid but on that of educated speakers from more northern areas such as Castile and León (see ''[[Gramática de la lengua castellana]]''). In [[Argentina]] and [[Uruguay]] the Spanish standard is based on the local dialects of Buenos Aires and Montevideo ([[Rioplatense Spanish]]). [[Portuguese language|Portuguese]] has, for now, [[Pluricentric language|two official standards]], respectively [[Brazilian Portuguese]] and [[European Portuguese]]. [110] => [111] => The [[Serbian language|Serbian]] variant of [[Serbo-Croatian]] is likewise divided; [[Serbia]] and the [[Republika Srpska]] of [[Bosnia and Herzegovina]] use their own distinct normative subvarieties, with differences in [[yat]] reflexes. The existence and codification of a distinct Montenegrin standard is a matter of controversy, some treat [[Montenegrin language|Montenegrin]] as a separate standard lect, and some think that it should be considered another form of Serbian. [112] => [113] => [[Norwegian language|Norwegian]] has two standards, ''[[Bokmål]]'' and ''[[Nynorsk]]'', the choice between which is subject to [[Norwegian language struggle|controversy]]: Each Norwegian municipality can either declare one as its official language or it can remain "language neutral". Nynorsk is backed by 27 percent of municipalities. The main language used in primary schools, chosen by referendum within the local school district, normally follows the official language of its municipality. [[Standard German]] emerged from the standardized chancellery use of [[Early New High German language|High German]] in the 16th and 17th centuries. Until about 1800, it was almost exclusively a written language, but now it is so widely spoken that most of the former [[German dialect]]s are nearly extinct. [114] => [115] => [[Standard Chinese]] has official status as the standard spoken form of the Chinese language in the People's Republic of China (PRC), the [[Republic of China]] (ROC), and the [[Singapore|Republic of Singapore]]. Pronunciation of Standard Chinese is based on the local accent of [[Mandarin Chinese]] from Luanping, Chengde in Hebei Province near Beijing, while grammar and syntax are based on modern [[vernacular written Chinese]]. [116] => [117] => [[Modern Standard Arabic]] is directly based on [[Classical Arabic]], the language of the [[Qur'an]]. The [[Hindustani language]] has two standards, [[Hindi]] and [[Urdu]]. [118] => [119] => In the United States, the Society for the Promotion of Good Grammar designated 4 March as [[National Grammar Day]] in 2008.{{Cite web|url=https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/national-grammar-day|title=National Grammar Day|website=Quick and Dirty Tips|access-date=12 November 2021|archive-date=12 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211112075405/https://www.quickanddirtytips.com/national-grammar-day|url-status=live}} [120] => [121] => == See also == [122] => * [[Ambiguous grammar]] [123] => * [[Constraint-based grammar]] [124] => * [[Grammeme]] [125] => * [[Harmonic Grammar]] [126] => * [[Higher order grammar]] (HOG) [127] => * [[Error (linguistics)|Linguistic error]] [128] => * [[Linguistic typology]] [129] => * [[Paragrammatism]] [130] => * [[Speech error]] (slip of the tongue) [131] => * [[Usage (language)]] [132] => * [[Usus]] [133] => [134] => == Notes == [135] => {{Reflist}} [136] => [137] => == References == [138] => {{refbegin}} [139] => * Rundle, Bede. ''Grammar in Philosophy''. Oxford: Clarendon Press; New York: Oxford University Press, 1979. {{ISBN|0198246129}}. [140] => {{refend}} [141] => [142] => == External links == [143] => {{Wiktionary}} [144] => {{Wikisourcelang|de|Grammatiken}} [145] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140118015511/http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/grammar/ Grammar] from the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' (archived 18 January 2014) [146] => * {{Cite EB1911 |last=Sayce |first=Archibald Henry |wstitle=Grammar|short=x}} [147] => [148] => {{Commons category|Grammar}} [149] => {{Wikiquote}} [150] => [151] => {{Formal semantics}} [152] => [153] => {{Grammatical moods}} [154] => [155] => {{Authority control}} [156] => [157] => [[Category:Grammar| ]] [158] => [[Category:Writing]] [159] => [[Category:Linguistics terminology]] [] => )
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Grammar

Grammar is the set of rules and guidelines that govern a language, specifically in regards to its usage and structure. It involves understanding and manipulating the various components of language, such as words, phrases, and punctuation, to effectively communicate ideas and meaning.

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It involves understanding and manipulating the various components of language, such as words, phrases, and punctuation, to effectively communicate ideas and meaning. Grammar encompasses various aspects, including syntax, morphology, phonology, and semantics. It is essential for clear and coherent communication, ensuring that written and spoken language is accurate, consistent, and understandable. This Wikipedia page provides an overview of grammar, covering its history, types, and importance in different languages and linguistic theories. It also addresses common grammar errors and offers resources for further learning.

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Dante Alighieri, more commonly known simply as Dante, was an Italian poet, philosopher, and politician of the Middle Ages.

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Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including the sounds, words, and grammar used in communication.

Pāṇini

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Renaissance

The Renaissance was a period in European history that lasted from the 14th to the 17th centuries.

Sanskrit

Sanskrit is an ancient Indo-Aryan language that originated in the Indian subcontinent around 2,500 years ago.

Semantics

Semantics is the study of meaning in language and communication.

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The Wikipedia page on writing provides a comprehensive overview of the act of composing text, encompassing various forms such as essays, novels, poems, articles, and more.