Array ( [0] => {{Short description|International nuclear fusion research and engineering megaproject}} [1] => {{About||the type of medieval circuit court|Eyre (legal term)|the computer science terminology|Iterator}} [2] => {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2020}} [3] => {{Infobox organization [4] => | name = ITER [5] => | image = [6] => | caption = [7] => | map = File:ITER participants.svg [8] => | mcaption = {{small|Participating members (partners not shown)}} [9] => | headquarters = [[Saint-Paul-lès-Durance]], {{FRA}} [10] => | membership = {{CHN}}
{{EU}}

Members via [[EURATOM]]:{{Cite web |date=11 January 2021 |title=What is ITER? |url=https://www.iter.org/proj/inafewlines |access-date=25 October 2022 |website=ITER}}

[11] => [15] => {{IND}}
[16] => {{JPN}}
[17] => {{KOR}}
[18] => {{RUS}}
[19] => {{USA}}
[20] =>
[21] => '''Partners:'''
[22] => {{AUS}}
[23] => {{CAN}}
[24] => {{KAZ}}
[25] => {{THA}} [26] => | leader_title = Director-General [27] => | leader_name = Pietro Barabaschi [28] => | leader_title2 = [29] => | leader_name2 = [30] => | formation = {{start date and age|2007|10|24|df=y}} [31] => | website = {{URL|https://www.iter.org/}} [32] => }} [33] => {{Infobox fusion devices [34] => |name = ITER [35] => |fullname = [36] => |image = ITER Exhibit (01810402) (12219071813) (cropped).jpg [37] => |imagetitle = Small-scale model of ITER [38] => |type = [[Tokamak]] [39] => |city = Saint-Paul-lès-Durance [40] => |state = [41] => |country = {{FRA}} [42] => |affiliation = [43] => |major_radius = {{cvt|6.2|m}} [44] => |minor_radius = [45] => |volume = {{val|840|ul=m3}} [46] => |field = {{val|11.8|ul=T}} (peak toroidal field on coil)
{{val|5.3|ul=T}} (toroidal field on axis)
{{val|6|ul=T}} (peak poloidal field on coil) [47] => |heating = {{val|320|ul=MW}} (electrical input)
{{val|50|ul=MW}} (thermal absorbed) [48] => |power = {{val|0|ul=MW}} (electrical generation)
{{val|500|ul=MW}} (thermal from fusion) [49] => |time = up to {{val|1000|ul=s}} [50] => |current = [51] => |temperature = [52] => |construction_date = 2013–2025 [53] => |operation_start_year = [54] => |operation_end_year = [55] => |ongoing = [56] => |prev = [57] => |next = [58] => |related = [59] => |website = [60] => |other_links = [61] => }} [62] => [63] => '''ITER''' (initially the '''International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor''', ''iter'' meaning "the way" or "the path" in Latin{{cite book |location=Vienna |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |date=2002 |title=ITER Technical Basis |url=https://www-pub.iaea.org/books/IAEABooks/6492/ITER-Technical-Basis |access-date=12 September 2018}}{{cite magazine|author=|date=2019-05-04|title=ITER, a reactor in France, may deliver fusion energy power as early as 2045|url=https://www.economist.com/science-and-technology/2019/05/02/iter-a-reactor-in-france-may-deliver-fusion-power-as-early-as-2045|magazine=The Economist|location=London, England|access-date=2021-03-20|quote=Iter (originally, "International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor", but now rebranded as Latin, thus meaning "journey", "path" or "method") will be a giant fusion reactor of a type called a tokamak.}}{{cite web|author=|title=What is Iter|url=https://fusionforenergy.europa.eu/iter/|access-date=2021-03-20|publisher=Fusion for Energy}}) is an international [[nuclear fusion]] research and engineering [[megaproject]] aimed at creating energy through a fusion process similar to that of the [[Sun]]. Upon completion of construction of the main reactor and first plasma, planned for late 2025,{{cite web|url=https://www.iter.org/proj/ITERMilestones|title=On the road to ITER: Milestones|access-date=5 August 2021}} it will be the world's largest [[Magnetic confinement fusion|magnetic confinement]] [[plasma physics]] experiment and the largest experimental [[tokamak]] nuclear fusion reactor. It is being built next to the [[Cadarache]] facility in southern France.[https://web.archive.org/web/20060824071609/http://www.efda.org/the_iter_project/index.htm The ITER project]. EFDA, European Fusion Development Agreement (2006).{{Cite book|last=Claessens|first=Michel|title=ITER: The Giant Fusion Reactor: Bringing a Sun to Earth|publisher=Copernicus|year=2020|isbn=978-3-030-27580-8}} ITER will be the largest of more than 100 fusion reactors built since the 1950s, with ten times the plasma volume of any other tokamak operating today.{{ r | goals }} [64] => [65] => The long-term goal of fusion research is to generate electricity. ITER's stated purpose is scientific research, and technological demonstration of a large fusion reactor, without electricity generation.{{cite magazine |last=Tirone|first=Jonathan|title=Chasing Unlimited Energy With the World's Largest Fusion Reaction|url= https://www.bloomberg.com/features/2019-iter-nuclear-fusion/|magazine=Bloomberg Businessweek|location=New York, USA |publisher=Bloomberg L.P.|date=2019-10-29 |access-date=2021-03-20}}{{cite journal|last1=Meade|first1=Dale|date=2010|title=50 years of fusion research|journal=Nuclear Fusion|language=en|volume=50|issue=1|page=014004|bibcode=2010NucFu..50a4004M|doi=10.1088/0029-5515/50/1/014004|s2cid=17802364 |issn=0029-5515}} ITER's goals are to achieve enough fusion to produce 10 times as much thermal output power as thermal power absorbed by the plasma for short time periods; to demonstrate and test technologies that would be needed to operate a fusion power plant including cryogenics, heating, control and diagnostics systems, and remote maintenance; to achieve and learn from a ''burning'' plasma; to test [[tritium]] [[Breeding blanket|breeding]]; and to demonstrate the safety of a fusion plant.{{cite web |author= |title=What Will ITER Do?|url= https://www.iter.org/sci/Goals/|publisher=ITER|access-date=2021-03-20 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210426225016/https://www.iter.org/sci/goals | archive-date=2021-04-26 | url-status=live }} [66] => [67] => ITER's [[thermonuclear fusion]] reactor will use over 300 MW of electrical power to cause the plasma to absorb 50 [[Watt#Megawatt|MW]] of thermal power, creating 500 MW of heat from fusion for periods of 400 to 600 seconds.{{cite magazine |last=Overton|first=Thomas|title=Fusion Energy Is Coming, and Maybe Sooner Than You Think|url= https://www.powermag.com/fusion-energy-is-coming-and-maybe-sooner-than-you-think/ |magazine=Power|location=Rockville, MD, USA|publisher=Power Group|date=2020-06-01 |access-date=2021-03-20}} This would mean a ten-fold [[Fusion energy gain factor|gain of plasma heating power]] (''Q''), as measured by heating input to thermal output, or ''Q'' ≥ 10.{{cite web|title=Facts & Figures|url=https://www.iter.org/factsfigures|website=ITER|access-date=25 November 2017|language=en}} {{As of|2022}}, the record for energy production using nuclear fusion is held by the [[National Ignition Facility]] reactor, which achieved a ''Q'' of 1.5 in December 2022.{{Cite web|url=https://www.energy.gov/articles/doe-national-laboratory-makes-history-achieving-fusion-ignition|title=DOE National Laboratory Makes History by Achieving Fusion Ignition|date=December 13, 2022|access-date=December 13, 2022}} Beyond just heating the plasma, the total electricity consumed by the reactor and facilities will range from 110 MW up to 620 MW peak for 30-second periods during plasma operation.{{cite web|title=Power Supply|url=https://www.iter.org/mach/powersupply|website=ITER|access-date=25 November 2017|language=en}} As a research reactor, the heat energy generated will not be converted to electricity, but simply [[Flue|vented]].{{cite web|url=http://www.jt60sa.org/b/FAQ/EE2.htm|title=Will ITER make more energy than it consumes?|website=www.jt60sa.org|access-date=12 September 2018|archive-date=2 April 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190402131059/http://www.jt60sa.org/b/FAQ/EE2.htm|url-status=dead}}{{cite news |last=Fountain|first=Henry|title=A Dream of Clean Energy at a Very High Price|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2017/03/27/science/fusion-power-plant-iter-france.html|work=The New York Times|location=New York, USA|date=2017-03-27 |access-date=2021-03-20}} [68] => [69] => ITER is funded and run by seven member parties: [[China]], the [[European Union]], [[India]], [[Japan]], [[Russia]], [[South Korea]] and the [[United States]]. The [[United Kingdom]] participates through [[EU]]'s [[Fusion for Energy]] (F4E), [[Switzerland]] participates through [[Euratom]] and F4E, and the project has cooperation agreements with Australia, Canada, Kazakhstan and Thailand.{{cite web |author= |title=ITER Members|url= https://www.iter.org/proj/Countries|publisher=ITER|access-date=2021-03-20}} [70] => [71] => Construction of the ITER complex in France started in 2013,{{cite web |author= |title=ITER Tokamak complex construction begins|url=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsiter-tokamak-complex-construction-begins|publisher=Nuclear Engineering International|date=2013-06-24 |access-date=2021-03-20}} and assembly of the tokamak began in 2020.{{cite news |author=Paul Rincon|title=Iter: World's largest nuclear fusion project begins assembly|url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-27138087|publisher=BBC|date=2020-07-28|access-date=2021-03-20}} The initial budget was close to €6 billion, but the total price of construction and operations is projected to be from €18 to €22 billion;{{cite news |last=De Clercq|first=Geert|title=Nuclear fusion reactor ITER's construction accelerates as cost estimate swells|url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-nuclear-iter-idUSKCN1271BC|publisher=Reuters|location=London, England|date=2016-10-07 |access-date=2021-03-20}}{{cite web |last=Hutt|first=Rosamond|title=Scientists just got closer to making nuclear fusion work| url= https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2019/05/nuclear-fusion-could-solve-the-world-s-energy-problems-and-scientists-just-got-closer-to-making-it-work | publisher=World Economic Forum|date=2019-05-14 |access-date=2021-03-20}} other estimates place the total cost between $45 billion and $65 billion, though these figures are disputed by ITER.{{cite news |last=Claessens|first=Michel|title=Breakthrough at the ITER Fusion Reactor Paves Way for Energy Source That May Alter the Course of Civilization|url= https://www.newsweek.com/breakthrough-iter-fusion-reactor-paves-way-energy-source-that-may-alter-course-civilization-1507324|publisher=Newsweek |location=New York, USA|date=2020-05-29 |access-date=2021-03-20}}{{cite news |last=Kramer|first=David|title=ITER disputes DOE's cost estimate of fusion project|url= https://physicstoday.scitation.org/do/10.1063/PT.6.2.20180416a/full/| magazine=Physics Today|publisher=American Institute of Physics|location=College Park, MD, USA|date=2018-04-16 |doi=10.1063/PT.6.2.20180416a|access-date=2021-03-20}} Regardless of the final cost, ITER has already been described as the most expensive science experiment of all time,{{cite news |last=Clery|first=Daniel|title=Inside the Most Expensive Science Experiment Ever|url= https://www.popsci.com/science/article/2013-06/piece-sun/| magazine=Popular Science |publisher=Bonnier Corporation|location=Winter Park, FL, USA|date=2013-06-27 |access-date=2021-03-20}} the most complicated engineering project in human history,{{cite news |last=Cohen|first=Ariel|title=ITER, The World's Largest Nuclear Fusion Project: A Big Step Forward|url= https://www.forbes.com/sites/arielcohen/2020/08/07/iter-the-worlds-largest-nuclear-fusion-project-a-big-step-forward/?sh=38766efd5e2c| magazine=Forbes |publisher=Integrated Whale Media|location=New York, USA|date=2020-08-07 |access-date=2021-03-20}} and one of the most ambitious human collaborations since the development of the [[International Space Station]] (€100 billion or $150 billion budget) and the [[Large Hadron Collider]] (€7.5 billion budget).{{efn|Other large projects include the F-35 Fighter Jet Program ($1.5 trillion or $1500 billion), the Manhattan Project ($30.6 billion), the Apollo program ($156 billion), and the James Webb Space Telescope ($9.8 billion).