Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Mountain range in Asia, separating Indo-Gangetic plain from Tibetan Plateau}} [1] => {{About|a mountain range|other uses|Himalaya (disambiguation)}} [2] => {{pp-move}} [3] => {{EngvarB|date=July 2016}} [4] => {{Use dmy dates|date=October 2023}} [5] => [6] => {{Infobox mountain [7] => | name = The Himalayas [8] => | photo = Himalayas and allied ranges NASA Landsat showing the eight thousanders, annotated with major rivers.jpg [9] => | photo_caption = The arc of the Himalayas (also [[Hindu Kush]] and [[Karakoram]]s) showing the [[eight-thousanders]] (in red); [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]; [[Tibetan plateau]]; rivers [[Indus River|Indus]], [[Ganges]], and [[Yarlung Tsangpo]]-[[Brahmaputra]]; and the two anchors of the range (in yellow) [10] => | country_type = [[Country|Countries]] [11] => | country = {{hlist||{{flag|Bhutan}}|{{flag|China}}|{{flag|India}}|{{flag|Nepal}}|{{flag|Pakistan}}}}{{efn|Sovereignty over the range is contested in several places, most notably in the [[Kashmir region]].{{cite encyclopaedia|title=Himalayas (mountains, Asia)|date=14 August 2023 |publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas |quote=Though India, Nepal, and Bhutan have sovereignty over most of the Himalayas, Pakistan and China also occupy parts of them. In the Kashmir region, Pakistan has administrative control of some 32,400 square miles (83,900 square km) of the range lying north and west of the “line of control” established between India and Pakistan in 1972. China administers some 14,000 square miles (36,000 square km) in the Ladakh region and has claimed territory at the eastern end of the Himalayas within the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh. Those disputes accentuate the boundary problems faced by India and its neighbours in the Himalayan region.}}{{citation|title=Illustrated Atlas of the Himalaya|first1=David|last1=Zurick|first2=Julsun|last2=Pocheco|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|date=2006|isbn=9780813173849|page=8,11,12}}}} [12] => | subdivision2_type = [[Continent]] [13] => | subdivision2 = [[Asia]] [14] => | highest = [[Mount Everest]] [15] => | elevation_m = 8848.86 [16] => | highest_location = {{flag|Nepal}}{{flag|China}} [17] => | coordinates = {{Coord|27|59|N|86|55|E|region:IN|format=dms|display=inline,title}} [18] => | range_coordinates = [19] => | length_km = 2400 [20] => | geology = {{hlist|[[Metamorphic rock|Metamorphic]]|[[Sedimentary rock|sedimentary]]}} [21] => | age = [[Cretaceous]]-to-[[Cenozoic]] [22] => | orogeny = [[Alpine orogeny]] [23] => | map_image = Himalaya annotated.jpg [24] => | map_caption = Mount Everest and surrounding peaks as seen from the north-northwest over the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. Four eight-thousanders can be seen, [[Makalu]] (8,462 m), [[Mount Everest|Everest]] (8,848 m), [[Cho Oyu]] (8,201 m), and [[Lhotse]] (8,516 m). [25] => }} [26] => The '''Himalayas''', or '''Himalaya''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|h|ɪ|m|ə|ˈ|l|eɪ|.|ə|,_|h|ɪ|ˈ|m|ɑː|l|ə|j|ə}} {{respell|HIM|ə|LAY|ə|,_|hih|MAH|lə|yə}}) {{Efn|{{IPA-sa|ɦɪmaːlɐjɐ|lang}}; {{etymology|sa|{{IAST|himá}}|snow, frost||{{IAST|ā-laya}}|dwelling, abode}}),{{cite OED|Himalayan |access-date=2021-08-05 |quote=Etymology: < ''Himālaya'' (Sanskrit < ''hima'' snow + ''ālaya'' dwelling, abode) + -an suffix)}}}} is a [[mountain range]] in Asia, separating the [[plain]]s of the [[Indian subcontinent]] from the [[Tibetan Plateau]]. The range has some of the [[Earth]]'s highest peaks, including the highest, [[Mount Everest]]. More than [[list of highest mountains on Earth|100 peaks]] exceeding elevations of {{Convert|7200|m|abbr=on}} above [[sea level]] lie in the Himalayas. [27] => [28] => The Himalayas abut or cross [[Himalayan states|five countries]]: [[Nepal]], [[China]], [[Pakistan]], [[Bhutan]] and [[India]]. The sovereignty of the range in the [[Kashmir]] region is disputed among India, [[Pakistan]], and China.{{cite web|last=Bishop|first=Barry|author-link=Barry Bishop (mountaineer)|title=Himalayas (mountains, Asia)|publisher=Encyclopaedia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/266037/Himalayas|access-date=30 July 2016}} The Himalayan range is bordered on the northwest by the [[Karakoram]] and [[Hindu Kush]] ranges, on the north by the Tibetan Plateau, and on the south by the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]. Some of the world's major [[river]]s, the [[Indus River|Indus]], the [[Ganges river|Ganges]], and the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River|Tsangpo]]–[[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]], rise in the vicinity of the Himalayas, and their combined [[drainage basin]] is home to some 600 million people; 53 million people live in the Himalayas.{{cite book|author1=A.P. Dimri|author2=B. Bookhagen|author3=M. Stoffel|author4=T. Yasunari|title=Himalayan Weather and Climate and their Impact on the Environment|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7Ea9DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA380|date=8 November 2019|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-3-030-29684-1|page=380}} The Himalayas have profoundly shaped the cultures of [[South Asia]] and [[Tibet]]. Many Himalayan peaks are sacred in [[Hinduism]] and [[Buddhism]]. The summits of several—[[Kangchenjunga]] (from the Indian side), [[Gangkhar Puensum]], [[Machapuchare]], [[Nanda Devi]], and [[Kailas]]h in the Tibetan [[Transhimalaya]]—are off-limits to climbers. [29] => [30] => [[Tectonic uplift|Lifted]] by the [[subduction]] of the [[Indian Plate|Indian tectonic plate]] under the [[Eurasian Plate]], the Himalayan mountain range runs west-northwest to east-southeast in an arc {{Convert|2400|km|abbr=on}} long.{{cite journal |last=Wadia |first=D. N. |year=1931 |title=The syntaxis of the northwest Himalaya: its rocks, tectonics and orogeny |journal=Record Geol. Survey of India |volume=65 |issue=2 |pages=189–220}} Its western anchor, [[Nanga Parbat]], lies just south of the northernmost bend of the Indus river. Its eastern anchor, [[Namcha Barwa]], lies immediately west of the great bend of the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River]]. The range varies in width from {{Convert|350|km|abbr=on}} in the west to {{Convert|150|km|abbr=on}} in the east.{{cite book |last=Apollo |first=M. |year=2017 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/313849476 |chapter=Chapter 9: The population of Himalayan regions – by the numbers: Past, present and future |editor1-first=R. |editor1-last=Efe |editor2-first=M. |editor2-last=Öztürk |title=Contemporary Studies in Environment and Tourism |pages=143–159 |publisher=Cambridge Scholars Publishing}} [31] => [32] => ==Name== [33] => The name of the range hails from the [[Sanskrit]] {{lang|sa-Latn|Himālaya}} ({{wikt-lang|sa|हिमालय}} 'abode of snow'{{Cite web |title=MW Cologne Scan |url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=1299 |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de}}), from {{lang|sa-Latn|hima}} ({{wikt-lang|sa|हिम}} 'frost/cold'{{Cite web |title=MW Cologne Scan |url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=MW&page=1298 |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de}}) and {{lang|sa-Latn|ālaya}} ({{wikt-lang|sa|आलय}} 'dwelling/house'{{Cite web |title=WIL Cologne Scan |url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=WIL&page=121 |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de}}).{{Cite web |title=BEN Cologne Scan |url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=BEN&page=1115-a |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de}}{{Cite web |title=WIL Cologne Scan |url=https://www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de/scans/csl-apidev/servepdf.php?dict=WIL&page=976 |access-date=2022-03-27 |website=www.sanskrit-lexicon.uni-koeln.de}} They are now known as "{{nowrap|the Himalaya Mountains}}", usually shortened to "the Himalayas". [34] => [35] => The mountains are known as the {{lang|ne-Latn|Himālaya}} in [[Nepali language|Nepali]] and [[Hindi language|Hindi]] (both written {{lang|hi|हिमालय}}), ''Himāl'' (हिमाल) in [[Kumaoni language|Kumaoni]], the ''Himalaya'' ({{lang|bo|ཧི་མ་ལ་ཡ་}}) or 'The Land of Snow' ({{lang|bo|གངས་ཅན་ལྗོངས་}}) in [[Standard Tibetan|Tibetan]], also known as {{lang|ne-Latn|Himālaya}} in [[Sinhala language|Sinhala]] (written as {{lang|si|හිමාලය}}), the ''Himāliya'' Mountain Range ({{lang|ur|{{Nastaliq|سلسلہ کوہ ہمالیہ}}}}) in [[Urdu]], the ''Himaloy Parvatmala'' ({{lang|bn|হিমালয় পর্বতমালা}}) in [[Bengali language|Bengali]], and the ''Ximalaya'' Mountain Range ({{lang-zh|s=喜马拉雅[[wikt:山脉|山脉]]|p=Xǐmǎlāyǎ Shānmài|c=|t=喜馬拉雅[[wikt:山脉|山脉]]}}) in [[Chinese language|Chinese]]. [36] => [37] => The name of the range is sometimes also given as [[Himavat|Himavan]] in older writings, including the Sanskrit epic [[Mahabharata]].{{cite book |author=Roshen Dalal |author-link=Roshen Dalal |title=Hinduism: An Alphabetical Guide |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zrk0AwAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Penguin Books]] |date=2014|isbn=9788184752779 }} Entry: "Himavan" [[Himavat]] ([[Sanskrit]]: हिमवत्'')'' or Himavan '''Himavān''' ([[Sanskrit]]: हिमवान्) is a Hindu deity who is the personification of the Himalayan Mountain Range. Other epithets include '''Himaraja''' ([[Sanskrit]]: हिमराज, {{lit|king of snow}}) or '''Parvateshwara''' ([[Sanskrit]]: पर्वतेश्वर, {{lit|lord of mountains}}). [38] => [39] => In western literature, some writers refer to it as ''the Himalaya''. This was also previously transcribed as ''Himmaleh'', as in [[Emily Dickinson]]'s poetry{{citation |last=Dickinson |first=Emily |title=The Himmaleh was known to stoop |author-link=Emily Dickinson |title-link=:s:The Himmaleh was known to stoop}}. and [[Henry David Thoreau]]'s essays.{{citation |last=Thoreau |first=Henry David |title=A Week on the Concord and Merrimack Rivers |date=1849 |author-link=Henry David Thoreau}}. [40] => [41] => ==Geography and key features== [42] => {{anchor | Geo | Geography }} [43] => [44] => {{see also|List of Himalayan peaks and passes|Himalayan Rim}} [45] => [[File:Himalayas Map.png|thumb|Map of the Himalayas (including the [[Hindu Kush]])]] [46] => [[File:Himalaya sud avion.JPG |thumb|The [[Annapurna]] range of the Himalayas]] [47] => [[File:The Himalayas (48625198948).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the Himalayas]] [48] => [[File:Marsyangdi valley with Annapurna II - Annapurna Circuit, Nepal - panoramio.jpg |thumb|[[Marsyangdi]] valley with [[Annapurna II]]]] [49] => [50] => The Himalayas consists of four parallel [[mountain ranges]] from south to north: the [[Sivalik Hills]] on the south; the [[Lower Himalayan Range]]; the [[Great Himalayas]], which is the highest and central range; and the [[Tibetan Himalayas]] on the north.{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas |title=Himalayas|publisher=Encyclopedia Britannica|last1= Bishop|first1= Barry C. |last2= Chatterjee|first2= Shiba P.|date=14 August 2023 }} The [[Karakoram]] are generally considered separate from the Himalayas. [51] => [52] => In the middle of the great curve of the Himalayan mountains lie the {{cvt|8000|m|||}} peaks of [[Dhaulagiri]] and [[Annapurna]] in [[Nepal]], separated by the [[Kali Gandaki Gorge]]. The gorge splits the Himalayas into Western and Eastern sections, both ecologically and orographically – the pass at the head of the Kali Gandaki, the [[Kora La]], is the lowest point on the ridgeline between Everest and [[K2]] (the highest peak of the Karakoram range). To the east of Annapurna are the {{convert|8000|m|mile|abbr=on}} peaks of [[Manaslu]] and across the border in Tibet, [[Shishapangma]]. To the south of these lies [[Kathmandu]], the capital of Nepal and the largest city in the Himalayas. East of the [[Kathmandu Valley]] lies the valley of the Bhote/[[Sun Kosi]] river which rises in Tibet and provides the main overland route between Nepal and China – the [[Araniko Highway]]/[[China National Highway 318]]. Further east is the [[Mahalangur Himal]] with four of the world's six highest mountains, including the highest: [[Cho Oyu]], [[Everest]], [[Lhotse]], and [[Makalu]]. The [[Khumbu]] region, popular for trekking, is found here on the south-western approaches to Everest. The [[Arun River, China-Nepal|Arun river]] drains the northern slopes of these mountains, before turning south and flowing to the range to the east of Makalu. [53] => [54] => In the far east of Nepal, the Himalayas rise to the [[Kangchenjunga]] massif on the border with India, the third-highest mountain in the world, the most easterly {{convert|8000|m|ft|abbr=on}} summit and the highest point of [[India]]. The eastern side of Kangchenjunga is in the Indian state of [[Sikkim]]. Formerly an independent Kingdom, it lies on the main route from India to [[Lhasa]], Tibet, which passes over the [[Nathu La]] pass into Tibet. East of Sikkim lies the ancient Buddhist Kingdom of [[Bhutan]]. The highest mountain in Bhutan is [[Gangkhar Puensum]], which is also a strong candidate for the highest unclimbed mountain in the world. The Himalayas here are becoming increasingly rugged, with heavily forested steep valleys. The Himalayas continue, turning slightly northeast, through the Indian State of [[Arunachal Pradesh]] as well as Tibet, before reaching their easterly conclusion in the peak of [[Namche Barwa]], situated in Tibet, inside the great bend of the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River|Yarlang Tsangpo]] river. On the other side of the Tsangpo, to the east, are the [[Kangri Garpo]] mountains. The high mountains to the north of the Tsangpo, including [[Gyala Peri]], however, are also sometimes included in the Himalayas. [55] => [56] => Going west from Dhaulagiri, Western Nepal is somewhat remote and lacks major high mountains, but is home to [[Rara Lake]], the largest lake in Nepal. The [[Karnali River]] rises in Tibet but cuts through the centre of the region. Further west, the border with India follows the [[Sarda River]] and provides a trade route into China, where on the Tibetan plateau lies the high peak of [[Gurla Mandhata]]. Just across [[Lake Manasarovar]] from this lies the sacred [[Mount Kailash]] in the [[Kailash Ranges]], which stands close to the source of the four main rivers of Himalayas and is revered in Hinduism, [[Jainism]], [[Buddhism]], Sufism and Bonpo. In [[Uttarakhand]], the Himalayas are regionally divided into the [[Kumaon division|Kumaon]] and [[Garhwal division|Garhwal]] Himalayas with the high peaks of [[Nanda Devi]] and [[Kamet]].{{Cite web | url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Kumaun-Himalayas|title=Kumaun Himalayas|publisher = Encyclopedia Britannica|first1= Kenneth |last1= Pletcher |date =March 13, 2009 }} The state is also home to the important pilgrimage destinations of Chota [[Chota Char Dham|Chaar Dhaam]], with [[Gangotri]], the source of the holy river [[Ganges]], [[Yamunotri]], the source of the river [[Yamuna]], and the temples at [[Badrinath]] and [[Kedarnath]]. [57] => [58] => The next Himalayan Indian state, [[Himachal Pradesh]], is noted for its hill stations, particularly [[Shimla]], the summer capital of the [[British Raj]], and [[Dharamsala, Himachal Pradesh|Dharamsala]], the centre of the Tibetan community and [[Central Tibetan Administration|government in exile]] in India. This area marks the start of the [[Punjab Himalaya]] and the [[Sutlej river]], the most easterly of the five tributaries of the [[Indus]], cuts through the range here. Further west, the Himalayas form much of the disputed Indian-administered union territory of [[Jammu and Kashmir (union territory)|Jammu and Kashmir]] where lie the mountainous [[Jammu division|Jammu region]] and the renowned [[Kashmir Valley]] with the town and lakes of [[Srinagar]]. The Himalayas form most of the south-west portion of the disputed Indian-administered union territory of [[Ladakh]]. The twin peaks of [[Nun Kun]] are the only mountains over {{convert|7000|m|mile|abbr=on}} in this part of the Himalayas. Finally, the Himalayas reach their western end in the dramatic 8000 m peak of [[Nanga Parbat]], which rises over {{convert|8000|m|ft|abbr=on}} above the Indus valley and is the most westerly of the 8000 m summits. The western end terminates at a magnificent point near Nanga Parbat where the Himalayas intersect with the Karakoram and [[Hindu Kush]] ranges, in the disputed Pakistani-administered territory of [[Gilgit-Baltistan]]. Some portion of the Himalayas, such as the [[Kaghan Valley]], [[Margalla Hills]], and [[Galyat]] tract, extend into the Pakistani provinces of [[Khyber Pakhtunkhwa]] and [[Punjab, Pakistan|Punjab]]. [59] => [60] => ==Geology== [61] => {{Main|Geology of the Himalayas}} [62] => [[File:Himalaya-formation.gif|thumb|upright|The {{convert|6000|km||adj=mid|-plus}} journey of the India landmass (Indian Plate) before its collision with Asia (Eurasian Plate) about 40 to 50 million [[Before Present|years ago]]]] [63] => [64] => The Himalayan range is one of the youngest mountain ranges on the planet and consists mostly of uplifted [[sedimentary]] and [[metamorphic rock]]. According to the modern theory of [[plate tectonics]], its formation is a result of a [[continental collision]] or [[orogeny]] along the [[convergent boundary]] ([[Main Himalayan Thrust]]) between the [[Indo-Australian Plate]] and the [[Eurasian Plate]]. The [[Arakan Yoma]] highlands in [[Burma|Myanmar]] and the [[Andaman and Nicobar Islands]] in the [[Bay of Bengal]] were also formed as a result of this collision.{{Cite journal |last1=Garzanti |first1=Eduardo |last2=Limonta |first2=Mara |last3=Resentini |first3=Alberto |last4=Bandopadhyay |first4=Pinaki C. |last5=Najman |first5=Yani |last6=Andò |first6=Sergio |last7=Vezzoli |first7=Giovanni |date=2013-08-01 |title=Sediment recycling at convergent plate margins (Indo-Burman Ranges and Andaman–Nicobar Ridge) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0012825213000822 |journal=Earth-Science Reviews |volume=123 |pages=113–132 |doi=10.1016/j.earscirev.2013.04.008 |bibcode=2013ESRv..123..113G |issn=0012-8252}} [65] => [66] => During the [[Upper Cretaceous]], about 70 million years ago, the north-moving Indo-Australian Plate (which has subsequently broken into the [[Indian Plate]] and the [[Australian Plate]]{{cite web| url = http://www.columbia.edu/cu/pr/95/18688.html| title = Geologists Find: An Earth Plate Is Breaking in Two|date = 7 July 1995|publisher=Columbia University}}) was moving at about {{cvt|15|cm|||}} per year. About 50 million years ago this fast-moving Indo-Australian Plate had completely closed the [[Tethys Ocean]], the existence of which has been determined by [[sedimentary rock]]s settled on the ocean floor and the volcanoes that fringed its edges. Since both plates were composed of low density [[continental crust]], they were [[thrust fault]]ed and [[Fold (geology)|folded]] into mountain ranges rather than subducting into the [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]] along an [[oceanic trench]]. An often-cited fact used to illustrate this process is that the summit of Mount Everest is made of unmetamorphosed marine [[Ordovician]] [[limestone]] with fossil [[trilobites]], [[crinoids]], and [[ostracods]] from this ancient ocean.{{cite journal|url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/j.1440-1738.2005.00499.x|title=Geology of the summit limestone of Mount Qomolangma (Everest) and cooling history of the Yellow Band under the Qomolangma detachment|date=December 2005|doi=10.1111/j.1440-1738.2005.00499.x |access-date=9 March 2023|last1=Sakai |first1=Harutaka |last2=Sawada |first2=Minoru |last3=Takigami |first3=Yutaka |last4=Orihashi |first4=Yuji |last5=Danhara |first5=Tohru |last6=Iwano |first6=Hideki |last7=Kuwahara |first7=Yoshihiro |last8=Dong |first8=Qi |last9=Cai |first9=Huawei |last10=Li |first10=Jianguo |journal=The Island Arc |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=297–310 |bibcode=2005IsArc..14..297S |s2cid=140603614 }} [67] => [68] => Today, the Indian plate continues to be driven horizontally at the Tibetan Plateau, which forces the plateau to continue to move upwards.{{cite web |url=https://www.geolsoc.org.uk/Plate-Tectonics/Chap3-Plate-Margins/Convergent/Continental-Collision|title=Plate Tectonics -The Himalayas |publisher=The Geological Society |access-date=13 September 2016}} The Indian plate is still moving at {{convert|67|mm|abbr=on}} per year, and over the next 10 million years, it will travel about {{cvt|1500|km|||}} into Asia. About 20 mm per year of the India-Asia convergence is absorbed by [[Thrust fault|thrusting]] along the [[Main Frontal Thrust|Himalaya southern front]]. This leads to the Himalayas rising by about 5 mm per year, making them geologically active. The movement of the Indian plate into the Asian plate also makes this region [[seismic]]ally active, leading to earthquakes from time to time.