|name=a|group=note}}{{Cite book|last1=Parisi|first1=Jason|last2=Ball|first2=Justin|title=The Future of Fusion Energy|url=https://www.worldscientific.com/doi/10.1142/9781786345431_0007|publisher=World Scientific|location=Singapore|year=2019|doi=10.1142/9781786345431_0007|isbn=978-1-78634-542-4|s2cid=239317702}}{{cite news | author= |title=France gets nuclear fusion plant|url= http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/4629239.stm|publisher=BBC|date=2005-06-28|access-date=2021-03-20}} [72] => [73] => ITER's planned successor, the [[EUROfusion]]-led [[DEMOnstration Power Plant|DEMO]], is expected to be one of the first fusion reactors to produce electricity in an experimental environment.{{cite web |author= |title=The demonstration power plant: DEMO|url= https://www.euro-fusion.org/programme/demo/|publisher=EUROfusion|access-date=2021-03-20}} [74] => [75] => == Background == [76] => [[File:Deuterium-tritium fusion.svg|thumb|upright=0.9|ITER will produce energy by fusing [[deuterium]] and [[tritium]] into [[Helium-3|helium]].]] [77] => Fusion aims to replicate the process that takes place in stars where the intense heat at the core fuses together nuclei and produces massive amounts of energy in the form of heat and light. Harnessing fusion power in terrestrial conditions would provide sufficient energy to satisfy mounting demand, and to do so in a sustainable manner that has a relatively small impact on the environment. One gram of [[deuterium-tritium]] fuel mixture in the process of [[nuclear fusion]] produces 90,000-kilowatt hours of energy, or the equivalent of 11 tonnes of coal.{{cite web|author=|title=What is nuclear fusion?|url=https://www.ipp.mpg.de/15047/kernfusion|access-date=2021-03-20|publisher=Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics}} [78] => [79] => Nuclear fusion uses a different approach from traditional nuclear energy. Current nuclear power stations rely on nuclear fission with the nucleus of an atom being split to release energy. Nuclear fusion takes multiple nuclei and uses intense heat to fuse them together, a process that also releases energy. [80] => [81] => Nuclear fusion has many potential attractions. The fuel is relatively abundant or can be produced in a fusion reactor. After preliminary tests with deuterium, ITER will use a mix of deuterium-tritium for its fusion because of the combination's high energy potential{{cite magazine |last=Delbert|first=Caroline|title=This Fuel Is About to Power the World's Biggest Fusion Reactor|url= https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/a35597038/fuel-powers-iter-worlds-biggest-fusion-reactor/| magazine=Popular Science |publisher=Bonnier Corporation|location=Winter Park, FL, USA|date=2021-02-23 |access-date=2021-03-20}} and because this [[Fusion power#Deuterium, tritium|fusion reaction is the easiest]] to run. The first isotope, [[deuterium]], can be extracted from [[seawater]], from which it is a nearly inexhaustible resource.[http://www.iter.org/sci/fusionfuels "Fusion fuels"]. ITER. Retrieved 24 October 2011. The second isotope, [[tritium]], only occurs in trace amounts in nature and the estimated world's supply (mainly produced by the heavy-water [[CANDU reactor|CANDU]] fission reactors) is just 20 kilograms per year, insufficient for power plants.{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.fusengdes.2018.04.090|title=Tritium supply and use: A key issue for the development of nuclear fusion energy|year=2018|last1=Pearson|first1=Richard J.|last2=Antoniazzi|first2=Armando B.|last3=Nuttall|first3=William J.|journal=Fusion Engineering and Design|volume=136|pages=1140–1148|s2cid=53560490|url=http://oro.open.ac.uk/55293/1/1-s2.0-S092037961830379X-main.pdf}} ITER will be testing tritium [[breeding blanket]] technology that would allow a future fusion reactor to create its own tritium and thus be self-sufficient.{{cite web |author= |title=China launches Iter tritium breeding project|url= https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/China-launches-Iter-tritium-breeding-project |publisher=World Nuclear News | location=London, England|date=2021-03-17|access-date=2021-03-20}}{{cite web |last=Brans|first=Pat|title=Perfecting Tritium Breeding for DEMO and Beyond|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3447| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2020-05-18|access-date=2021-03-20}} Furthermore, a fusion reactor would produce virtually no [[Carbon dioxide|CO2]] emissions or atmospheric pollutants, there would be no chance of a meltdown, and its [[nuclear waste|radioactive waste products]] would mostly be very short-lived compared to those produced by conventional nuclear reactors (fission reactors).{{cite magazine | author= |title=Is nuclear fusion the answer?|url= https://theweek.com/articles/973971/nuclear-fusion-answer| magazine=The Week |publisher=Adam Dub|location=New York, NY, USA|date=2021-02-22 |access-date=2021-03-29}} [82] => [83] => On 21 November 2006, the seven project partners formally agreed to fund the creation of a nuclear fusion reactor.{{cite web |title= Green light for nuclear fusion project |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn10633-green-light-for-nuclear-fusion-project/ |date=21 November 2006 |website=[[New Scientist]] |access-date=13 September 2009}} The program is anticipated to last for 30 years – 10 years for construction, and 20 years of operation. ITER was originally expected to cost approximately €5 billion.{{cite magazine |last=Brumfiel|first=Geoff|title=EU research funds to be diverted to fusion reactor|url= https://www.nature.com/news/2010/100707/full/466171a.html| magazine=Nature |publisher=Springer Nature Group|location=London, England|date=2010-07-07 |access-date=2021-03-20}} However, delays, the rising price of raw materials, and changes to the initial design have seen the official budget estimate rise to between €18 billion and €20 billion.{{cite magazine |last=Clery|first=Daniel|title=Fusion megaproject confirms 5-year delay, trims costs|url= https://www.science.org/content/article/fusion-megaproject-confirms-5-year-delay-trims-costs| magazine=Science|publisher=American Association for the Advancement of Science|location=Washington, D.C., USA|date=2016-06-16 |access-date=2021-03-20}}{{cite news |last=Guguen|first=Guillaume|title=Power from an artificial sun: Fusion reactor project aims to provide clean energy |url= https://www.france24.com/en/20200731-power-from-an-artificial-sun-fusion-reactor-project-aims-to-provide-clean-energy| website=France 24|publisher=France Médias Monde|location=Paris, France|date=2020-07-31 |access-date=2021-03-20}} [84] => [85] => The reactor was expected to take 10 years to build, and ITER had planned to test its first plasma in 2020 and achieve full fusion by 2023, however the schedule is now to test first plasma in 2025 and full fusion in 2035.{{cite news |title=Solar power with a difference as ITER nuclear fusion assembly starts |url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-nuclear-iter-idUSKCN24T1R3 |first=Geert |last=De Clercq |website=[[Reuters]] |location= London, England |date=2020-07-28 |access-date=2021-03-20}} Site preparation has begun near [[Cadarache]] center, France, and French President [[Emmanuel Macron]] launched the assembly phase of the project at a ceremony in 2020.{{cite news |last=Carrington|first=Damien|title=World's largest nuclear fusion project begins assembly in France|url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2020/jul/28/worlds-largest-nuclear-fusion-project-under-assembly-in-france/ | newspaper=The Guardian |location=London, England|date=2020-07-28 |access-date=2021-03-20}} Under the revised schedule, work to achieve the first hydrogen plasma discharge was 70% complete in the middle of 2020 and considered to be on track.{{cite magazine | author= |doi=10.1038/s41567-020-01043-9 |title=The way ahead for fusion |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41567-020-01043-9 |magazine=Nature Physics |publisher=Springer Nature Group |location=London, England |date=2020-08-20 |volume=16 |issue=9 |page=889 |access-date=2020-08-28 }} [86] => [87] => One of the ITER objectives is a [[Fusion energy gain factor|Q-value ("fusion gain")]] of 10. Q = 1 is called "breakeven". The best result achieved in a tokamak is 0.67 in the [[Joint European Torus|JET]] tokamak.{{cite web |author= |title=History of fusion|url= https://www.euro-fusion.org/fusion/history-of-fusion/ |publisher=EUROfusion|access-date=2021-03-20}} The best result achieved for fusion in general is Q = 1.5, achieved in an [[inertial confinement fusion]] (ICF) experiment by the [[National Ignition Facility]] in late 2022. [88] => [89] => For commercial fusion power stations, engineering gain factor is important. Engineering gain factor is defined as the ratio of a plant electrical power output to electrical power input of all plant's internal systems (tokamak external heating systems, electromagnets, cryogenics plant, diagnostics and control systems, etc.).{{cite web |author= |title=Plasma energy breakeven vs engineering breakeven. |url=http://www.iter.org/faq#What_is_the_difference_between_plasma_energy_breakeven_and_engineering_breakeven |magazine= |publisher=iter.org |location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France |access-date=2021-12-06}} Commercial fusion plants will be designed with engineering breakeven in mind (see [[DEMOnstration Power Plant|DEMO]]). Some nuclear engineers consider a Q of 100 to be required for commercial fusion power stations to be viable.{{cite magazine | last=Nathan|first=Stuart |title=Beyond ITER: next steps for fusion power|url= https://www.theengineer.co.uk/beyond-iter-next-steps-in-fusion-power/ | magazine=The Engineer |publisher=Mark Allen Group|location=London, England|date=2019-01-03 |access-date=2020-08-28}} [90] => [91] => ITER will not produce electricity. Producing electricity from thermal sources is a well known process (used in many power stations) and ITER will not run with significant fusion power output continuously. Adding electricity production to ITER would raise the cost of the project and bring no value for experiments on the tokamak. The [[DEMOnstration Power Plant|DEMO]]-class reactors that are planned to follow ITER are intended to demonstrate the net production of electricity.{{cite web |author= |title=Why the EU supports fusion research and innovation |url= https://ec.europa.eu/info/research-and-innovation/research-area/energy-research-and-innovation/nuclear-fusion_en |publisher=European Commission |access-date=2021-03-20}} [92] => [93] => One of the primary ITER objectives is to achieve a state of "[[burning plasma]]". Burning plasma is the state of the plasma when more than 50% of the energy received for plasma heating is received from fusion reactions (not from external sources). No fusion reactors had created a burning plasma until the competing NIF fusion project reached the milestone on 8 August 2021 using inertial confinement.{{cite web |last=Brans|first=Pat|title=What is a burning plasma?|url= http://www.iter.org/faq#What_is_a_burning_plasma| magazine= |publisher=iter.org|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|access-date=2021-11-30}}{{cite journal | pmc=8791836 | year=2022 | last1=Zylstra | first1=A. B. | last2=Hurricane | first2=O. A. | last3=Callahan | first3=D. A. | last4=Kritcher | first4=A. L. | last5=Ralph | first5=J. E. | last6=Robey | first6=H. F. | last7=Ross | first7=J. S. | last8=Young | first8=C. V. | last9=Baker | first9=K. L. | last10=Casey | first10=D. T. | last11=Döppner | first11=T. | last12=Divol | first12=L. | last13=Hohenberger | first13=M. | last14=Le Pape | first14=S. | last15=Pak | first15=A. | last16=Patel | first16=P. K. | last17=Tommasini | first17=R. | last18=Ali | first18=S. J. | last19=Amendt | first19=P. A. | last20=Atherton | first20=L. J. | last21=Bachmann | first21=B. | last22=Bailey | first22=D. | last23=Benedetti | first23=L. R. | last24=Berzak Hopkins | first24=L. | last25=Betti | first25=R. | last26=Bhandarkar | first26=S. D. | last27=Biener | first27=J. | last28=Bionta | first28=R. M. | last29=Birge | first29=N. W. | last30=Bond | first30=E. J. | title=Burning plasma achieved in inertial fusion | journal=Nature | volume=601 | issue=7894 | pages=542–548 | doi=10.1038/s41586-021-04281-w | pmid=35082418 | bibcode=2022Natur.601..542Z | display-authors=1 }} At higher Q values, progressively bigger parts of plasma heating power will be produced by fusion reactions.{{cite web |author= |title=More info on burning plasma. |url=http://www.iter.org/faq#Will_ITER_be_the_first_burning_plasma_device_in_the_world |magazine= |publisher=iter.org |location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France |access-date=2021-11-30}} This reduces the power needed from external heating systems at high Q values. The bigger a tokamak is, the more fusion-reaction-produced energy is preserved for internal plasma heating (and the less external heating is required), which also improves its Q-value. This is how ITER plans for its tokamak reactor to scale. [94] => [95] => == Organisation history == [96] => [[File:President Ronald Reagan and Soviet General Secretary Mikhail Gorbachev at the first Summit in Geneva, Switzerland.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Ronald Reagan]] and [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] at the [[Geneva Summit (1985)|Geneva Summit in 1985]]]] [97] => [98] => The initial international cooperation for a nuclear fusion project that was the foundation of ITER began in 1978{{Cite web |title=INTOR: The international fusion reactor that never was |url=http://www.iter.org/newsline/62/146 |access-date=2022-04-04 |website=ITER |language=en}}{{Cite web |last=[[IAEA]] |title=International Tokamak Reactor |url=https://nucleus.iaea.org/sites/fusionportal |access-date=2022-04-04 |website=Nucleus |language=en-US}} with the International Tokamak Reactor, or INTOR, which had four partners: the Soviet Union, the [[European Atomic Energy Community]], the United States, and Japan. However, the INTOR project stalled until [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] became general secretary of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union in March 1985. Gorbachev first revived interest in a collaborative fusion project in an October 1985 meeting with French President [[François Mitterrand]], and then the idea was further developed in November 1985 at the [[Geneva Summit (1985)|Geneva Summit]] with [[Ronald Reagan]].{{cite book |last=Clery |first=Daniel |date=2013 |title=A Piece of the Sun: The Quest for Fusion Energy |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=ABCLDwAAQBAJ |location=New York, NY, USA |publisher=Abrams Press |pages=243–44 |isbn= 978-1-4683-0493-0}}{{cite journal|author=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. |title=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |journal=Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists: Science and Public Affairs |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_wQwAAAAAMBAJ |date=October 1992 |publisher=Educational Foundation for Nuclear Science, Inc. |pages=[https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_wQwAAAAAMBAJ/page/n10 9]– |issn=0096-3402}}{{Cite book|author1=Braams, C.M. |author2=Stott, P.E. |title=Nuclear Fusion: Half a Century of Magnetic Confinement Fusion Research |journal=Nuclear Fusion: Half a Century of Magnetic Confinement Fusion Research/ C.m. Braams and P.E. Stott. Bristol; Philadelphia: Iop; C2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Zj4vx9O0T0YC&pg=PA250 |date=2010 |isbn=978-0-7503-0705-5 |pages=250–|bibcode=2002nfhc.book.....B }} [99] => [100] => Preparations for the Gorbachev-Reagan summit showed that there were no tangible agreements in the works for the summit. However, the ITER project was gaining momentum in political circles due to the quiet work being done by two physicists, the American scientist [[Alvin Trivelpiece]] who served as Director of the Office of Energy Research in the 1980s and the Russian scientist [[Evgeny Velikhov]] who would become head of the [[Kurchatov Institute]] for nuclear research. The two scientists both supported a project to construct a demonstration fusion reactor. At the time, magnetic fusion research was ongoing in Japan, Europe, the Soviet Union and the US, but Trivelpiece and Velikhov believed that taking the next step in fusion research would be beyond the budget of any of the key nations and that collaboration would be useful internationally.{{cite web |last=Arnoux|first=Robert|title=Conceived in Geneva, Born in Reykjavik, Bapitized in Vienna|url= https://www.iter.org/fr/newsline/-/2323 | magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2015-11-16|access-date=2021-03-20}} [101] => [102] => Dr. Michael Robert, who is the director of International Programs of the Office of Fusion Energy at the US Department of Energy, explains that, 'In September 1985, I led a US science team to Moscow as part of our bilateral fusion activities. Velikhov proposed to me at lunch one day his idea of having the USSR and USA work together to proceed to a fusion reactor. My response was 'great idea', but from my position, I have no capability of pushing that idea upward to the President.' {{cite magazine | last=Robinson|first=Mark |title= Big Science Collaborations; Lessons for Global Governance and Leadership |url= https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1111/1758-5899.12861 | magazine=Global Policy |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|location=Hoboken, NJ, US|date=2020-10-10 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=66–80 |doi=10.1111/1758-5899.12861 |access-date=2021-03-28}} [103] => [104] => This push for cooperation on nuclear fusion is cited as a key moment of [[science diplomacy]], but nonetheless a major bureaucratic fight erupted in the US government over the project. One argument against collaboration was that the Soviets would use it to steal US technology and expertise. A second was symbolic and involved American criticism of how the Soviet physicist [[Andrei Sakharov]] was being treated. Sakharov was an early proponent of the peaceful use of nuclear technology and along with [[Igor Tamm]] he developed the idea for the tokamak that is at the heart of nuclear fusion research.{{cite magazine |last=Bonner|first=Elena|title=Sakharov is Tokamak's Originator|url= https://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/full/10.1063/1.2169425| magazine=Physics Today |publisher=American Institute of Physics|location=College Park, MD, US|date=2005-12-01 |volume=58 |issue=12 |page=15 |doi=10.1063/1.2169425|access-date=2021-03-20}} However, Sakharov also supported broader civil liberties in the Soviet Union, and his activism earned him both the 1975 Nobel peace prize and internal exile in Russia, which he opposed by going on multiple hunger strikes.{{cite magazine | author= |title=Time to stand up|url= https://www.nature.com/articles/s42254-019-0073-z?WT.ec_id=NATREVPHYS-201906&sap-outbound-id=53FA60284D4EC7512240E4DA64C38AB1C59132F5&mkt-key=005056A5C6311ED8A9956F44A9A7846A| magazine=Nature Reviews Physics |publisher=Springer Nature Group|location=London, England|date=2019-06-05 |access-date=2020-08-28}} The [[United States National Security Council]] convened a meeting under the direction of [[William Flynn Martin]] to discuss the nuclear fusion project that resulted in a consensus that the US should go forward with the project. [105] => [106] => This led to nuclear fusion cooperation being discussed at the Geneva summit and release of a historic joint statement from Reagan and Gorbachev that emphasized, "the potential importance of the work aimed at utilizing controlled thermonuclear fusion for peaceful purposes and, in this connection, advocated the widest practicable development of international cooperation in obtaining this source of energy, which is essentially inexhaustible, for the benefit of all mankind."{{cite web |author= |title=The ITER initiative|url= https://www.euro-fusion.org/news/detail/?tx_news_pi1%5Bnews%5D=15&cHash=54d3ce66c5a34ec64be2a0b27ae37caa|publisher=EUROfusion| date=2005-07-03 |access-date=2021-03-20}}{{cite web |author= |title=Joint Soviet-United States Statement on the Summit Meeting in Geneva |url= https://www.reaganlibrary.gov/archives/speech/joint-soviet-united-states-statement-summit-meeting-geneva |publisher=Ronald Reagan Presidential Library & Museum | date=1985-11-21 |access-date=2021-03-20}} For the fusion community, this statement was a breakthrough, and it was reinforced when Reagan evoked the possibilities of nuclear fusion in a Joint Session of Congress later in the month. [107] => [108] => As a result, collaboration on an international fusion experiment began to move forward. In October 1986 at the [[Reykjavik Summit]], the so-called 'Quadripartite Initiative Committee' (Europe through the Euratom countries, Japan, USSR, and the US) was formed to oversee the development of the project.{{cite magazine |last1=Harding|first1=Todd K.|last2=Khanna|first2=Melanie| last3=Orbach|first3=Raymond L. |title= International Fusion Energy Cooperation: ITER as a Case Study in Science and Diplomacy |url= https://www.sciencediplomacy.org/article/2012/international-fusion-energy-cooperation| magazine=Science & Diplomacy |publisher=AAAS Center for Science Diplomacy|location=Washington, DC, US|date=2012-09-03 |access-date=2021-03-28}} The year after, in March 1987, the Quadripartite Initiative Committee met at the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) headquarters in Vienna. This meeting marked the launch of the conceptual design studies for the experimental reactors as well as the start of negotiations for operational issues such as the legal foundations for the peaceful use of fusion technology, the organizational structure and staffing, and the eventual location for the project. This meeting in Vienna was also where the project was baptized the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor, although it was quickly referred to by its abbreviation alone and its Latin meaning of 'the way'. [109] => [110] => Conceptual and engineering design phases were carried out under the auspices of the IAEA.{{cite web |author= |title=IAEA Newsletters|url= https://www.iter.org/proj/IAEANews|access-date=2021-03-20}} The original technical objectives were established in 1992 and the original Engineering Design Activities (EDA) were completed in 1998.{{cite web |last1=Shimomura|first1=Y.|last2=Aymar|first2=R.| last3=Chuyanov|first3=V. |last4=Huguet|first4=M. | last5=Parker|first5=R. |title=ITER Overview|url= https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/csp_001c/pdf/ov4_1.pdf |publisher=IAEA|location=Vienna, Austria|access-date=2021-03-20}} An acceptable, detailed design was validated in July 2001 to complete the extended EDA period, and the validated design then went through a Design Review that began November 2006 and concluded in December 2007.{{cite web | author= |title=Summary of the ITER Final Design Report |url= https://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/Publications/PDF/ITER-EDA-DS-22.pdf |publisher=IAEA|location=Vienna, Austria| date=2001-07-01 |access-date=2021-03-20}}{{cite web |last=Griffith|first=Sabina|title=The ITER Design – Updated|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/14/1621| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2007-12-19|access-date=2021-03-20}} The design process was difficult with arguments over issues such as whether there should be circular cross sections for magnetic confinement or D-shaped cross sections. These issues were partly responsible for the United States temporarily exiting the project in 1998 before rejoining in 2003. [111] => [112] => At this same time, the group of ITER partners was expanding, with China and South Korea joining the project in 2003 and India formally joined in 2005.{{cite web| last1=Wang|first1=Hongyi|last2=Hu|first2=Yinan |title=China to contribute $1.4b for nuclear reactor|url= http://www.chinadaily.com.cn/china/2008-01/08/content_6376849.htm |newspaper=China Daily |publisher=Chinese Communist Party State Council Information Office|location=Beijing, China| date=2008-01-08 |access-date=2021-03-20}}{{cite magazine |author= |title=S. Korea joins fusion energy research project|url= https://www.power-eng.com/nuclear/reactors/s-korea-joins-fusion-energy-research-project/?topic=59163#gref |magazine=Power Engineering |publisher=Clarion Events|location=Tulsa, OK, US | date=2003-07-02 |access-date=2021-03-20}}{{cite web |author= |title=India's Contribution to ITER|url= https://www.iter-india.org/indias-contribution-iter |access-date=2021-03-20}} [113] => [114] => There was a heated competition to host the ITER project with the candidates narrowed down to two possible sites: France and Japan. Russia, China, and the European Union supported the choice of Cadarache in France, while the United States, South Korea, and Japan support the choice of [[Rokkasho]] in Japan. In June 2005, it was officially announced that ITER would be built in the South of France at the Cadarache site. The negotiations that led to the decision ended in a compromise between the EU and Japan, in that Japan was promised 20% of the research staff on the French location of ITER, as well as the head of the administrative body of ITER. In addition, it was agreed that 8% of the ITER construction budget would go to partner facilities that would be built in Japan.