{{Cite web |date=2019-01-17 |title=Devastating earthquakes are priming the Himalaya for a mega-disaster |url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/earthquakes-priming-himalaya-disaster |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=Science |language=en}} [69] => [70] => During the last [[ice age]], there was a connected ice stream of [[glacier]]s between [[Kangchenjunga]] in the east and [[Nanga Parbat]] in the west.glacier maps [http://booksite.elsevier.com/9780444534477/ downloadable] In the west, the glaciers joined with the ice stream network in the [[Karakoram]], and in the north, they joined with the former Tibetan inland ice. To the south, outflow glaciers came to an end below an elevation of {{convert|1000|-|2000|m|abbr=on}}. While the current valley glaciers of the Himalaya reach at most {{convert|20|to|32|km|abbr=on}} in length, several of the main valley glaciers were {{convert|60|to|112|km|abbr=on}} long during the ice age. The glacier snowline (the altitude where accumulation and [[Ablation#Glaciology|ablation]] of a glacier are balanced) was about {{convert|1400|-|1660|m|abbr=on}} lower than it is today. Thus, the climate was at least {{convert|7.0|to|8.3|C-change}} colder than it is today. [71] => [72] => ==Hydrology== [73] => {{multiple image [74] => | align = right [75] => | direction = vertical [76] => | image1 = Confluence of Indus and Zanskar rivers.jpg [77] => | caption1 = Confluence of the [[Indus River]] and [[Zanskar River]] in the Himalayas [78] => | image2 = Himalayas, Pheriche, Nepal.jpg [79] => | caption2 = [[Imja Khola]] river valley in [[Solukhumbu]], Nepal [80] => }} [81] => [82] => Despite their scale, the Himalayas do not form a major [[continental divide]], and a number of rivers cut through the range, particularly in the eastern part of the range. As a result, the main ridge of the Himalayas is not clearly defined, and mountain passes are not as significant for traversing the range as with other mountain ranges. Himalayas' rivers drain into two large systems:{{Cite web |title=Himalayas - Rivers, Glaciers, Peaks {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Drainage |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} [83] => * The western rivers combine into the ''Indus Basin''. The [[Indus River|Indus]] itself forms the northern and western boundaries of the Himalayas. It begins in Tibet, at the confluence of Sengge and Gar rivers, and flows north-west through India into Pakistan before turning south-west to the [[Arabian Sea]]. It is fed by several major tributaries draining the southern slopes of the Himalayas, including the [[Jhelum River|Jhelum]], [[Chenab River|Chenab]], [[Ravi River|Ravi]], [[Beas River|Beas]], and [[Sutlej]] rivers, the five rivers of the [[Punjab, India|Punjab]]. [84] => * The other Himalayan rivers drain the ''Ganges-Brahmaputra Basin''. Its main rivers are the [[Ganges]], the [[Brahmaputra]], and the [[Yamuna]], as well as other tributaries. The Brahmaputra originates as the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River (Tibet)|Yarlung Tsangpo River]] in western Tibet, and flows east through Tibet and west through the plains of [[Assam]]. The Ganges and the Brahmaputra meet in [[Bangladesh]] and drain into the [[Bay of Bengal]] through the world's largest river delta, the [[Sunderbans]]. [85] => [86] => The northern slopes of [[Gyala Peri]] and the peaks beyond the [[Yarlung Tsangpo River|Tsangpo]], sometimes included in the Himalayas, drain into the [[Irrawaddy River]], which originates in eastern Tibet and flows south through Myanmar to drain into the [[Andaman Sea]]. The [[Salween]], [[Mekong]], [[Yangtze River|Yangtze]], and [[Yellow River]] all originate from parts of the Tibetan Plateau that are geologically distinct from the Himalaya mountains and are therefore not considered true Himalayan rivers. Some geologists refer to all the rivers collectively as the ''circum-Himalayan rivers''. [87] => [88] => ===Glaciers=== [89] => [[File:Annapurna I, south face.jpg|thumb|South Annapurna Glacier]] [90] => The great ranges of central Asia, including the Himalayas, contain the third-largest deposit of ice and snow in the world, after [[Antarctica]] and the [[Arctic]]. Some even refer to this region as the "Third Pole".{{Cite journal |last1=Kulkarni |first1=Anil V. |last2=Karyakarte |first2=Yogesh |date=2014 |title=Observed changes in Himalayan Glaciers |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/24099804 |journal=Current Science |volume=106 |issue=2 |pages=237–244 |jstor=24099804 |via=JSTOR}} The Himalayan range encompasses about 15,000 glaciers, which store about {{convert|12000|km3|abbr=on}}, or 3600–4400 [[Gigatonne|Gt]] (10{{Superscript|12}} kg) of fresh water. Its glaciers include the [[Gangotri Glacier|Gangotri]] and [[Yamunotri]] ([[Uttarakhand]]) and [[Khumbu Glacier|Khumbu]] glaciers ([[Mount Everest]] region), [[Langtang]] glacier ([[Langtang]] region), and [[Zemu Glacier|Zemu]] ([[Sikkim]]). [91] => [92] => Owing to the mountains' latitude near the [[Tropic of Cancer]], the permanent [[snow line]] is among the highest in the world, at typically around {{convert|5500|m|abbr=on|-2}}.{{cite journal|last1=Shi |first1=Yafeng |last2=Xie |first2=Zizhu |last3=Zheng |first3=Benxing |last4=Li |first4=Qichun |url=http://itia.ntua.gr/hsj/redbooks/126/iahs_126_0111.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130424125203/http://itia.ntua.gr/hsj/redbooks/126/iahs_126_0111.pdf |archive-date=24 April 2013 |title=Distribution, Feature and Variations of Glaciers in China |journal=World Glacier Inventory |year=1978 |url-status=dead }} In contrast, equatorial mountains in [[New Guinea]], the [[Rwenzoris]], and [[Colombia]] have a snow line some {{convert|900|m|abbr=on|-1}} lower.{{cite book|last1=Henderson-Sellers|first1=Ann|last2=McGuffie|first2=Kendal|title=The Future of the World's Climate: A Modelling Perspective|pages=199–201|isbn=978-0-12-386917-3|year=2012|publisher=Elsevier }} The higher regions of the Himalayas are snowbound throughout the year, in spite of their proximity to the tropics, and they form the sources of several large [[perennial stream|perennial rivers]]. [93] => [[File:KhumbuIcefall.jpg|thumb|left|[[Icefall]] on [[Khumbu Glacier]]]] [94] => In recent years, scientists have monitored a notable increase in the rate of [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|glacier retreat]] across the region as a result of climate change.{{Cite journal|last1=Lee|first1=Ethan|last2=Carrivick|first2=Jonathan L.|last3=Quincey|first3=Duncan J.|last4=Cook|first4=Simon J.|last5=James|first5=William H. M.|last6=Brown|first6=Lee E.|date=2021-12-20|title=Accelerated mass loss of Himalayan glaciers since the Little Ice Age|journal=Scientific Reports|language=en|volume=11|issue=1|pages=24284|doi=10.1038/s41598-021-03805-8|issn=2045-2322|pmc=8688493|pmid=34931039| bibcode=2021NatSR..1124284L }}{{cite news|url=https://www.reuters.com/article/environment-nepal-climate-glaciers-dc/vanishing-himalayan-glaciers-threaten-a-billion-idUSDEL18761020070604|title=Vanishing Himalayan Glaciers Threaten a Billion|date=4 June 2007|newspaper=Reuters |access-date=13 March 2018}} For example, glacial lakes have been forming rapidly on the surface of debris-covered glaciers in the Bhutan Himalaya during the last few decades. Studies have measured an approximately 13% overall decrease in glacial coverage in the Himalayas over the last 40–50 years. Local conditions play a large role in glacial retreat, however, and glacial loss can vary locally from a few m/yr to 61 m/yr. A marked acceleration in glacial mass loss has also been observed since 1975, from about 5–13 Gt/yr to 16–24 Gt/yr. Although the effect of this will not be known for many years, it potentially could mean disaster for the hundreds of millions of people who rely on the glaciers to feed the rivers during the dry seasons.{{Cite journal|last1=Kaushik|first1=Saurabh|last2=Rafiq|first2=Mohammd|last3=Joshi|first3=P.K.|last4=Singh|first4=Tejpal|date=April 2020|title=Examining the glacial lake dynamics in a warming climate and GLOF modelling in parts of Chandra basin, Himachal Pradesh, India|journal=Science of the Total Environment|language=en|volume=714|pages=136455|doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2019.136455|pmid=31986382|bibcode=2020ScTEn.714m6455K|s2cid=210933887}}{{Cite journal|last1=Rafiq|first1=Mohammd|last2=Romshoo|first2=Shakil Ahmad|last3=Mishra|first3=Anoop Kumar|last4=Jalal|first4=Faizan|date=January 2019|title=Modelling Chorabari Lake outburst flood, Kedarnath, India|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11629-018-4972-8|journal=Journal of Mountain Science|language=en|volume=16|issue=1|pages=64–76|doi=10.1007/s11629-018-4972-8|bibcode=2019JMouS..16...64R |s2cid=134015944|issn=1672-6316}}{{cite web|url=http://en.people.cn/90001/90781/90879/6222327.html|title=Glaciers melting at alarming speed|date=24 July 2007|publisher=People's Daily Online|access-date=17 April 2009|archive-date=11 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011182931/http://en.people.cn/90001/90781/90879/6222327.html|url-status=dead}} The global climate change will affect the water resources and livelihoods of the Greater Himalayan region.{{Cite book |url=http://www.nap.edu/catalog/13449 |title=Himalayan Glaciers: Climate Change, Water Resources, and Water Security |date=2012-11-29 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-26098-5 |location=Washington, D.C.|doi=10.17226/13449 }} [95] => [96] => ===Lakes=== [97] => {{See also|List of Alpine lakes in India}} [98] => [[File:Gurudongmar Lake Sikkim, India.jpg|thumb|[[Gurudongmar Lake]] in Sikkim]] [99] => [100] => The Himalayan region is dotted with hundreds of lakes.{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=A. R.