{{cite magazine |last=Butler|first=Declan|title=Japan consoled with contracts as France snares fusion project|url= https://www.nature.com/articles/4351142a| magazine=Nature |publisher=Springer Nature Group|location=London, England|date=2005-06-29 |access-date=2021-03-20}} [115] => [116] => On 21 November 2006, at a ceremony hosted by French President Jacques Chirac at the Élysée Palace in Paris, an international consortium signed a formal agreement to build the reactor.{{cite news |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/6165932.stm |title=States sign nuclear energy pact |work=BBC News | date=21 November 2006 | access-date=5 May 2010}} Initial work to clear the site for construction began in Cadarache in March 2007 and, once this agreement was ratified by all partners, the ITER Organization was officially established on 24 October 2007.{{cite web |author= |title=The ITER Organization|url= https://www.iter.org/org |access-date=2021-03-20}} [117] => [118] => In 2016, Australia became the first non-member partner of the project. ITER signed a technical cooperation agreement with the [[Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation]] (ANSTO), granting this country access to research results of ITER in exchange for the construction of selected parts of the ITER machine.{{cite web |author= |title=Australian scientists sign historic deal with ITER, the next step fusion experiment |url= https://energy.anu.edu.au/news-events/news/australian-scientists-sign-historic-deal-iter-next-step-fusion-experiment |publisher=Australian National University |location= Canberra, Australia |date=2016-09-30 |access-date=2021-03-20}}{{cite web | author= |title=Welcome Australia!|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/2546| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2016-10-03|access-date=2021-03-20}} In 2017, Kazakhstan signed a cooperation agreement that laid the groundwork for technical collaboration between the National Nuclear Center of the Republic of Kazakhstan and ITER.{{cite web | author= |title=ITER Signs Cooperation Agreement with Kazakhstan | url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/2744| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2017-06-12|access-date=2021-03-20}} Most recently, after collaborating with ITER in the early stages of the project, Canada signed a cooperation agreement in 2020 with a focus on tritium and tritium-related equipment.{{cite magazine |author= |title=Canada agrees to participate in ITER fusion project |url= https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Canada-agrees-to-participate-in-ITER-fusion-projec |magazine= World Nuclear News |publisher=World Nuclear Association|location=London, England | date=2020-10-21 |access-date=2021-03-20}} [119] => [120] => The project began its five-year assembly phase in July 2020, launched by the French President [[Emmanuel Macron]] in the presence of other members of the ITER project.{{cite news |last=O'Sullivan|first=Kevin|title=World's largest nuclear fusion project begins a new phase in France|url= https://www.irishtimes.com/news/world/europe/world-s-largest-nuclear-fusion-project-begins-new-phase-in-france-1.4315849 | newspaper=The Irish Times |publisher=Irish Times Trust|location=Dublin, Ireland|date=2020-07-28 |access-date=2021-03-20}} [121] => [122] => == Directors-General == [123] => [124] => ITER is supervised by a governing body known as the ITER Council that is composed of representatives of the seven signatories to the ITER Agreement. The ITER Council is responsible for the overall direction of the organization and decides such issues as the budget.{{cite web |author= |title=Governance|url= https://www.iter.org/org/council|access-date=2021-03-20}} [125] => The ITER Council also appoints the director-general of the project. There have been five directors-general so far:{{cite web |author= |title=EXTRAORDINARY ITER COUNCIL APPOINTS NEW DIRECTOR-GENERAL |url=https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/2134| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER |location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France |date=2019-03-08 |access-date=2021-11-30}} [126] => * 2005–2010: [[Kaname Ikeda]] [127] => * 2010–2015: Osamu Motojima [128] => * 2015–2022: [[Bernard Bigot]] [129] => * 2022: Eisuke Tada (acting) [130] => * 2022–present: Pietro Barabaschi{{Cite journal |last=Gibney |first=Elizabeth |date=2022-09-16 |title=World's largest fusion experiment ITER appoints new chief |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/d41586-022-02976-2 |journal=Nature |language=en |doi=10.1038/d41586-022-02976-2|pmid=36114423 |s2cid=252334550 }} [131] => Bernard Bigot was appointed to reform the management and governance of the ITER project in 2015.{{cite magazine |last=Butler|first=Declan|title=ITER's new chief will shake up troubled fusion reactor|url= https://www.nature.com/news/iter-s-new-chief-will-shake-up-troubled-fusion-reactor-1.16396| magazine=Nature |publisher=Springer Nature Group|location=London, England|date=2014-11-21 |access-date=2021-03-20}} In January 2019, the ITER Council voted unanimously to reappoint Bigot for a second five-year term.{{cite web | author= |title=Bernard Bigot Accepts a Second Term| url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3217| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2019-01-28|access-date=2021-03-20}} Bigot died on May 14, 2022, and his deputy Eisuke Tada took over leadership of ITER during the search process for the new director.{{cite news | title=French scientist leading nuclear fusion project dies at 72|url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/wireStory/french-scientist-leading-nuclear-fusion-project-dies-72-84716789|publisher=ABC News|date=2022-05-14|access-date=2022-05-15}} [132] => [133] => == Objectives == [134] => [135] => ITER's stated mission is to demonstrate the feasibility of fusion power as a large-scale, carbon-free source of energy.{{cite web |author= |title=What Is ITER?|url= https://www.iter.org/proj/inafewlines#1|access-date=2021-03-20}} [136] => More specifically, the project has aims to: [137] => * Momentarily produce a fusion plasma with thermal power ten times greater than the injected thermal power (a [[Fusion energy gain factor|''Q'' value]] of 10). [138] => * Produce a steady-state plasma with a ''Q'' value greater than 5. (''Q'' = 1 is scientific breakeven, as defined in [[fusion energy gain factor]].) [139] => * Maintain a fusion pulse for up to 8 minutes. [140] => * Develop technologies and processes needed for a fusion power station — including [[superconducting magnet]]s and [[remote handling]] (maintenance by robot). [141] => * Verify [[tritium]] [[Breeding blanket|breeding]] concepts. [142] => * Refine neutron shield / heat conversion technology (most of the energy in the D+T fusion reaction is released in the form of fast neutrons). [143] => * Experiment with burning plasma state. [144] => The objectives of the ITER project are not limited to creating the nuclear fusion device but are much broader, including building necessary technical, organizational, and logistical capabilities, skills, tools, supply chains, and culture enabling management of such megaprojects among participating countries, bootstrapping their local nuclear fusion industries.{{cite web |author= |title=What Will ITER Do?|url= https://www.iter.org/proj/inafewlines#2|access-date=2021-03-20}} [145] => [146] => == Timeline and status == [147] => [[File:ITER site 2018 aerial view (41809720041).jpg|thumb|Aerial view of the ITER site in 2018]] [148] => [[File:ITER construction in 2018 (41809718461).jpg|thumb|ITER construction status in 2018]] [149] => [[File:Iter 2.png|thumb|Aerial view of the ITER site in 2020]] [150] => [151] => As of April 2022 ITER is near 85% complete toward first plasma.{{Cite web |title=ITER Project The building works required for First Plasma are 85% complete {{!}} US ITER |url=https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3747 |access-date=2023-11-28 |website=www.iter.org}} First plasma was scheduled for late 2025{{Cite web|title=It's now official: First Plasma in December 2025|url=http://www.iter.org/newsline/-/2482|access-date=2021-06-23|website=ITER|language=en}}, however delays were acknowledged in 2023 which would impact this target. A new schedule will be issued in mid 2024 {{Cite web |title=ITER director general promises 'realistic' project timeline |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/ITER-director-general-promises-realistic-project |access-date=2024-04-30 |website=www.world-nuclear-news.org}}. [152] => [153] => The start of the project can be traced back to 1978 when the [[European Commission]], [[Japan]], [[United States]], and [[USSR]] joined for the International Tokamak Reactor (INTOR) Workshop. This initiative was held under the auspices of the [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] and its goals were to assess the readiness of magnetic fusion to move forward to the experimental power reactor (EPR) stage, to identify the additional [[R&D]] that must be undertaken, and to define the characteristics of such an EPR by means of a conceptual design. From 1978 to the middle of the 1980s, hundreds of fusion scientists and engineers in each participating country took part in a detailed assessment of the [[tokamak]] confinement system and the design possibilities for harnessing nuclear fusion energy.{{cite book |last=Stacey |first=Weston |date=2010|title=The Quest for a Fusion Energy Reactor: An Insider's Account of the INTOR Workshop |url= https://global.oup.com/academic/product/the-quest-for-a-fusion-energy-reactor-9780199733842?cc=us&lang=en&# |location=Oxford, England |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn= 978-0-19-973384-2}}{{cite web | last=Arnoux |first=Robert |title= INTOR: The International Fusion Reactor That Never Was | url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/62/146 | magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2008-12-15|access-date=2021-03-20}} [154] => [155] => In 1985, at the [[Geneva Summit (1985)|Geneva summit meeting in 1985]], [[Mikhail Gorbachev]] suggested to [[Ronald Reagan]] that the two countries jointly undertake the construction of a tokamak EPR as proposed by the INTOR Workshop. The ITER project was initiated in 1988.{{cite web |title= The Geneva Summit |url=http://www.iter.org/proj/itermilestones |website=Milestones in the History of the ITER Project |publisher=ITER |date=November 1985 |access-date=12 September 2012}} [156] => [157] => Ground was broken in 2007{{Cite web |title=ITER Organization 2007 Annual Report |url=https://www.iter.org/doc/www/content/com/Lists/list_items/Attachments/484/annual_report_2007.pdf |access-date=3 November 2023 |website=ITER}} and construction of the ITER tokamak complex started in 2013.{{cite web |author= |title=Construction starts of Iter tokamak complex|url= https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-Construction-starts-of-Iter-Tokamak-complex-1312135.html |publisher=World Nuclear News | location=London, England|date=2013-12-13|access-date=2021-03-20}} [158] => [159] => Machine assembly was launched on 28 July 2020.{{Cite web|last=Tidey|first=Alice|date=28 July 2020|title=World's largest nuclear fusion project being assembled in France|url=https://www.euronews.com/2020/07/28/world-s-largest-nuclear-fusion-project-being-assembled-in-france|access-date=28 July 2020|website=euronews|language=en}} The construction of the facility is expected to be completed in 2025 when commissioning of the reactor can commence and initial plasma experiments are scheduled to begin at the end of that year.{{cite magazine |last=Delbert|first=Caroline|title=30 Years Later, This Big Boy Fusion Reactor is Almost Ready to Turn On|url= https://www.popularmechanics.com/science/a30705490/nuclear-fusion-iter-reactor-tokamak/| magazine=Popular Mechanics |publisher=Bonnier Corporation|location=Winter Park, FL, US|date=2020-04-28 |access-date=2021-03-20}} When ITER becomes operational, it will be the largest [[Magnetic confinement fusion|magnetic confinement]] plasma physics experiment in use with a plasma volume of 840 cubic meters,{{cite web|title=Facts & Figures|url=https://www.iter.org/FactsFigures|access-date=12 September 2018}} surpassing the [[Joint European Torus]] by a factor of 8. [160] => [161] => {| class="wikitable" [162] => |+Project milestones [163] => |- [164] => ! Date !! Event [165] => |- [166] => |1988 || ITER project officially initiated.{{cite web |author= |title=The ITER Story|url= https://www.iter.org/proj/ITERHistory|access-date=2021-04-02}} Conceptual design activities ran from 1988 to 1990.{{cite web|url=http://www.iter.org/proj/itermilestones#3|title=On the road to ITER: milestones|access-date=12 September 2018}} [167] => |- [168] => | 1992 || Engineering design activities from 1992{{cite web|url=http://www.iter.org/proj/itermilestones#6|title=On the road to ITER: milestones|access-date=12 September 2018}} to 1998.{{cite web|url=http://www.iter.org/proj/itermilestones#10|title=On the road to ITER: milestones|access-date=12 September 2018}} [169] => |- [170] => |2006 || Approval of a cost estimate of €10 billion (US$12.8 billion) projecting the start of construction in 2008 and completion a decade later. [171] => |- [172] => |2007 || Site construction begins [173] => |- [174] => | 2008 || Site preparation start, ITER itinerary start.{{cite web |title= Approved! Council gives project green light to proceed |url=http://www.iter.org/proj/iterandbeyond |website=ITER & Beyond. The Phases of ITER.|publisher= ITER |date=September 2012 |access-date=12 September 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120922162049/http://www.iter.org/proj/iterandbeyond |archive-date=22 September 2012 }} [175] => |- [176] => | 2009 || Site preparation completion. [177] => |- [178] => | 2010 ||[[Tokamak]] complex excavation starts.{{cite web |author= |title=Project Milestones|url= https://www.iter.org/proj/itermilestones|access-date=2021-04-02}} [179] => |- [180] => | 2013 || Tokamak complex construction starts. [181] => |- [182] => | 2015 || Tokamak construction starts,{{cite web|url=http://www.iter.org/doc/www/content/com/Lists/list_items/Attachments/646/2015_11_IC-17.pdf|title=ITER Project progressing well despite delays|date=19 November 2015|author=ITER|access-date=20 January 2016}}[https://www.iter.org/proj/itermilestones#105 First machine components reach ITER]. December 2015, ITER. but the schedule is extended by at least six years.{{cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/iter-fusion-project-take-least-6-years-longer-planned|title=ITER fusion project to take at least 6 years longer than planned|last=Clery|first=Daniel|date=19 November 2015|work=Science|access-date=16 February 2016}} [183] => |- [184] => | 2017 || Assembly Hall ready for equipment. [185] => |- [186] => | |{{nowrap|2018–2023}}|| | Assembly and integration:[https://www.iter.org/proj/inafewlines When will experiments begin?] ITER. Accessed April 2018. [187] => * December 2018: concrete support finished.{{cite web|url=https://www.iter.org/proj/itermilestones#138|title=A fully formed crown|access-date=27 July 2019}} [188] => * July 2019: bottom and lower cylinder of the [[cryostat]] assembled from pieces.{{cite news|url=https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3311|title=A "magic moment" – Cryostat 60% complete|date=23 July 2019}} [189] => *April 2020: first vacuum vessel sector completed.{{Cite web|title=Industrial milestone {{!}} Korea completes first vacuum vessel sector|url=http://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3433|access-date=2020-11-16|website=ITER|language=en}} [190] => * May 2020: bottom of the cryostat installed, tokamak assembly started.{{cite news|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/got-my-fingers-crossed-iter-fusion-project-marks-milestone-chief-ponders-pandemic|title='Got my fingers crossed.' As ITER fusion project marks milestone, chief ponders pandemic impact|date=27 May 2020}} [191] => * July 2020: machine assembly formally launched. [192] => * October 2020: start welding vacuum vessel together.{{cite web|url=https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3510|title=First welding on the vacuum vessel|access-date=26 October 2020}} [193] => * May 2022: first sub-section of the ITER plasma chamber was successfully lifted out of tooling and lowered into the machine well.{{cite web |title=Tokamak assembly THE "MODULE" HAS LANDED |url=https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3758 |access-date=2 June 2022}} [194] => |- [195] => | style="background:#ffdead;" |{{nowrap|2023–2025}}|| style="background:#ffdead;" | Assembly and integration (planned): [196] => * November 2023: installation of central solenoid starts.{{cite web|url=https://www.iter.org/proj/itermilestones#220|title=Q4-23: Begin installation of central solenoid|access-date=7 February 2022}} [197] => * December 2024: vacuum vessel installed.{{cite web|url=https://www.iter.org/proj/itermilestones#223|title=Q4-24: All vacuum vessel sectors in pit|access-date=7 February 2022}} [198] => |- style="background:#ffdead;" [199] => || 2025 || style="background:#ffdead;" | [200] => * Planned: assembly ends; commissioning phase starts. [201] => * Planned: achievement of first [[Plasma (physics)|plasma]].{{cite web|url=https://www.iter.org/doc/www/content/com/Lists/list_items/Attachments/735/2017_06_IC-20.pdf|title=20th ITER Council meeting recognizes strong project progress in line with the 2016 baseline|date=22 June 2017|author=ITER|access-date=25 June 2017}} [202] => |- [203] => | style="background:#ffdead;" | 2035|| style="background:#ffdead;" | Planned: start of [[D-T reaction|deuterium–tritium]] operation.{{Cite journal|last=Banks|first=Michael|date=2017|title=ITER council endorses new 'baseline' schedule|journal=Physics World|volume=30|issue=1|pages=12|doi=10.1088/2058-7058/30/1/28|bibcode=2017PhyW...30a..12B|issn=0953-8585}}{{Cite web|title=ITER Council endorses updated project schedule to Deuterium-Tritium Operation|url=https://www.iter.org/doc/www/content/com/Lists/list_items/Attachments/708/2016_11_IC-19.pdf|website=ITER}} [204] => |} [205] => [206] => == Reactor overview == [207] => {{See also|Nuclear fusion}} [208] => [209] => When [[deuterium]] and [[tritium]] fuse, two [[atomic nucleus|nuclei]] come together to form a [[helium]] nucleus (an [[alpha particle]]), and a high-energy [[neutron]].{{cite web |url=http://hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu/hbase/NucEne/fusion.html |title=Nuclear Fusion|author=|date= |website=Georgia State University |publisher= |access-date=January 29, 2021 |quote=}} [210] => :{{nuclide|Deuterium}} + {{nuclide|Tritium}} → {{nuclide|Helium}} + {{SubatomicParticle|10neutron}} + {{val|17.59|ul=MeV}} [211] => While nearly all stable [[isotopes]] lighter on the [[periodic table]] than [[iron-56]] and [[nickel-62]], which have the highest [[nuclear binding energy|binding energy per nucleon]], will fuse with some other isotope and release energy, deuterium and tritium are by far the most attractive for energy generation as they require the lowest activation energy (thus lowest temperature) to do so, while producing among the most energy per unit weight.{{cite book | author=National Research Council |title= Energy in Transition: 1985–2010 |year= 1980 |url= https://www.nap.edu/read/11771/chapter/8 |location=Washington, DC, US |publisher=National Academies Press|doi= 10.17226/11771 |isbn= 978-0-309-03331-2 }} [212] => [213] => All proto- and mid-life stars radiate enormous amounts of energy generated by fusion processes.{{cite web |author= |title=Nuclear Fusion in Protostars|url= https://www.e-education.psu.edu/astro801/content/l5_p4.html |publisher=Penn State College of Earth and Mineral Sciences | location=University Park, PA, US| access-date=2021-03-20}} Mass for mass, the deuterium–tritium fusion process releases roughly three times as much energy as uranium-235 fission, and millions of times more energy than a chemical reaction such as the burning of coal.{{cite web |author= |title=Energy Fundamentals|url= https://home.uni-leipzig.de/energy/energy-fundamentals/11.htm|publisher= Universität Leipzig | location=Leipzig, Germany| access-date=2021-03-20}} It is the goal of a fusion power station to harness this energy to produce electricity. [214] => [215] => Activation energies (in most fusion systems this is the temperature required to initiate the reaction) for fusion reactions are generally high because the [[proton]]s in each nucleus will tend to strongly repel one another, as they each have the same positive [[Elementary charge|charge]]. A [[heuristic]] for estimating reaction rates is that nuclei must be able to get within 100 [[femtometers]] (1 × 10−13 meter) of each other, where the nuclei are increasingly likely to undergo [[quantum tunneling]] past the [[electrostatic]] barrier and the turning point where the [[strong nuclear force]] and the electrostatic force are equally balanced, allowing them to fuse. In ITER, this distance of approach is made possible by high temperatures and magnetic confinement. ITER uses cooling equipment like a cryopump to cool the magnets to close to [[absolute zero]].{{cite web |author= |title=Cryogenics|url= https://www.iter.org/mach/Cryo|access-date=2021-03-20}} High [[temperatures]] give the nuclei enough energy to overcome their [[electrostatic repulsion]] (see [[Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution]]). For deuterium and tritium, the optimal reaction rates occur at temperatures higher than 100 million °C.{{cite web |author= |title=Attaining perfect fusion conditions|url= https://www.euro-fusion.org/fusion/fusion-conditions/|publisher=EUROfusion|access-date=2021-03-28}} At ITER, the plasma will be heated to 150 million °C (about ten times the temperature at the core of the [[Sun]]){{ cite news | url=https://www.scientificamerican.com/article/worlds-largest-nuclear-fusion-experiment-clears-milestone/ | title=World's Largest Nuclear Fusion Experiment Clears Milestone | last=Gronewold | first=Nathanial | newspaper=[[Scientific American]] | date=2019-07-24 | access-date= | pages= | quote=It will contain the world's largest superconducting magnets, needed to generate a magnetic field powerful enough to contain a plasma that will reach temperatures of 150 million degrees Celsius, about 10 times hotter than the center of the sun. }} by [[ohmic heating]] (running a current through the plasma). Additional heating is applied using [[neutral beam injection]] (which cross magnetic field lines without a net deflection and will not cause a large electromagnetic disruption) and [[radio frequency]] (RF) or [[microwave]] heating. [216] => [217] => At such high temperatures, particles have a large [[kinetic energy]], and hence velocity. If unconfined, the particles will rapidly escape, taking the energy with them, cooling the plasma to the point where net energy is no longer produced. A successful reactor would need to contain the particles in a small enough volume for a long enough time for much of the plasma to fuse.{{cite web |author= |title=New insights could help tame speedy ions in fusion plasmas|url= https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2019/10/191021082820.htm|publisher=Science Daily | location=Rockville, MD, US| date=2019-10-21 |access-date=2021-03-20}} [218] => In ITER and many other [[magnetic confinement]] reactors, the plasma, a gas of charged particles, is confined using magnetic fields. A charged particle moving through a [[magnetic field]] experiences a force perpendicular to the direction of travel, resulting in [[centripetal acceleration]], thereby confining it to move in a circle or helix around the lines of magnetic flux.{{cite web |author= |title=Plasma Confinement|url= https://www.iter.org/sci/PlasmaConfinement|access-date=2021-04-01}} ITER will use four types of magnets to contain the plasma: a central solenoid magnet, poloidal magnets around the edges of the tokamak, 18 D-shaped toroidal-field coils, and correction coils.{{cite web | last=Clery|first=Daniel |title=Magnetic challenges for ITER|url= https://physicsworld.com/a/magnet-challenges-for-iter/ |website=Physics World | publisher=IOP Publishing | location=Bristol, UK| date=2011-09-29 |access-date=2021-03-29}} [219] => [220] => A solid confinement vessel is also needed, both to shield the magnets and other equipment from high temperatures and energetic photons and particles, and to maintain a near-vacuum for the plasma to populate.