| date=2019 |title=Evaluating high-altitude Ramsar wetlands in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas |journal=Global Ecology and Conservation |volume=20 |issue=e00715 |pages=19 |doi=10.1016/j.gecco.2019.e00715 |doi-access=free }} [[Pangong Tso]], which is spread across the border between India and China, at the far western end of Tibet, is among the largest with a surface area of {{cvt|700|km2|||}}. [101] => [102] => South of the main range, the lakes are smaller. [[Tilicho Lake]] in Nepal, in the Annapurna massif, is one of the highest lakes in the world. Other lakes include [[Rara Lake]] in western Nepal, [[Phoksundo Lake|She-Phoksundo Lake]] in the [[Shey Phoksundo National Park]] of Nepal, [[Gurudongmar Lake]], in [[North Sikkim]], [[Gokyo Lakes]] in [[Solukhumbu]] district of [[Nepal]], and [[Lake Tsongmo]], near the Indo-China border in Sikkim. [103] => [104] => Some of the lakes present the danger of a [[glacial lake outburst flood]]. The [[Tsho Rolpa]] glacier lake in the [[Rolwaling Himal|Rowaling Valley]], in the [[Dolakha District]] of Nepal, is rated as the most dangerous. The lake, which is located at an altitude of {{convert|4580|m|abbr=on}}, has grown considerably over the last 50 years due to glacial melting.{{cite web| url = http://rolwaling.tripod.com/glof/| title = Photograph of Tsho Rolpa}}[[Glacial lake outburst flood#Monitoring|Tsho Rolpa]] The mountain lakes are known to geographers as ''[[tarn (lake)|tarns]]'' if they are caused by glacial activity. Tarns are found mostly in the upper reaches of the Himalaya, above {{cvt|5500|m|||}}.{{cite web|url=http://www.highestlake.com/highest-lake-world.html|title=Highest Lake in the World|first=Carl|last=Drews|access-date=14 November 2010|archive-date=18 August 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120818141925/http://www.highestlake.com/highest-lake-world.html|url-status=dead}} [105] => [106] => Temperate Himalayan wetlands provide important habitat and layover sites for migratory birds. Many mid and low altitude lakes remain poorly studied in terms of their hydrology and biodiversity, like Khecheopalri in the Sikkim Eastern Himalayas.{{cite journal |last1=O'Neill |first1=Alexander |display-authors=etal |date=25 February 2020 |title= Establishing Ecological Baselines Around a Temperate Himalayan Peatland |journal= Wetlands Ecology & Management |volume=28 |issue=2 |pages=375–388 | doi=10.1007/s11273-020-09710-7 |bibcode=2020WetEM..28..375O |s2cid=211081106 }} [107] => [108] => ==Climate== [109] => ===Temperature=== [110] => The physical factors determining the climate in any location in the Himalayas include latitude, altitude, and the relative motion of the [[Southwest monsoon]].{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=50}} From north to south, the mountains cover more than eight degrees of latitude, spanning temperate to subtropical zones.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=50}} The colder air of Central Asia is prevented from blowing down into South Asia by the physical configuration of the Himalayas.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=50}} This causes the tropical zone to extend farther north in South Asia than anywhere else in the world.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=50}} The evidence is unmistakable in the Brahmaputra valley as the warm air from the [[Bay of Bengal]] bottlenecks and rushes up past [[Namcha Barwa]], the eastern anchor of the Himalayas, and into southeastern Tibet.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=50}} Temperatures in the Himalayas cool by 2.0 degrees C (3.6 degrees F) for every {{convert|300|m|ft}} increase of altitude.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|p=50}} [111] => [[File:Kowang, Gandaki River, Nepal.jpg|thumb|[[Gandaki River]] in Nepal]] [112] => As the physical features of mountains are irregular, with broken jagged contours, there can be wide variations in temperature over short distances.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} Temperature at a location on a mountain depends on the season of the year, the bearing of the sun with respect to the face on which the location lies, and the [[mass versus weight|mass]] of the mountain, i.e. the amount of [[matter]] in the mountain.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} As the temperature is directly proportional to received radiation from the sun, the faces that receive more direct sunlight also have a greater heat buildup.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} In narrow valleys—lying between steep mountain faces—there can be dramatically different weather along their two margins.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} The side to the north with a mountain above facing south can have an extra month of the growing season.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} The mass of the mountain also influences the temperature, as it acts as a [[heat island]], in which more heat is absorbed and retained than the surroundings, and therefore influences the [[heat budget]] or the amount of heat needed to raise the temperature from the winter minimum to the summer maximum.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} [113] => [114] => The immense scale of the Himalayas means that many summits can create their own weather, the temperature fluctuating from one summit to another, from one face to another, and all may be quite different from the weather in nearby plateaus or valleys.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} [115] => [116] => ===Precipitation=== [117] => [118] => A critical influence on the Himalayan climate is the [[Southwest Monsoon]]. This is not so much the rain of the summer months as the wind that carries the rain.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} Different rates of heating and cooling between the Central Asian continent and the [[Indian Ocean]] create large differences in the [[atmospheric pressure]] prevailing above each.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} In the winter, a high-pressure system forms and remains suspended above Central Asia, forcing air to flow in the southerly direction over the Himalayas.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} But in Central Asia, as there is no substantial source for water to be diffused as vapour, the winter winds blowing across South Asia are dry.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} In the summer months, the Central Asian plateau heats up more than the ocean waters to its south. As a result, the air above it rises higher and higher, creating a [[thermal low]].{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} Off-shore high-pressure systems in the Indian Ocean push the moist summer air inland toward the low-pressure system. When the moist air meets mountains, it rises and upon subsequent cooling, its moisture condenses and is released as rain, typically heavy rain.{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} The wet summer monsoon winds cause precipitation in India and all along the layered southern slopes of the Himalayas. This forced lifting of air is called the [[orographic effect]].{{sfn|Zurick|Pacheco|2006|pp=50–51}} [119] => [[File:Machermo, Yaks, Nepal.jpg|thumb|A caravan of [[yak]]s in the Himalayas]] [120] => [121] => ===Winds=== [122] => The vast size, huge altitude range, and complex topography of the Himalayas mean they experience a wide range of climates, from humid subtropical in the foothills, to cold and dry desert conditions on the Tibetan side of the range. For much of the Himalayas—in the areas to the south of the high mountains, the [[monsoon]] is the most characteristic feature of the climate and causes most of the precipitation, while the [[western disturbance]] brings winter precipitation, especially in the west. Heavy rain arrives on the southwest monsoon in June and persists until September. The monsoon can seriously impact transport and cause major landslides. It restricts tourism – the trekking and mountaineering season is limited to either before the monsoon in April/May or after the monsoon in October/November (autumn). In Nepal and Sikkim, there are often considered to be five seasons: summer, [[monsoon]], autumn, (or post-monsoon), winter, and spring.{{Cite web |title=Weather & Season Info of Nepal |url=https://classichimalaya.com/weather-season-info-of-nepal/ |access-date=2024-03-28 |website=Classic Himalaya |language=en-US}} [123] => [124] => Using the [[Köppen climate classification]], the lower elevations of the Himalayas, reaching in mid-elevations in central Nepal (including the Kathmandu valley), are classified as ''Cwa'', [[humid subtropical climate#South Asia|Humid subtropical climate]] with dry winters. Higher up, most of the Himalayas have a [[Oceanic climate#Subtropical highland variety (Cfb, Cwb)|subtropical highland climate (''Cwb'')]].{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}} [125] => [126] => The intensity of the southwest monsoon diminishes as it moves westward along the range, with as much as {{convert|2,030|mm|abbr=on}} of rainfall in the monsoon season in [[Darjeeling]] in the east, compared to only {{cvt|975|mm|abbr=on}} during the same period in Shimla in the west.{{cite encyclopedia|title=Climate of the Himalayas|url=https://www.britannica.com/place/Himalayas/Climate|access-date=18 May 2022|encyclopedia=Encyclopedia Britannica}}{{citation|title=Illustrated Atlas of the Himalaya|first1=David|last1=Zurick|first2=Julsun|last2=Pocheco|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|date=2006|isbn=9780813173849|page=52}} [127] => [128] => The northern side of the Himalayas, also known as the Tibetan Himalaya, is dry, cold, and generally windswept, particularly in the west where it has a [[Desert climate#Cold desert climates|cold desert climate]]. The vegetation is sparse and stunted and the winters are severely cold. Most of the precipitation in the region is in the form of snow during the late winter and spring months. [129] => [130] => {{multiple image [131] => | align = right [132] => | direction = vertical [133] => | image1 = View on Gyakar (edited).jpg [134] => | caption1 = The [[Desert climate#Cold desert climate|cold desert]] region of [[Upper Mustang]]; the region lies to the north of the [[Annapurna (mountain range)|Annapurna massif]] (visible in the background) [135] => | image2 = BhurjungKhola-AK1981.jpg [136] => | caption2 = A village in the [[Pokhara Valley]] during the monsoon season; the valley lies to the south of the [[Annapurna (mountain range)|Annapurna massif]] [137] => }} [138] => [139] => Local impacts on climate are significant throughout the Himalayas. Temperatures fall by 0.2 to 1.2 °C for every {{cvt|100|m|||abbr=}} rise in altitude.