{{cite web |author= |title=Vacuum Vessel|url= https://www.iter.org/mach/VacuumVessel|access-date=2021-04-01}} The containment vessel is subjected to a barrage of very energetic particles, where electrons, ions, photons, alpha particles, and neutrons constantly bombard it and degrade the structure. The material must be designed to endure this environment so that a power station would be economical. Tests of such materials will be carried out both at ITER and at [[IFMIF]] (International Fusion Materials Irradiation Facility).{{cite web |last1=Knaster|first1=Juan|last2=Heidinger|first2=Roland| last3=O'hira|first3=Shigeru |title= IIFMIF/EVEDA: A Round-Up of Material Testing Activity | url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/2360| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2016-01-11|access-date=2021-03-20}} [221] => [222] => Once fusion has begun, high-energy neutrons will radiate from the reactive regions of the plasma, crossing magnetic field lines easily due to charge neutrality (see [[neutron flux]]). Since it is the neutrons that receive the majority of the energy, they will be ITER's primary source of energy output.{{cite web |author= |title=Making It Work|url= https://www.iter.org/sci/MakingitWork|access-date=2021-04-01}} Ideally, alpha particles will expend their energy in the plasma, further heating it.{{cite magazine | last1=Hurricane|first1=O. A.|last2=Callahan|first2=D. A.| last3=Yeamans|first3=C.|title=Inertially confined fusion plasmas dominated by alpha-particle self-heating|url= https://www.nature.com/articles/nphys3720 | magazine=Nature Physics |publisher=Springer Nature Group|location=London, England|date=2016-04-11 |access-date=2020-08-28}} [223] => [224] => The inner wall of the containment vessel will have 440 blanket modules that are designed to slow and absorb neutrons in a reliable and efficient manner and therefore protect the steel structure and the superconducting toroidal field magnets.{{cite web |author= |title=Blanket|url= https://www.iter.org/mach/Blanket|access-date=2021-04-01}} At later stages of the ITER project, experimental blanket modules will be used to test [[Breeding blanket|breeding]] tritium for fuel from lithium-bearing ceramic pebbles contained within the blanket module following the following reactions: [225] => :{{SubatomicParticle|10neutron}} + {{nuclide|Lithium|6}} → {{nuclide|Tritium}} + {{nuclide|Helium}} [226] => :{{SubatomicParticle|10neutron}} + {{nuclide|Lithium|7}} → {{nuclide|Tritium}} + {{nuclide|Helium}} + {{SubatomicParticle|10neutron}} [227] => where the reactant neutron is supplied by the D-T fusion reaction.{{cite web |author= |title=Fusion Ceramics|date=26 August 2020|url= https://www.iam.kit.edu/ess/english/1287.php |publisher= Karlsruhe Institute of Technology | location=Karlsruhe, Germany| access-date=2021-03-20}} [228] => [229] => Energy absorbed from the fast neutrons is extracted and passed into the primary coolant. This heat energy would then be used to power an electricity-generating turbine in a real power station; in ITER this electricity generating system is not of scientific interest, so instead the heat will be extracted and disposed of.{{cite web | author= |title= Moving 10 Tonnes of Water Per Second | url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3336| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2019-09-23|access-date=2021-03-28}} [230] => [231] => == Technical design == [232] => {{wide image|ITER Tokamak and Plant Systems (2016) (41783636452).jpg|900px|alt=Drawing of the ITER tokamak and integrated plant systems|Drawing of the ITER tokamak and integrated plant systems}} [233] => [234] => === Vacuum vessel === [235] => [[File:NIST Light Source Illuminates Fusion Power Diagnostics (5940503177).jpg|thumb|upright|Cross-section of part of the planned ITER fusion reaction vessel]] [236] => The vacuum vessel is the central part of the ITER machine: a double-walled steel container in which the plasma is contained by means of magnetic fields. [237] => [238] => The ITER vacuum vessel will be twice as large and 16 times as heavy as any previously manufactured fusion vessel: each of the nine [[torus]]-shaped sectors will weigh approximately 450 tonnes. When all the shielding and port structures are included, this adds up to a total of 5,116 tonnes. Its external diameter will measure {{convert|19.4|m}}, the internal {{convert|6.5|m}}. Once assembled, the whole structure will be {{convert|11.3|m}} high.{{cite web |last=Griffith|first=Sabina|title=ITER and Europe Sign Vacuum Vessel Procurement Arrangement|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/108/1497| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2009-11-20|access-date=2021-03-20}} [239] => [240] => The primary function of the vacuum vessel is to provide a hermetically sealed plasma container. Its main components are the main vessel, the port structures and the supporting system. The main vessel is a double-walled structure with poloidal and toroidal stiffening ribs between {{convert|60|mm|in|adj=mid|-thick}} shells to reinforce the vessel structure. These ribs also form the flow passages for the cooling water. The space between the double walls will be filled with shield structures made of stainless steel. The inner surfaces of the vessel will act as the interface with breeder modules containing the breeder blanket component. These modules will provide shielding from the high-energy neutrons produced by the fusion reactions and some will also be used for tritium breeding concepts. [241] => [242] => The vacuum vessel has a total of 44 openings that are known as ports – 18 upper, 17 equatorial, and 9 lower ports – that will be used for remote handling operations, diagnostic systems, neutral beam injections and vacuum pumping. Remote handling is made necessary by the radioactive interior of the reactor following a shutdown, which is caused by neutron bombardment during operation.{{cite web | author= |title= A Very International Effort | url=https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3286| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2019-06-17|access-date=2021-03-28}} [243] => [244] => Vacuum pumping will be done before the start of fusion reactions to create the necessary low density environment, which is about one million times lower than the density of air.{{cite web |author= |title=Vacuum System|url= https://www.iter.org/mach/Vacuum |work=iter.org |access-date=2021-04-01}} [245] => [246] => === Breeder blanket === [247] => ITER will use a deuterium-tritium fuel, and while deuterium is abundant in nature, tritium is much rarer because it is a radioactive hydrogen isotope with a half-life of just 12.3 years and there is only approximately 3.5 kilograms of natural tritium on earth.{{cite web |author=|title=Tritium: a challenging fuel for fusion| url= https://www.euro-fusion.org/news/2017-3/tritium-a-challenging-fuel-for-fusion/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190904075522/https://www.euro-fusion.org/news/2017-3/tritium-a-challenging-fuel-for-fusion/|archive-date=2019-09-04|url-status=dead|publisher=EUROfusion|access-date=2021-03-20}} Owing to this limited terrestrial supply of [[tritium]], a key component of the ITER reactor design is the [[breeding blanket]]. This component, located adjacent to the vacuum vessel, serves to produce tritium through reaction with neutrons from the plasma. There are several reactions that produce tritium within the blanket.{{cite web |author= |title=Tritium Breeding|url=https://www.iter.org/mach/TritiumBreeding|access-date=2021-04-02}} [[Lithium-6]] produces tritium via (n,t) reactions with moderated neutrons, while [[Lithium-7]] produces tritium via interactions with higher energy neutrons via (n,nt) reactions.{{cite web |last=Arnoux|first=Robert|title=Tritium: Changing Lead Into Gold|url= https://www.iter.org/mag/14/56| magazine=ITER Mag 14 |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France| access-date=2021-03-20}}{{cite conference |last1=Indah|first1=Rosidah M.|last2=Zaki|first2=Suud| last3=Putranto|first3=Yazid|title=Optimization of tritium breeding and shielding analysis to plasma in ITER fusion reactor |editor=Acep Purqon |editor2=Taufiq Hidayat |editor3=Reuben Jih-Ru Hwu |editor4=Hidetaka Arimura |book-title=The 5th International Conference on Mathematics and Natural Sciences |publisher=AIP Publishing|location=College Park, MD | date=2015-09-30 |volume=1677|page=070021|doi=10.1063/1.4930725 |isbn=978-0-7354-1324-5}} [248] => [249] => Concepts for the breeder blanket include helium-cooled lithium lead (HCLL), helium-cooled pebble bed (HCPB), and water-cooled lithium lead (WCLL) methods.{{cite journal |last1=Federici|first1=G.|last2=Boccaccini|first2=L.| last3=Cismondi|first3=F. |last4=Gasparotto|first4=M. | last5=Poitevin|first5=Y.| last6=Ricapito|first6=I. | title=An Overview of the EU breeding blanket design strategy as an integral part of the DEMO design effort|journal=Fusion Engineering and Design|publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam, Netherlands| date=2019-04-01 |volume=141|pages=30–42|doi=10.1016/j.fusengdes.2019.01.141|doi-access=free|url=https://publikationen.bibliothek.kit.edu/1000092748/24962521}} Six different tritium breeding systems, known as Test Blanket Modules (TBM), will be tested in ITER and will share a common box geometry.{{cite web |last=Giancarli|first=Luciano|title=Committee Reviews Progress on Test Blanket Modules|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/2572| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2016-11-07| access-date=2021-03-20}} Materials for use as breeder pebbles in the HCPB concept include [[Lithium titanate|lithium metatitanate]] and [[lithium orthosilicate]].{{cite journal| last1=Hanaor| first1=D.A.H.| last2=Kolb| first2=M.H.H.| last3=Gan| first3=Y.| last4=Kamlah| first4=M.| last5=Knitter| first5=R.| title= Solution based synthesis of mixed-phase materials in the Li2TiO3-Li4SiO4 system | journal= Journal of Nuclear Materials|year=2014| volume=456| pages=151–161| doi=10.1016/j.jnucmat.2014.09.028|arxiv = 1410.7128 |bibcode = 2015JNuM..456..151H | s2cid=94426898}} Requirements of breeder materials include good tritium production and extraction, mechanical stability and low levels of radioactive activation.{{cite journal| last1=Gan| first1=Y| last2=Hernandez|first2=F|display-authors=etal |title=Thermal Discrete Element Analysis of EU Solid Breeder Blanket Subjected to Neutron Irradiation| journal= Fusion Science and Technology|year=2014| volume=66|issue=1| pages=83–90 | arxiv=1406.4199| doi=10.13182/FST13-727| citeseerx=10.1.1.748.6005| bibcode=2014FuST...66...83G| s2cid=51903434}} [250] => [251] => === Magnet system === [252] => ITER is based on [[magnetic confinement fusion]] that uses magnetic fields to contain the fusion fuel in plasma form. The magnet system used in the ITER tokamak will be the largest superconducting magnet system ever built.{{cite web |author= |title=Magnets|url= https://www.iter.org/mach/Magnets|access-date=2021-04-02}} The system will use four types of magnets to achieve plasma confinement: a central solenoid magnet, poloidal magnets, toroidal-field coils, and correction coils. The central [[solenoid]] coil will be 18 meters tall, 4.3 meters wide, and weigh 1000 tonnes.{{cite web |last=Dulon|first=Krista|title=Packing a Punch|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/122/182| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2016-11-07| access-date=2010-03-12}} It will use [[superconducting]] [[niobium-tin]] to carry 45 [[Ampere|kA]] and produce a peak field of more than 13 [[Tesla (unit)|teslas]].{{cite web | author= |title=First Module Gets Clean Bill of Health|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3557| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2021-02-01| access-date=2010-03-12}}{{cite web | author= |title=Elements of Support Cage Arrive|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3233| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2021-02-01| access-date=2010-03-12}} [253] => [254] => The 18 [[Toroid (geometry)|toroidal]] field coils will also use niobium-tin. They are the most powerful superconductive magnets ever designed with a nominal peak field strength of 11.8 teslas and a stored magnetic energy of 41 [[gigajoule]]s.