{{Cite journal|last1=Romshoo|first1=Shakil Ahmad|last2=Rafiq|first2=Mohammd|last3=Rashid|first3=Irfan|date=March 2018|title=Spatio-temporal variation of land surface temperature and temperature lapse rate over mountainous Kashmir Himalaya|url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s11629-017-4566-x|journal=Journal of Mountain Science|language=en|volume=15|issue=3|pages=563–576|doi=10.1007/s11629-017-4566-x|bibcode=2018JMouS..15..563R |s2cid=134568990|issn=1672-6316}} This gives rise to a variety of climates, from a nearly tropical climate in the foothills, to [[tundra]] and permanent snow and ice at higher elevations. Local climate is also affected by the topography: The leeward side of the mountains receive less rain while the well-exposed slopes get heavy rainfall and the [[rain shadow]] of large mountains can be significant, for example, leading to near desert conditions in the [[Upper Mustang]], which is sheltered from the monsoon rains by the [[Annapurna]] and [[Dhaulagiri]] massifs and has annual precipitation of around {{cvt|300|mm|||}}, while [[Pokhara]] on the southern side of the massifs has substantial rainfall ({{cvt|3900|mm|disp=or||}} a year). Thus, although annual precipitation is generally higher in the east than in the west, local variations are often more important.{{Citation needed|date=December 2023}} [140] => [141] => The Himalayas have a profound effect on the climate of the [[Indian subcontinent]] and the Tibetan Plateau. They prevent frigid, dry winds from blowing south into the subcontinent, which keeps South Asia much warmer than corresponding [[temperate]] regions in the other continents. It also forms a barrier for the [[Monsoon of Indian subcontinent|monsoon]] winds, keeping them from traveling northwards, and causing heavy rainfall in the [[Terai]] region. The Himalayas are also believed to play an important part in the formation of Central Asian deserts, such as the [[Taklamakan]] and [[Gobi]].{{cite news|last=Devitt|first=Terry|title=Climate shift linked to rise of Himalayas, Tibetan Plateau|newspaper=University of Wisconsin–Madison News|date=3 May 2001|url=https://news.wisc.edu/climate-shift-linked-to-rise-of-himalayas-tibetan-plateau/|access-date=1 November 2011}} [142] => [143] => ===Climate change=== [144] => [145] => {{excerpt|Hindu Kush#Climate change}} [146] => [147] => ==Ecology== [148] => {{main|Ecology of the Himalayas}} [149] => {{multiple image |align=right |direction=vertical [150] => |image1=Hemitragus jemlahicus Jharal.jpg |caption1=Male [[Himalayan tahr]] [151] => |image2=RedPandaFullBody.JPG |caption2=[[Red panda]] [152] => }} [153] => [154] => The flora and fauna of the Himalayas vary with climate, rainfall, altitude, and soils. The climate ranges from tropical at the base of the mountains to permanent ice and snow at the highest elevations. The amount of yearly rainfall increases from west to east along the southern front of the range. This diversity of altitude, rainfall, and soil conditions, combined with the very high snow line, supports a variety of distinct plant and animal communities. The extremes of high altitude (low atmospheric pressure), combined with extreme cold, favor [[extremophile]] organisms.{{cite web|first=C. Michael|last=Hogan|year=2010|url=https://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Extremophiles|title=Extremophile|editor1-first=E.|editor1-last=Monosson |website=[[Encyclopedia of Earth]]|publisher=National Council for Science and the Environment|location=Washington, DC}} [155] => [156] => At high altitudes, the elusive and previously endangered [[snow leopard]] is the main predator. Its prey includes members of the goat family grazing on the alpine pastures and living on the rocky terrain, notably the endemic [[bharal]] or Himalayan blue sheep. The [[Himalayan musk deer]] is also found at high altitudes. Hunted for its musk, it is now rare and endangered. Other endemic or near-endemic herbivores include the [[Himalayan tahr]], the [[takin]], the [[Himalayan serow]], and the [[Himalayan goral]]. The critically endangered [[Himalayan brown bear|Himalayan]] subspecies of the [[brown bear]] is found sporadically across the range, as is the [[Asian black bear]]. In the mountainous mixed deciduous and conifer forests of the eastern Himalayas, [[red panda]]s feed in the dense understories of bamboo. Lower down, the forests of the foothills are inhabited by several different primates, including the endangered [[Gee's golden langur]] and the [[Kashmir gray langur]], with highly restricted ranges in the east and west of the Himalayas, respectively. [157] => [158] => The unique floral and faunal wealth of the Himalayas is undergoing structural and compositional changes due to [[climate change]]. ''[[Hydrangea hirta]]'' is an example of floral species that can be found in this area. The increase in temperature is shifting various species to higher elevations. The oak forest is being invaded by pine forests in the Garhwal Himalayan region. There are reports of early flowering and fruiting in some tree species, especially [[rhododendron]], apple, and ''[[Myrica esculenta|box myrtle]]''. The highest known tree species in the Himalayas is ''[[Juniperus tibetica]],'' located at {{convert|4900|m|abbr=on|-1}} in Southeastern Tibet.{{cite journal|url=http://www.uni-marburg.de/fb19/personal/professoren/miehe/pdfs/20074.pdf|title=Highest Treeline in the Northern Hemisphere Found in Southern Tibet|first1=Georg|last1=Miehe|first2=Sabine|last2=Miehe|first3=Jonas|last3=Vogel|first4=Sonam|last4=Co|first5=La|last5=Duo|journal=Mountain Research and Development|volume=27|issue=2|date=May 2007|pages=169–173|doi=10.1659/mrd.0792|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130606103046/http://www.uni-marburg.de/fb19/personal/professoren/miehe/pdfs/20074.pdf|archive-date=6 June 2013|hdl=1956/2482|s2cid=6061587|hdl-access=free}} [159] => [[File:Irbis4.JPG|thumb|200px|[[Snow leopard]]]] [160] => {{excerpt|Hindu Kush#Flora and fauna}} [161] => [162] => ==Climate justice== [163] => Similar to the mountains, the communities living near the Himalayas are experiencing climate change and its negative impacts significantly more than other parts of the world.{{cite journal |last1=Gentle |first1=Popular |last2=Thwaites |first2=Rik |last3=Race |first3=Digby |last4=Alexander |first4=Kim |title=Differential impacts of climate change on communities in the middle hills region of Nepal |journal=Natural Hazards |date=November 2014 |volume=74 |issue=2 |pages=815–836 |doi=10.1007/s11069-014-1218-0 |bibcode=2014NatHa..74..815G |hdl=1885/66271 |s2cid=129787080 |url=DOI 10.1007/s11069-014-1218-0 |language=en|hdl-access=free }} Some of the impacts that the communities are facing include erratic rainfall, flooding, rising temperatures, and landslides. These impacts can have extreme negative effects on the villages living in the area especially as the temperatures rise at higher rates than many other places in the world (Alexander et al., 2014). There are more than 1.9 million people who are highly vulnerable due to climate change with an additional 10 million people at risk in Nepal. Nepal is among the top ten most vulnerable Global South countries due to climate change in the world, standing at number 4 as of 2010 according to the climate change risk atlas.{{cite book |last1=Agrawal |first1=A |last2=Perrin |first2=N |title=Climate adaptation, local institutions and rural livelihoods |date=2008 |publisher=IFRI Working Paper # W081-6 |location=University of Michigan, Michigan |pages=(pp. 350–367)}}{{cite book |last1=Maple Croft |title=Climate Risk Dataset |url=http://maplecroft.com/about/news/ccvi.html |language=en}} According to NAPA (National Adaptation Program of Action) of Nepal, many threats including floods, droughts, and landslides are an imminent threat to the glacial lake area.{{cite web |last1=GoN a |title=Climate Change Policy, 2011. |publisher=Ministry of Environment, Government of Nepal, Kathmandu }} With this in consideration, climate change policy and framework for LAPA (Local Adaptation Plans of Action) were prepared in 2011 primarily focusing on addressing climatic hazards. [164] => [165] => ===Health impacts=== [166] => [[File:Ghandruk an Annapurna South.jpg|thumb|View of Ghandruk village in Nepal]] [167] => Local communities are suffering from food scarcity and malnutrition as well as an increasing risk to diseases such as malaria and dengue fever as temperatures rise and allow these diseases to migrate further north.{{cite journal |last1=Devkota |first1=Fidel |title=Climate Change and its socio-cultural impact in the Himalayan region of Nepal – A Visual Documentation |journal=Anthrovision. Vaneasa Online Journal |date=1 August 2013 |volume=1 |issue=2 |doi=10.4000/anthrovision.589 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/anthrovision/589 }} There is also an increasing risk of water borne illnesses accompanied by an increasing lack of safe drinking water. Illness is not the only danger to the communities as temperatures sky rocket. With the climate changing weather patterns are also changing and more extreme weather events are occurring putting local communities more at risk to physical harm and death during erratic weather events.{{cite journal |doi=10.4000/anthrovision.589 |title=Climate Change and its socio-cultural impact in the Himalayan region of Nepal – A Visual Documentation |date=2013 |last1=Devkota |first1=Fidel |journal=Anthrovision |volume=1 |issue=2 |url=https://journals.openedition.org/anthrovision/589 }} Marginalized groups including children and women are experiencing more severe impacts from climate change and are often more exposed to disease and injury. Over the last couple years these health impacts have gotten increasingly worse and more common. Recent studies have shown that dengue fever has had a consistent pattern of epidemic in Nepal in the years 2010, 2013, 2016, 2017, 2019, 2022 with the largest in terms of severity occurring in 2022.