{{cite web | author= |title=First ITER Magnet Arrives This Year|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3200| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2019-01-07| access-date=2021-03-12}} Other lower field ITER magnets (poloidal field and correction coils) will use [[niobium-titanium]] for their superconducting elements.{{cite web | author= |title=Correction Coils: From Qualification to Production|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/2669| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2017-03-06| access-date=2021-03-12}} [255] => [256] => === Additional heating === [257] => To achieve fusion, plasma particles must be heated to temperatures that reach as high as 150 million °C and to achieve these extreme temperatures multiple heating methods must be used.{{cite web |author= |title=Reaching 150,000,000 °C|url= https://www.iter.org/sci/PlasmaHeating|access-date=2021-04-01}} Within the tokamak itself, changing magnetic fields produce a heating effect but external heating is also required. There will be three types of external heating in ITER:{{cite web |author= |title=External Heating Systems|url= https://www.iter.org/mach/Heating|access-date=2021-04-02}} [258] => [259] => * Two one-million volt heating [[neutral-beam injectors|neutral beam injectors]] (HNB) that will each provide about 16.5MW to the burning plasma, with the possibility to add a third injector. The beams generate electrically charged deuterium ions that are accelerated through five grids to reach the required energy of 1MV and the beams can operate for the entire plasma pulse duration, a total of up to 3600 seconds.{{cite web |last=Arnoux|first=Robert|title=The System That Makes the Tokamak Feel Small|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3254| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2019-04-08|access-date=2021-03-20}} The prototype is being built at the [[ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility|Neutral Beam Test Facility]] (NBTF),{{Cite web |url=https://www.igi.cnr.it/www/sites/default/files/home201511/SchedaNBTF_MIUR_EN.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=9 October 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161010212050/https://www.igi.cnr.it/www/sites/default/files/home201511/SchedaNBTF_MIUR_EN.pdf |archive-date=10 October 2016 |url-status=dead }} which was constructed in [[Padua]], Italy. There is also a smaller neutral beam that will be used for diagnostics to help detect the amount of helium ash inside the tokamak.{{cite web | last1=Chakraborty|first1=Arun|last2=Bandyopadhyay|first2=Indranil |title=Development of ITER's Diagnostic Neutral Beam|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/139/330 | magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2010-07-09|access-date=2021-03-20}} [260] => * An [[ion cyclotron resonance heating]] (ICRH) system that will inject 20 MW of electromagnetic power into the plasma by using antennas to generate radio waves that have the same rate of oscillation as the ions in the plasma.{{cite web |last=Brans|first=Pat|title=How to Pump 20MW of Power Into 1 Gram of Plasma|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3382| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2020-01-13|access-date=2021-03-20}} [261] => * An [[electron cyclotron resonance heating]] (ECRH) system that will heat electrons in the plasma using a high-intensity beam of electromagnetic radiation.{{cite web | author= |url= https://www.usiter.org/us-hardware/electron-cyclotron-heating |title=Electron Cyclotron Heating |website=US ITER |date= 22 May 2020 |location=Oak Ridge, Tennessee|access-date=2021-03-20}} [262] => [263] => === Cryostat === [264] => The ITER cryostat is a large 3,850-tonne stainless steel structure surrounding the vacuum vessel and the superconducting magnets, with the purpose of providing a super-cool vacuum environment.{{cite web |author= |title=Cryostat|url= https://www.iter.org/mach/Cryostat |work=iter.org |access-date=2021-04-02}} Its thickness (ranging from {{convert|50|to|250|mm|in}}) will allow it to withstand the stresses induced by atmospheric pressure acting on the enclosed volume of 8,500 cubic meters.{{cite web |title= Nuclear fusion win for Larsen & Toubrot |url=http://www.theconstructionindex.co.uk/news/view/nuclear-fusion-win-for-larsen-and-toubro |date=12 September 2012 |access-date=2 January 2013}} On 9 June 2020, [[Larsen & Toubro]] completed the delivery and installation of the cryostat module.{{Cite web|date=9 June 2020|title=L&T-made major cryostat base installed in world's largest nuclear fusion project in France|url=https://www.zeebiz.com/companies/news-lt-made-major-cryostat-base-installed-in-worlds-largest-nuclear-fusion-project-in-france-128601|access-date=10 June 2020|website=Zee Business}} The cryostat is the major component of the tokamak complex, which sits on a seismically isolated base.{{Cite web|url=https://www.iter.org/newsline/130/173 |date=May 7, 2010 |access-date=November 11, 2021 |work=iter.org |title = Shake, rattle and roll}}{{cite web |work=iter.org |url=https://www.iter.org/construction/TKMFoundations |title=Foundations |access-date=November 11, 2021 }}{{Cite web|url=https://www.iter.org/newsline/204/1010|title = The Seismic Pit basemat is now complete}} [265] => [266] => === Divertor === [267] => [268] => The [[divertor]] is a device within the tokamak that allows for removal of waste and impurities from the plasma while the reactor is operating. At ITER, the divertor will extract heat and ash that are created by the fusion process, while also protecting the surrounding walls and reducing plasma contamination.{{cite web |author= |title=Cryogenics|url= https://www.iter.org/mach/Divertor}} [269] => [270] => The ITER divertor, which has been compared to a massive ashtray, is made of 54 pieces of stainless-steel parts that are known as cassettes. Each cassette weighs roughly eight tonnes and measures 0.8 meters x 2.3 meters by 3.5 meters. The divertor design and construction is being overseen by the Fusion For Energy agency.{{cite web |author= |title=European Prototypes for ITER Divertor Cassettte completed|date=2 May 2018|url= https://fusionforenergy.europa.eu/news/european-prototypes-for-iter-divertor-cassette-completed/}} [271] => [272] => When the ITER tokamak is in operation, the plasma-facing units endure heat spikes as high as 20 megawatts per square metre, which is more than four times higher than what is experienced by a spacecraft entering Earth's atmosphere.{{cite web |last=Beaton|first=Will|title=Far More than a Fancy Ashtray|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3422|publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2020-03-30 }} [273] => [274] => The testing of the divertor is being done at the ITER Divertor Test Facility (IDTF) in Russia. This facility was created at the Efremov Institute in [[Saint Petersburg]] as part of the ITER Procurement Arrangement that spreads design and manufacturing across the project's member countries.{{cite journal |last1=Kuznetcov|first1=Vladimir|last2=Gorbenko|first2=Aleksandr| title=Status of the IDTF high-heat flux test facility|url= https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262385261|journal=Fusion Engineering and Design|publisher=Elsevier |location=Amsterdam, Netherlands|date=2014-10-01|volume=89|issue=7–8|pages=955–959|doi=10.1016/j.fusengdes.2014.04.064}} [275] => [276] => === Cooling systems === [277] => The ITER tokamak will use interconnected cooling systems to manage the heat generated during operation. Most of the heat will be removed by a primary water cooling loop, itself cooled by water from a secondary loop through a heat exchanger within the tokamak building's secondary confinement.{{cite web |last=Arnoux|first=Robert|title=From River to Droplets and Mist|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3388 | magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2020-01-27|access-date=2021-03-20}} The secondary cooling loop will be cooled by a larger complex, comprising a cooling tower, a {{cvt|5|km}} pipeline supplying water from the Canal de Provence, and basins that allow cooling water to be cooled and tested for chemical contamination and [[tritium]] before being released into the river [[Durance]]. This system will need to dissipate an average power of {{val|450|u=MW}} during the tokamak's operation.{{cite web |author= |title=Cooling Water|url= https://www.iter.org/mach/coolingwater|access-date=2021-04-02}} A [[liquid nitrogen]] system will provide a further {{val|1300|u=kW}} of cooling to {{convert|80|K|lk=in}}, and a [[liquid helium]] system will provide {{val|75|u=kW}} of cooling to {{convert|4.5|K}}. The liquid helium system will be designed, manufactured, installed and commissioned by [[Air Liquide]] in France.{{cite web |title= World's largest cryogenic plant to be installed in ITER fusion reactor |url=http://www.scienceworldreport.com/articles/4344/20121228/largest-cryogenic-helium-plant-iter-fusion-reactor-tokamak.htm |publisher=Science World Report |date=December 2012 |access-date=31 December 2012}}{{cite web|url=https://www.iter.org/newsline/251/1431 |date=December 21, 2012 |title=EUR 83 million contract signed for Liquid Helium Plant|access-date=31 December 2012}} [278] => [279] => == Location == [280] => [[File:Cadarache (red dot) CIA World Factbook map.png|thumb|upright=1.2|Location of [[Cadarache]] in France]] [281] => [282] => The process of selecting a location for ITER was long and drawn out. Japan proposed a site in Rokkasho.{{cite magazine | author= |title=Time for Japan to shine?|url= https://www.nature.com/articles/427763a?foxtrotcallback=true| magazine=Nature |publisher=Springer Nature Group|location=London, England|date=2004-02-26 |access-date=2020-08-28}} Two European sites were considered, the [[Cadarache]] site in France and the [[Vandellòs i l'Hospitalet de l'Infant|Vandellòs]] site in Spain, but the European Competitiveness Council named Cadarache as its official candidate in November 2003.{{cite web |author= |title=Council reaches a unanimous decision on Europe's ITER candidate site |url= https://cordis.europa.eu/article/id/21258-council-reaches-a-unanimous-decision-on-europes-iter-candidate-site |publisher=European Commission |access-date=2021-03-20}} Additionally, Canada announced a bid for the site in [[Clarington]] in May 2001, but withdrew from the race in 2003.{{cite magazine |last=Dalton|first=Rex|title=Canada stakes claim on fusion energy project|url= https://www.nature.com/articles/35075728| magazine=Nature |publisher=Springer Nature Group|location=London, England|date=2001-05-10 |access-date=2021-03-20}}{{cite magazine |last=Brumfiel|first=Geoff|title=Canada prepares to pull the plug on fusion project|url= https://www.nature.com/articles/425887b| magazine=Nature |publisher=Springer Nature Group|location=London, England|date=2003-10-30 |access-date=2021-03-20}} [283] => [284] => From this point on, the choice was between France and Japan. On 3 May 2005, the EU and Japan agreed to a process which would settle their dispute by July. At the final meeting in Moscow on 28 June 2005, the participating parties agreed to construct ITER at Cadarache with Japan receiving a privileged partnership that included a Japanese director-general for the project and a financial package to construct facilities in Japan.{{cite web | author= |title=Europe beats Japan to ITER prize|url= https://physicsworld.com/a/europe-beats-japan-to-iter-prize/|website=Physics World | publisher=IOP Publishing | location=Bristol, UK| date=2005-06-28 |access-date=2021-03-29}} [285] => [[Fusion for Energy]], the [[European Union|EU]] agency in charge of the European contribution to the project, is located in [[Barcelona]], Spain. Fusion for Energy (F4E) is the European Union's Joint Undertaking for ITER and the Development of Fusion Energy. According to the agency's website:
F4E is responsible for providing Europe's contribution to ITER, the world's largest scientific partnership that aims to demonstrate fusion as a viable and sustainable source of energy. [...] F4E also supports fusion research and development initiatives [...][http://fusionforenergy.europa.eu/aboutfusion/ The EU's Fusion for Energy website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101003073941/http://fusionforenergy.europa.eu/aboutfusion/ |date=3 October 2010 }}. Fusionforenergy.europa.eu (19 April 2007). Retrieved 2013-05-21.