{{cite journal |last1=Rublee |first1=Caitlin |last2=Bhatta |first2=Bishnu |last3=Tiwari |first3=Suresh |last4=Pant |first4=Suman |title=Three Climate and Health Lessons from Nepal Ahead of COP28 |journal=NAM Perspectives |date=29 November 2023 |volume=11 |issue=29 |doi=10.31478/202311f|s2cid=265597908 }} 54,784 reported cases were recorded from all 77 districts in seven provinces. These diseases are simply in addition to other diseases that can be seen with the rise of global temperatures and air pollution. Many vulnerable groups are experiencing an increase in respiratory illness, cardiac illnesses, and asthma.{{cite web |last1=Berstrand |first1=s |title=Fact Sheet {{!}} Climate, Environmental, and Health Impacts of Fossil Fuels (2021) {{!}} White Papers {{!}} EESI |url=https://www.eesi.org/papers/view/fact-sheet-climate-environmental-and-health-impacts-of-fossil-fuels-2021 |website=www.eesi.org}} The heat can lead to issues such as a strain on respiratory illnesses, heat stroke, and fever. There is also the increased risk of cancer. Many lower income communities such as the himalayan villages suffer from exposure to more pollution or in some cases exposure to toxic chemicals which has led to an increased rate of cancer in these communities as well as an increased risk of death. [168] => [169] => ===Agricultural impacts=== [170] => [[File:Mustang-Kagbeni-01d-von Norden-Kali Gandaki-2015-gje.jpg|thumb|View of [[Kagbeni, Mustang|Kagbeni]] village in Nepal]] [171] => The increasing temperatures are also leading to a decrease in territory for local wildlife. This has led to a decrease in prey for at risk predators such as snow leopards. This has led to a negative relationship between local farmers and the wildlife as snow leopards and other predators attack the farmers’ livestock. This livestock consists of yaks, oxen, horses, and goats.{{cite journal |last1=Oli |first1=Madan K. |last2=Taylor |first2=Iain R. |last3=Rogers |first3=M. Elizabeth |title=Snow leopard Panthera uncia predation of livestock: An assessment of local perceptions in the Annapurna Conservation Area, Nepal |journal=Biological Conservation |date=1 January 1994 |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=63–68 |doi=10.1016/0006-3207(94)90547-9 |bibcode=1994BCons..68...63O }} Snow leopards have killed about 2.6% of the local livestock per year in response to their decreasing habitat. This has had a major impact on the local economy leading to the loss of about a quarter of the average annual income of the local farmers. This has led to farmers then killing the snow leopards in retaliation in order to protect their livestock and their livelihoods. [172] => [173] => ===Policy changes=== [174] => Nepal is a part of the Paris agreement and thus is required to have a climate action plan and is being tracked by the Climate Action Tracker.{{cite web |title=Nepal |url=https://climateactiontracker.org/countries/nepal/ |website=climateactiontracker.org |language=en}} According to the Climate Action Tracker, Nepal is "almost sufficient" on its track to reach the goals set by the Paris Agreement. There are two factors that hold Nepal back from reaching sufficient status and thus stand out. There is no Climate Finance Plan and emissions and temperature rising rate ranking at critically insufficient. Nepal has many goals, however, that are on track with the Paris Agreement. The first of note being a goal of net-zero emissions by 2045. To reach this goal Nepal submitted two separate plans to account for whatever future they experience the first being WAM (with additional measures) and the second being WEM (with existing measures). WEM is based primarily on already existing policies and highlights the energy sector as the main target for CO2 reduction. The WAM scenario introduces a far more ambitious strategy for reducing emissions. In this scenario the focus is primarily on an intervention method and disruption of the energy sector reducing the use of fossil fuels and the incorporation of renewable energy sources. This pathway heavily relies on reducing emissions from energy sources while preserving the carbon-absorbing capacity of the LULUCF (Land Use, Land-Use Change and Forestry) sector. Under this scenario, it is anticipated that net CO2 emissions will remain negative from 2020 to 2030, approach 'zero' between 2035 and 2045, and then revert to negative values by 2050. The goal of this scenario is to accelerate the journey toward achieving carbon neutrality before 2045. These policies along with many more have Nepal on track to stay beneath the 1.5 threshold set by the Paris Agreement. [175] => [176] => ===Local adaptation=== [177] => [[File:Garhwal Himal from Camels Back (5281754856).jpg|thumb|[[Garhwal Himalayas]] in the Indian state of [[Uttarakhand]]]] [178] => [[File:View of the Lakir Monastery.JPG |thumb|[[Likir Monastery]] in [[Ladakh]]]] [179] => In recent years many citizens of these Himalayan communities have started to notice the extreme effects of climate change by experiencing nature itself.{{cite journal |last1=Das |first1=Suraj |last2=Mishra |first2=Anindya Jayanta |title=Climate change and the Western Himalayan community: Exploring the local perspective through food choices |journal=Ambio |date=1 March 2023 |volume=52 |issue=3 |pages=534–545 |doi=10.1007/s13280-022-01810-3 |pmid=36480087 |pmc=9735043 |bibcode=2023Ambio..52..534D }} They have noticed a decrease in precipitation especially in lowland districts, fluctuating temperatures during months of the year that are typically cooler, and changes in weather patterns even compared to early 2000s weather. Many local villagers have identified climate change simply through the availability of certain native plants decreasing or shifting seasons. The concept of climate change has now been aligned with the risk of natural disasters and has increased awareness in the local communities. These impacts of climate change have greatly affected agriculture in the area and has forced farmers to change crops and when they plant them. In response to this rather than push for policy change, citizens have begun to adapt to climate change.{{cite journal |last1=Dhungana |first1=Nabin |last2=Silwal |first2=Nisha |last3=Upadhaya |first3=Suraj |last4=Khadka |first4=Chiranjeewee |last5=Regmi |first5=Sunil Kumar |last6=Joshi |first6=Dipesh |last7=Adhikari |first7=Samjhana |title=Rural coping and adaptation strategies for climate change by Himalayan communities in Nepal |journal=Journal of Mountain Science |date=1 June 2020 |volume=17 |issue=6 |pages=1462–1474 |doi=10.1007/s11629-019-5616-3 |bibcode=2020JMouS..17.1462D |s2cid=219281555 }} According to Dhungana, 91.94% of the respondents experienced drought as major climatic hazards then floods at 83.87%, landslides at 70.97%, and forest fires at 67.74%. In response to this citizens have begun adapting and adopting new practices. As a response to drought at the high altitudes, plantations are planting more protective trees, drought resistant plants, and have begun adopting irrigation practices drawing from nearby streams. In response to flooding, farmers have created more basins, dam construction, and small drainage canals. [180] => [181] => The response to landslides includes plantation grasses in previously barren areas, Gabion wall construction, avoiding livestock grazing in landslide-prone areas, and a prohibition on tillage in areas at risk of landslides. To fight the increased rate of forest fires, citizens have begun beating the fires with green branches and mud, construction of fire lines, and are raising awareness about the wildfires. Fire lines are lines of varying width built through the leaf litter of a forest floor down to the soil and minerals to prevent a spread of fire past the line.{{cite web |last1=BMP |title=Fire Lines and Lanes. |url=http://www2.ca.uky.edu/agcomm/pubs/for/for67/bmp12.pdf |publisher=BMP No. 12, Fire Lines and Lanes}} The main reason for these adaptations is to decrease the risk that climate change poses over these marginalized communities while taking advantage of the moment and allowing for a positive change towards a more sustainable or adaptable future. Major barriers to these adaptations include a lack of funds, a lack of knowledge, a lack of technology, a lack of time, and lack of mandatory policy. [182] => [183] => ==Religions== [184] => {{multiple image |align=right |direction=vertical [185] => |image1=Taktshang.jpg |caption1=The [[Paro Taktsang|Taktsang]] Monastery, [[Bhutan]], also known as the "Tiger's Nest" [186] => |image2=Harmukh Mountain.jpg|caption2= [[Harmukh]] is a sacred mountain for Hindus located in the Himalayas north of [[Kashmir Valley]]. [187] => }} [188] => There are many cultural and mythological aspects associated with the Himalayas. In [[Jainism]], Mount Ashtapada of the Himalayan mountain range is a sacred place where the first Jain ''[[tirthankara]]'', [[Rishabhanatha]], attained ''[[moksha]]''. It is believed that after Rishabhanatha attained ''[[nirvana]]'', his son, [[Bharata (Jainism)|Bharata]], had constructed three stupas and twenty four shrines of the 24 [[Tirthankaras|''tirthankara''s]] with their idols studded with precious stones over there and named it ''Sinhnishdha''.{{Cite book | url=https://books.google.com/books?id=y4aVRLGhf-8C&q=mount+Kailash+jainism&pg=RA1-PA273 | title=Faith & Philosophy of Jainism| isbn=978-81-7835-723-2| last1=Jain| first1=Arun Kumar| year=2009| publisher=Gyan Publishing House}}{{cite web|url=http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-21/spiritual-destinations/29739255_1_manasarovar-water-moon |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120707034645/http://articles.timesofindia.indiatimes.com/2011-09-21/spiritual-destinations/29739255_1_manasarovar-water-moon |url-status=dead |archive-date=7 July 2012 |title=To heaven and back |date=11 January 2012 |work=[[The Times of India]] |access-date=2 March 2012}} For the Hindus, the Himalayas are personified as [[Himavat]], the king of all mountains and the father of the goddess [[Parvati]]. The Himalayas are also considered to be the father of the goddess [[Ganga (goddess)|Ganga]] (the personification of river Ganges).{{cite book|title=Dictionary of Hindu Lore and Legend|isbn=978-0-500-51088-9|first=Anna|last=Dallapiccola|year=2002|publisher=National Geographic Books |url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofhind0000dall}} Two of the most sacred places of pilgrimage for the Hindus are the temple complex in [[Pashupatinath Temple|Pashupatinath]] and [[Muktinath]], also known as Shaligrama because of the presence of the sacred black rocks called [[shaligram]]s. [189] => [190] => The [[Buddhists]] also lay a great deal of importance on the Himalayas. Paro Taktsang is the holy place where [[Buddhism]] started in [[Bhutan]].{{Cite web|url=https://www.huffingtonpost.com/kimberly-cantor/paro-bhutan-the-tigers-ne_b_10982104.html|title=Paro, Bhutan: The Tiger's Nest|last=Cantor|first=Kimberly|date=14 July 2016|website=Huffington Post|language=en-US|access-date=9 June 2018}} The Muktinath is also a place of pilgrimage for the Tibetan Buddhists. They believe that the trees in the poplar grove came from the walking sticks of eighty-four ancient Indian Buddhist magicians or ''mahasiddhas''. They consider the saligrams to be representatives of the Tibetan serpent deity known as Gawo Jagpa.{{cite book|last1=Zurick|first1=David|last2=Julsun|first2=Pacheco|last3=Basanta|first3=Raj Shrestha|last4=Birendra|first4=Bajracharya|title=Illustrated Atlas of the Himalaya|location=Lexington|publisher=U of Kentucky|year=2006}} The Himalayan people's diversity shows in many different ways. It shows through their architecture, their languages, and dialects, their beliefs and rituals, as well as their clothing. The shapes and materials of the people's homes reflect their practical needs and beliefs. Another example of the diversity amongst the Himalayan peoples is that handwoven textiles display colors and patterns unique to their ethnic backgrounds. Finally, some people place great importance on jewelry. The Rai and Limbu women wear big gold earrings and nose rings to show their wealth through their jewelry. Several places in the Himalayas are of religious significance in, [[Buddhism]], [[Jainism]], [[Sikhism]], [[Islam]] and [[Hinduism]]. A notable example of a religious site is [[Paro Taktsang]], where [[Padmasambhava]] is said to have founded [[Buddhism]] in [[Bhutan]].{{cite book|author=Pommaret, Francoise|title=Bhutan Himalayan Mountains Kingdom|edition=5th|publisher=Odyssey Books and Guides|year=2006|pages=136–137|isbn=978-962-217-810-6}} [191] => [192] => A number of [[Vajrayana|Vajrayana Buddhist]] sites are situated in the Himalayas, in [[Tibet]], [[Bhutan]], and in the Indian regions of [[Ladakh]], Sikkim, [[Arunachal Pradesh]], [[Spiti Valley|Spiti]], and [[Darjeeling]]. There were over 6,000 [[List of Tibetan monasteries|monasteries]] in Tibet, including the residence of the [[Dalai Lama]].{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/7307495.stm|title=Tibetan monks: A controlled life|work=BBC News|date=20 March 2008}} [[Bhutan]], [[Sikkim]], and [[Ladakh]] are also dotted with numerous monasteries.{{Cite journal |last=Mehra |first=P. L. |date=1960 |title=Lacunae in the Study of the History of Bhutan and Sikkim |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/44137539 |journal=Proceedings of the Indian History Congress |volume=23 |pages=190–201 |jstor=44137539 |issn=2249-1937}} [193] => [194] => ==Resources== [195] => The Himalayas are home to a diversity of medicinal resources. Plants from the forests have been used for millennia to treat conditions ranging from simple coughs to snake bites.{{Cite journal |title=Ecological status and traditional knowledge of medicinal plants in Kedarnath Wildlife Sanctuary of Garhwal Himalaya, India |journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine |volume=9 |page=1 |author1=Jahangeer A. Bhat |author2=Munesh Kumar |author3-link=Rainer W. Bussman |author3=Rainer W. Bussmann |date=2 January 2013 |doi=10.1186/1746-4269-9-1 |pmid=23281594 |pmc=3560114 |doi-access=free }} Different parts of the plants – root, flower, stem, leaves, and bark – are used as remedies for different ailments. For example, a bark extract from an ''[[Abies pindrow]]'' tree is used to treat coughs and bronchitis. Leaf and stem paste from an ''[[Andrachne|Andrachne cordifolia]]'' is used for wounds and as an antidote for snake bites. The bark of a ''[[Callicarpa|Callicarpa arborea]]'' is used for skin ailments. Nearly a fifth of the [[gymnosperm]]s, [[Flowering plant|angiosperms]], and [[pteridophyte]]s in the Himalayas are found to have medicinal properties, and more are likely to be discovered. [196] => [197] => Most of the population in some Asian and African countries depends on medicinal plants rather than prescriptions and such.{{cite book|last1=Gupta|first1=Pankaj|last2=Sharma|first2=Vijay Kumar|title=Healing Traditions of the Northwestern Himalayas|year=2014|publisher=Springer Briefs in Environmental Science|isbn=978-81-322-1925-5}} Since so many people use medicinal plants as their only source of healing in the Himalayas, the plants are an important source of income. This contributes to economic and modern industrial development both inside and outside the region. The only problem is that locals are rapidly clearing the forests on the Himalayas for wood, often illegally.{{cite journal|title=Himalayan Forests Disappearing|journal=Earth Island Journal|volume=21|issue=4|year=2006|pages=7–8}} [198] => [199] => ==See also== [200] => {{div col}} [201] => * [[Eastern Himalaya|Eastern]] and [[Western Himalaya]] [202] => * [[Indian Himalayan Region]] [203] => * [[List of Himalayan peaks and passes]] [204] => * [[List of Himalayan topics]] [205] => * [[List of mountains in India]], [[List of mountains in Pakistan|Pakistan]], [[Mountains of Bhutan|Bhutan]], [[List of mountains in Nepal|Nepal]] and [[List of mountains in China|China]] [206] => * [[List of Ultras of the Himalayas]] [207] => * [[Trekking peak]] [208] => {{div col end}} [209] => [210] => ==Notes== [211] => {{notelist}} [212] => [213] => == References == [214] => {{Reflist|refs= [215] => {{cite journal |title=Geochemistry of the Suspended Sediments of Circum-Himalayan Rivers and Weathering Budgets over the Last 50 Myrs |journal=Geophysical Research Abstracts |year=2003 |volume=5 | page=13,617 |id=Abstract 13617 |last1=Gaillardet |first1=J. |last2=Métivier |first2=F. |last3=Lemarchand |first3=D. |last4=Dupré |first4=B. |last5=Allègre |first5=C.J. |last6=Li |first6=W. |last7=Zhao |first7=J. |url=http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EAE03/13617/EAE03-J-13617.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.cosis.net/abstracts/EAE03/13617/EAE03-J-13617.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |access-date=4 November 2006 |bibcode=2003EAEJA....13617G}} [216] => [217] => {{cite web |url=http://www.gits4u.com/wb/wb6a.htm |title=Sunderbans the world's largest delta |publisher=gits4u.com |access-date=3 January 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150103191637/http://www.gits4u.com/wb/wb6a.htm |archive-date=3 January 2015 }} [218] => [219] => {{cite web | url=http://www.ipcc.ch/publications_and_data/ar4/wg2/en/ch10s10-6-2.html |title=the Himalayan Glaciers | date=2007 |website=Fourth assessment report on climate change |publisher=IPPC |access-date=22 January 2014}} [220] => [221] => {{cite book |title=Quaternary Glaciation – Extent and Chronology, A Closer Look |author=Kuhle, M. |year=2011 |chapter=The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and Last Glacial Maximum) Ice Cover of High and Central Asia, with a Critical Review of Some Recent OSL and TCN Dates |editor1-last=Ehlers |editor1-first=J. |editor2-last=Gibbard |editor2-first=P.L. |editor3-last=Hughes |editor3-first=P.D. |location=[[Amsterdam]] |publisher=[[Elsevier]] BV |pages=943–965}} [222] => [223] => {{cite journal |last=Kuhle |first=M. |year=2005 |title=The maximum Ice Age (Würmian, Last Ice Age, LGM) glaciation of the Himalaya – a glaciogeomorphological investigation of glacier trim-lines, ice thicknesses and lowest former ice margin positions in the Mt. Everest-Makalu-Cho Oyu massifs (Khumbu- and Khumbakarna Himal) including information on late-glacial-, neoglacial-, and historical glacier stages, their snow-line depressions and ages |journal=GeoJournal |volume=62 |pages=193–650 |issue=3–4 |doi=10.1007/s10708-005-2338-6}} [224] => [225] => {{cite journal |title=Subtropical mountain- and highland-glaciation as ice age triggers and the waning of the glacial periods in the Pleistocene |author=Kuhle, M. |year=1987 |journal=[[GeoJournal]] |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=393–421 |doi=10.1007/BF02602717|s2cid=129366521 }} [226] => [227] => {{cite web |url=http://www.pbs.org/wnet/nature/the-himalayas-himalayas-facts/6341/ |title=The Himalayas – Himalayas Facts |website=Nature on PBS |access-date=21 January 2014 |date=11 February 2011}} [228] => [229] => {{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/dynamic/himalaya.html |title=The Himalayas: Two continents collide |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] |date=5 May 1999 |access-date=3 January 2015}} [230] => }} [231] => [232] => ==Sources== [233] => ===General=== [234] => *{{citation|editor1-last=Wester|editor1-first=Philippus|editor2-last=Mishra|editor2-first=Arabinda|editor3-last=Mukherji|editor3-first=Aditi|editor4-last=Shrestha|editor4-first=Arun Bhakta|title=The Hindu Kush Himalya Assessment: Mountains, Climate Change, Sustainability and People|publisher=Springer Open, ICIMOD, HIMAP|isbn=978-3-319-92287-4|lccn=2018954855|year=2019}} [235] => *{{citation|last1=Zurick|first1=David|last2=Pacheco|first2=Julsun|others=with Basanta Shrestha and Birendra Bajracharya| title=Illustrated Atlas of the Himalayas|location=Lexington|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|isbn=9780813123882|year=2006|oclc=1102237054}} [236] => [237] => ===Geology=== [238] => *{{cite book|last=Chakrabarti|first=B. K. |title=Geology of the Himalayan Belt: Deformation, Metamorphism, Stratigraphy|location=Amsterdam and Boston|publisher=Elsevier|isbn=978-0-12-802021-0|year=2016}} [239] => *{{cite book|last=Davies|first=Geoffrey F.|title=Stories from the Deep Earth: How Scientists Figured Out What Drives Tectonic Plates and Mountain Building|location=Cham, Switzerland|publisher=Springer Nature|year=2022|isbn= 978-3-030-91358-8|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-91359-5|s2cid=245636487 }} [240] => *{{cite book|last1=Frisch|first1=Wolfgang|last2=Meschede|first2=Martin|last3=Blakey|first3=Ronald|title=Plate Tectonics: Continental Drift and Mountain Building|location=Heidelberg|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-540-76503-5|doi= 10.1007/978-3-540-76504-2|year=2011}} [241] => [242] => ===Climate=== [243] => *{{citation|last1=Clift|first1=Peter D.|last2=Plumb|first2=R. Alan|title=The Asian Monsoon: Causes, History and Effects|location=Cambridge and New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-84799-5|oclc=|lccn=|year=2008|quote=}} [244] => *{{citation|last=Barry|first=Roger E|title=Mountain Weather and Climate|edition=3rd|location=Cambridge and New York|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2008|isbn=978-0-521-86295-0}} [245] => [246] => ===Ecology=== [247] => ===Society=== [248] => ===Pilgrimage and Tourism=== [249] => *{{citation|last=Bleie|first=Tone|title=Pilgrim Tourism in the Central Himalayas: The Case of Manakamana Temple in Gorkha, Nepal|publisher=International Mountain Society|journal=Mountain Research and Development|volume=23|issue=2|pages=177–184|year=2003|doi=10.1659/0276-4741(2003)023[0177:PTITCH]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=56120507 |doi-access=free}} [250] => *{{citation|last=Howard|first=Christopher A|title=Mobile Lifeworlds: An Ethnography of Tourism and Pilgrimage in the Himalayas|year=2016|location=New York|publisher=Routledge|doi=10.4324/9781315622026|isbn=9780367877989}} [251] => *{{citation|last=Humbert-Droz|first=Blaise|editor1-last=Prins|editor1-first=Herbert H. T.|editor2-last=Namgail|editor2-first=Tsewang |others=Foreword by H.H. The Dali Lama|chapter=Impacts of Tourism and Military Presence on Wetlands and Their Avifauna in the Himalayas|title=Bird Migration across the Himalayas Wetland Functioning amidst Mountains and Glaciers|location=Cambridge, UK|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-1-107-11471-5|pages=343–358|year=2017}} [252] => *{{citation|last=Lim|first=Francis Khek Ghee|title=Hotels as sites of power: tourism, status, and politics in Nepal Himalaya|journal=Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute |series=New Series|publisher=Royal Anthropological Institute|volume = 13|pages= 721–738|year=2007|issue=3 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9655.2007.00452.x }} [253] => *{{citation|last1=Nyaupane |first1=Gyan P.|last2=Chhetri|first2=Netra|year=2009|title=Vulnerability to Climate Change of Nature-Based Tourism in the Nepalese Himalayas|journal=Tourism Geographies|volume=11|issue=1|pages=95–119|doi=10.1080/14616680802643359|s2cid=55042146 }} [254] => *{{citation|editor1-last=Nyaupane|editor1-first=Gyan P.|editor2-last=Timothy|editor2-first=Dallen J.|title=Tourism and Development in the Himalya: Social, Environmental, and Economic Forces|year=2022|isbn=9780367466275|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|series=Routledge Cultural Heritage and Tourism Series}} [255] => *{{citation|last1=Pati|first1=Vishwambhar Prasad|title=Sustainable Tourism Development in the Himalya: Constraints and Prospects|series=Environmental Science and Engineering |location=Cham, Switzerland|publisher=Springer Nature|isbn=978-3-030-58853-3|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-58854-0|year=2020|s2cid=229256111 |quote=}} [256] => *{{citation|last1=Serenari|first1=Christopher|last2=Leung|first2=Yu-Fai|last3=Attarian|first3=Aram|last4=Franck|first4=Chris|title=Understanding environmentally significant behavior among whitewater rafting and trekking guides in the Garhwal Himalaya, India|issn=|journal=Journal of Sustainable Tourism|volume=20|issue=5|pages=757–772|year=2012|doi=10.1080/09669582.2011.638383|bibcode=2012JSusT..20..757S |s2cid=153859477 }} [257] => [258] => ===Mountaineering and Trekking=== [259] => [260] => ==Further reading== [261] => * [[William McKay Aitken|Aitken, Bill]], ''Footloose in the Himalaya'', Delhi, Permanent Black, 2003. {{ISBN|81-7824-052-1}}. [262] => * Berreman, Gerald Duane, ''Hindus of the Himalayas: Ethnography and Change'', 2nd rev. ed., Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1997. [263] => * Edmundson, Henry, ''Tales from the Himalaya'', Vajra Books, Kathmandu, 2019. {{ISBN|978-9937-9330-3-2}}. [264] => * ''Everest'', the IMAX movie (1998). {{ISBN|0-7888-1493-1}}. [265] => * Fisher, James F., ''Sherpas: Reflections on Change in Himalayan Nepal'', 1990. Berkeley, University of California Press, 1990. {{ISBN|0-520-06941-2}}. [266] => * [[Augusto Gansser-Biaggi|Gansser, Augusto]], [[Andreas Gruschke|Gruschke, Andreas]], Olschak, Blanche C., ''Himalayas. Growing Mountains, Living Myths, Migrating Peoples'', New York, Oxford: Facts On File, 1987. {{ISBN|0-8160-1994-0}} and New Delhi: Bookwise, 1987. [267] => * Gupta, Raj Kumar, ''Bibliography of the Himalayas'', Gurgaon, Indian Documentation Service, 1981. [268] => * [[John Hunt, Baron Hunt|Hunt, John]], ''Ascent of Everest'', London, Hodder & Stoughton, 1956. {{ISBN|0-89886-361-9}}. [269] => * [[Maurice Isserman|Isserman, Maurice]] and Weaver, Stewart, ''Fallen Giants: The History of Himalayan Mountaineering from the Age of Empire to the Age of Extremes''. Yale University Press, 2008. {{ISBN|978-0-300-11501-7}}. [270] => * Ives, Jack D. and Messerli, Bruno, ''The Himalayan Dilemma: Reconciling Development and Conservation''. London / New York, Routledge, 1989. {{ISBN|0-415-01157-4}}. [271] => * Lall, J.S. (ed.) in association with Moddie, A.D., ''The Himalaya, Aspects of Change''. Delhi, Oxford University Press, 1981. {{ISBN|0-19-561254-X}}. [272] => * Nandy, S.N., Dhyani, P.P. and Samal, P.K., ''[http://gbpihedenvis.nic.in/ENVIS%20Monograph/ENVIS%20Monograph%203.pdf Resource Information Database of the Indian Himalaya]'', Almora, GBPIHED, 2006. [273] => * [[Swami Sundaranand]], ''Himalaya: Through the Lens of a Sadhu''. Published by Tapovan Kuti Prakashan (2001). {{ISBN|81-901326-0-1}}. [274] => * Swami [[Tapovan Maharaj]], ''Wanderings in the Himalayas'', English Edition, Madras, Chinmaya Publication Trust, 1960. Translated by T.N. Kesava Pillai. [275] => * [[Bill Tilman|Tilman, H. W.]], ''Mount Everest, 1938'', Cambridge University Press, 1948. [276] => * Turner, Bethan, et al. ''Seismicity of the Earth 1900–2010: Himalaya and Vicinity''. Denver, United States Geological Survey, 2013. [277] => [278] => ==External links== [279] => {{sister project links|auto=1}} [280] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130118002451/http://www.digitalhimalaya.com/ The Digital Himalaya research project at Cambridge and Yale] (archived) [281] => * [http://oak.ucc.nau.edu/wittke/Tibet/Himalaya.html Geology of the Himalayan mountains] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100616162641/http://oak.ucc.nau.edu/wittke/Tibet/Himalaya.html |date=16 June 2010 }} [282] => * [https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/everest/earth/birth.html Birth of the Himalaya] [283] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20130319033748/http://pulitzercenter.org/projects/asia/south-asias-troubled-waters South Asia's Troubled Waters] Journalistic project at the Pulitzer Centre for Crisis Reporting (archived) [284] => * [https://editors.eol.org/eoearth/wiki/Biological_diversity_in_the_Himalayas Biological diversity in the Himalayas] Encyclopedia of Earth [285] => {{Navboxes top}} [286] => {{GeoSouthAsia}} [287] => {{Himalayan earthquakes}} [288] => {{Physical geography topics}} [289] => {{Nepal topics}} [290] => {{Kosi basin}} [291] => {{Uttarakhand}} [292] => {{Mountain ranges of China}} [293] => {{Regions of the world}} [294] => {{Navboxes bottom}} [295] => {{Authority control}} [296] => [297] => [[Category:Himalayas| ]] [298] => [[Category:Mountain ranges of the Himalayas| ]] [299] => [[Category:Mountain ranges of China]] [300] => [[Category:Geography of East Asia]] [301] => [[Category:Geography of South Asia]] [302] => [[Category:Landforms of East Asia]] [303] => [[Category:Landforms of South Asia]] [304] => [[Category:Physiographic divisions]] [305] => [[Category:Tibetan Plateau]] [] => )
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Himalayas

The Wikipedia page on the Himalayas provides a comprehensive overview of the mountain range, its geography, geology, climate, flora, fauna, human population, and cultural significance. Located in South Asia, the Himalayas stretch across several countries, including India, Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, and Pakistan.

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Located in South Asia, the Himalayas stretch across several countries, including India, Nepal, Bhutan, Tibet, and Pakistan. The geography section covers the range's physical features, such as the tallest peak in the world, Mount Everest, which stands at a staggering 8,848 meters (29,029 feet). The page also discusses the formation of the Himalayas through tectonic plate collisions and uplift processes over millions of years. In terms of climate, the Himalayas have a diverse range of ecosystems due to their altitudinal variation. The Southeast Asian monsoon system heavily influences the region's weather patterns, resulting in heavy rainfall in the summer and snowfall during winter months. The page also highlights the rich biodiversity found in the Himalayas. The region is home to several endangered species, including the snow leopard, Bengal tiger, and one-horned rhinoceros. Its unique ecosystem supports a variety of plant life, including medicinal herbs and rare orchids. Besides its natural features, the Himalayas have a significant cultural and religious importance. The pages explore the role of the mountains in Hinduism, Buddhism, and other belief systems. The range is dotted with numerous sacred sites, pilgrimage destinations, and monasteries, attracting millions of visitors each year. Furthermore, the Himalayan region is inhabited by diverse ethnic groups who have developed their distinct cultures, languages, and traditions. The page delves into the human population and explores the challenges faced by communities living in remote mountainous areas, such as limited access to healthcare and education. Overall, the Wikipedia page on the Himalayas provides a comprehensive and informative account of this majestic mountain range, highlighting both its natural beauty and cultural significance.

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