[286] => The [[ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility]] aimed at developing and optimizing the neutral beam injector prototype, is being constructed in [[Padova]], [[Italy]].[http://www.igi.cnr.it/ The Consorzio RFX website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090901010034/http://www.igi.cnr.it/ |date=1 September 2009 }}, where the ITER Neutral Beam Test Facility is host It will be the only ITER facility out of the site in Cadarache. [287] => [288] => Most of the buildings at ITER will or have been clad in an alternating pattern of reflective stainless steel and grey lacquered metal. This was done for aesthetic reasons to blend the buildings with their surrounding environment and to aid with [[thermal insulation]].{{cite web |last=Arnoux|first=Robert|title=Mirror, Mirror on the Platform|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/272/1546 | magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2013-06-17|access-date=2021-03-20}} [289] => [290] => == Participants == [291] => [[File:ITER participants.svg|thumb|Seven members participate in the ITER project]] [292] => [293] => Currently there are seven signatories to the ITER Agreement: [[China]], the [[European Union]], [[India]], [[Japan]], [[Russia]], [[South Korea]] and the [[United States]]. [294] => [295] => As a consequence of [[Brexit]], the United Kingdom formally withdrew from Euratom on 31 January 2020. However, under the terms of the [[EU–UK Trade and Cooperation Agreement]], the United Kingdom remains a member of ITER as a part of [[Fusion for Energy]] following the end of the [[transition period]] on 31 December 2020.{{cite web |last=Coblentz|first=Laban|title=The UK Will Remain Part of ITER|url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3551| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2020-01-27|access-date=2021-01-11}}{{cite web |title=Post Brexit: A new beginning for the United Kingdom|url= https://fusionforenergy.europa.eu/news/post-brexit-a-new-beginning-for-the-united-kingdom/| magazine=F4E Newsline |publisher=F4E|date=2021-02-02|access-date=2021-11-20}} [296] => [297] => In March 2009, Switzerland, an associate member of [[Euratom]] since 1979, also ratified the country's accession to the [[Fusion for Energy]] as a third country member.{{cite web |url=https://www.iter.org/newsline/83/531 |title=Switzerland officializes ITER participation |date=29 May 2009 |publisher=iter.org |access-date=1 May 2014}} [298] => [299] => In 2016, ITER announced a partnership with Australia for "technical cooperation in areas of mutual benefit and interest", but without Australia becoming a full member. [300] => [301] => In 2017, ITER signed a Cooperation Agreement with [[Kazakhstan]].{{cite news| url = http://www.energy-daily.com/reports/Kazakhstan_Offers_To_Join_International_Fusion_Power_Project_999.html|title = Kazakhstan Offers To Join International Fusion Power Project| agency = RIA Novosti|access-date=14 July 2007}} [302] => [303] => Thailand also has an official role in the project after a cooperation agreement was signed between the ITER Organization and the Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology in 2018. The agreement provides courses and lectures to students and scientists in Thailand and facilitates relationships between Thailand and the ITER project.{{cite web | author= |title=A Princess Royal With a Passion for Science |url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3196| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2018-12-17|access-date=2021-01-11}} [304] => [305] => Canada was previously a full member but pulled out due to a lack of funding from the federal government. The lack of funding also resulted in Canada's withdrawing from its bid for the ITER site in 2003. Canada rejoined the project in 2020 via a cooperation agreement that focused on tritium and tritium-related equipment. [306] => [307] => ITER's work is supervised by the ITER Council, which has the authority to appoint senior staff, amend regulations, decide on budgeting issues, and allow additional states or organizations to participate in ITER.{{cite web |url=http://www.iter.org/org/Pages/Council.aspx |title=ITER Council, ITER's top authority |publisher=ITER.org}} The current Chairman of the ITER Council is Won Namkung,{{cite web|url=https://www.iter.org/doc/www/content/com/Lists/list_items/Attachments/654/2016_01_Council_Chair.pdf|title=Won Namkung takes helm of the ITER Council|date=12 January 2016|publisher=ITER.org|access-date=23 November 2016}} and the acting ITER Director-General is Eisuke Tada. [308] => [309] => === Members === [310] => *{{flagcountry|European Union|name=European Union}} [311] => **{{flagcountry|Switzerland}} (as a member of [[Euratom]] and [[Fusion for Energy]]){{cite web |date=29 May 2009 |title=Switzerland officializes ITER participation |url=https://www.iter.org/newsline/83/531}} [312] => **{{flagcountry|United Kingdom}} (as a part of [[Fusion for Energy]]) [313] => *{{flagcountry|China}} [314] => *{{flagcountry|India}} [315] => *{{flagcountry|Japan}} [316] => *{{flagcountry|Russian Federation}} [317] => *{{flagcountry|South Korea}} [318] => *{{flagcountry|United States}} [319] => [320] => === Non-members === [321] => *{{flagcountry|Australia}} (through the [[Australian Nuclear Science and Technology Organisation]] (ANSTO) in 2016){{cite web|title=ITER MEMBERS |publisher=ITER |url=https://www.iter.org/proj/Countries}} [322] => *{{flagcountry|Canada}} (through the [[Government of Canada]] in 2020, mostly on the grounds of [[tritium]]){{Cite web|title=Cooperation {{!}} Canada returns to the table|url=http://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3503|access-date=2020-11-16|website=ITER|language=en}} [323] => *{{flagcountry|Kazakhstan}} (through the [[National Nuclear Center of the Republic of Kazakhstan]] (NNC-RK) in 2017) [324] => *{{flagcountry|Thailand}} (through the [[Thailand Institute of Nuclear Technology]] (TINT) in 2018){{Cite web|title=Visit {{!}} A Princess Royal with a passion for science|url=http://www.iter.org/newsline/-/3196|access-date=2020-11-16|website=ITER|language=en}} [325] => [326] => == Domestic agencies == [327] => [328] => Each member of the ITER project – The European Union, China, India, Japan, Korea, Russia, and the United States – has created a domestic agency to meet its contributions and procurement responsibilities. These agencies employ their own staff, have their own budget, and directly oversee all industrial contracts and subcontracting.{{Cite web|url=http://www.iter.org/mag/1/10|title=Who does what?|website=ITER}} [329] => [330] => === ITER EU === [331] => [332] => The ITER Agreement was signed by [[Euratom]] representing the EU. [[Fusion for Energy]], often referred to as F4E, was created in 2007 as the EU's domestic agency, with headquarters in [[Barcelona]], Spain, and further offices in [[Cadarache]], France, [[Campus Garching|Garching]], Germany, and [[Rokkasho]], Japan.{{Cite web|url=https://fusionforenergy.europa.eu/who-we-are/|title=Who we are|website=Fusion for Energy}} F4E is responsible for contributing to the design and manufacture of components such as the vacuum vessel, the divertor, and the magnets.{{Cite web|url=http://www.iter.org/mach/manufacturing|title=Manufacturing for ITER|website=ITER}} [333] => [334] => === ITER China === [335] => [336] => China's contribution to ITER is managed through the China International Nuclear Fusion Energy Program or the CNDA. The Chinese agency is working on components such as the correction coil, magnet supports, the first wall, and shield blanket.{{cite web|title=ITER In China|url=https://www.iter-india.org/|access-date=5 April 2021|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416162740/https://iter-india.org/|url-status=dead}} China is also running experiments on their [[HL-2M]] tokamak in [[Chengdu]]{{cite web |title=Fusion projects make progress in 2020 |url= https://www.neimagazine.com/features/featurefusion-projects-make-progress-in-2020-8492724/|publisher=Nuclear Engineering International|date=2021-02-03}} and HT-7U ([[Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak|EAST]]) in [[Hefei]]{{Cite journal|date=2015|title=Study of lower hybrid current drive towards long-pulse operation with high performance in EAST|series=AIP Conference Proceedings|volume=1689|page=080002|publisher=EURATOM|doi=10.1063/1.4936525|bibcode=2015AIPC.1689h0002D|doi-access=free|last1=Ding|first1=B. J.|last2=Li|first2=M. H.|last3=Li|first3=Y. C.|last4=Wang|first4=M.|last5=Shan|first5=J. F.|last6=Liu|first6=F. K.|last7=Wang|first7=S. L.|last8=Wei|first8=W.|last9=Xu|first9=H. D.|last10=Zhao|first10=L. M.|last11=Hu|first11=H. C.|last12=Jia|first12=H.|last13=Cheng|first13=M.|last14=Yang|first14=Y.|last15=Liu|first15=L.|last16=Xu|first16=G. S.|last17=Zang|first17=Q.|last18=Zhao|first18=H. L.|last19=Peysson|first19=Y.|last20=Decker|first20=J.|last21=Goniche|first21=M.|last22=Cesario|first22=R.|last23=Amicucci|first23=L.|last24=Tuccillo|first24=A. A.|last25=Baek|first25=G. S.|last26=Parker|first26=R.|last27=Bonoli|first27=P. T.|last28=Yang|first28=C.|last29=Zhao|first29=Y. P.|last30=Qian|first30=J. P.|journal=Radio Frequency Power in Plasmas|issue=1|display-authors=1}} to help support ITER research. [337] => [338] => === ITER India === [339] => [340] => ITER-India is a special project run by India's [[Institute for Plasma Research]].{{cite web|title=ITER-India, Institute for Plasma Research|url=https://www.iter-india.org/|access-date=5 April 2021|archive-date=16 April 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416162740/https://iter-india.org/|url-status=dead}} ITER-India's research facility is based in [[Ahmedabad]] in the [[Gujarat]] state. India's deliverables to the ITER project include the cryostat, in-vessel shielding, cooling and cooling water systems.{{cite web |title=Overview of Indian Deliverables to ITER|url= https://www.iter-india.org/overview/}} [341] => [342] => === ITER Japan === [343] => [344] => Japan's National Institutes for Quantum and Radiological Sciences and Technology, or QST, is now the designated Japanese domestic agency for the ITER project. The organization is based in [[Chiba (city)|Chiba]], Japan.{{Cite web|url=https://www.fusion.qst.go.jp/ITER/english/jada/page2.html/|title=ITER Japan Domestic Agency}} Japan collaborates with the ITER Organization and ITER members to help design and produce components for the tokamak, including the blanket remote handling system, the central solenoid coils, the plasma diagnostics systems, and the neutral beam injection heating systems.{{Cite web|url=https://www.fusion.qst.go.jp/ITER/english/jada/page2_2.html/|title=In-kind procurement for Japan|access-date=25 May 2021|archive-date=15 December 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221215022828/https://www.fusion.qst.go.jp/ITER/english/jada/page2_2.html|url-status=dead}} [345] => [346] => === ITER Korea === [347] => [348] => ITER Korea was established in 2007 under Korea's National Fusion Research Institute and the organization is based in [[Daejeon]], South Korea. Among the procurement items that ITER Korea is responsible for four sectors of the vacuum vessel, the blanket shield block, thermal shields, and the tritium storage and delivery system.{{cite web |title=ITER Korea Procurement Items|url= https://www.iterkorea.org/eng/030201}} [349] => [350] => === ITER Russia === [351] => [352] => Russia occupies one of the key positions in the implementation of the international ITER Project.{{Cite web|url=http://en.iterrf.ru/|title=Iter Russia}} The Russian Federation's contribution to the ITER project lies in the manufacture and supply of high-tech equipment and basic reactor systems. The Russian Federation's contribution is being made under the aegis of [[Rosatom]] or the State Atomic Energy Corporation.{{cite web |title=Rosatom |url=https://rosatom.ru/en/about-us/ |access-date=26 May 2021 |archive-date=28 August 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190828133041/http://www.rosatom.ru/en/about-us/ |url-status=dead }} The Russian Federation has multiple obligations to the ITER project, including the supply of 22 kilometers of conductors based on 90 tonnes of superconducting [[Niobium–tin|Nb3Sn]] strands for winding coils of a toroidal field and 11 km of conductors based on 40 tonnes of superconducting [[Niobium|Nb]][[Titanium|Ti]] strands for windings of coils of a [[Toroidal and poloidal coordinates|poloidal field]] of the ITER magnetic system,{{cite web [353] => |url=https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/NN-Contracts_for_Iter_components_awarded-0410124.html [354] => |title=Contracts for ITER components awarded [355] => |date=4 October 2012 [356] => |access-date=27 September 2022 }} sent in late 2022.{{cite web |title=Despite conflict, Russia sends France giant magnet for nuclear fusion project |url=https://www.euractiv.com/section/energy/news/despite-conflict-russia-sends-france-giant-magnet-for-nuclear-fusion-project/ |website=www.euractiv.com |date=2 November 2022}} Russia is responsible for the manufacture of 179 of the most energy-intensive (up to 5 MW/sq.m) panels of the First Wall. The panels are covered with [[beryllium]] plates soldered to [[Copper|Cu]][[Chromium|Cr]][[Zirconium|Zr]] bronze, which is connected to a steel base. Panel size up to 2 m wide, 1.4 m high; its mass is about 1000 kg. The obligation of the Russian Federation also includes conducting thermal tests of ITER components that are facing the plasma.{{Cite web|url=http://en.iterrf.ru/component/content/article/4.html|title=Russia's Contribution}} Today, Russia, thanks to its participation in the project, has the full design documentation for the ITER reactor. [357] => [358] => === ITER US === [359] => [360] => US ITER is part of the US Department of Energy and is managed by the [[Oak Ridge National Laboratory]] in Tennessee.{{Cite web|url=https://www.usiter.org/project/project-history|title=Project History | US ITER|website=www.usiter.org}} US ITER is responsible for both the design and manufacturing of components for the ITER project, and American involvement includes contributions to the tokamak cooling system, the diagnostics systems, the electron and ion cyclotron heating transmission lines, the toroidal and central solenoid magnet systems, and the pellet injection systems.{{Cite web|url=https://www.usiter.org/project/us-hardware-contributions-iter|title=US Hardware Contributions to ITER | US ITER|website=www.usiter.org}} [361] => In 2022, the US fusion research community released its plan for a US ITER Research Program covering key research areas such as plasma-material interactions, plasma diagnostics, and fusion nuclear science and technology. The plan envisions close collaboration between the US and other ITER partners to ensure the successful operation of ITER.{{Cite web|url=https://www.iterresearch.us/|title=Fusion Energy Sciences Research Needs Workshop|website=www.iterresearch.us}} [362] => [363] => == Funding == [364] => [365] => In 2006, the ITER Agreement was signed on the basis of an estimated cost of €5.9 billion over a ten-year period. In 2008, as a result of a design review, the estimate was revised upwards to approximately €19 billion.{{cite web |author= |title=European Joint Undertaking for ITER and the Development of Fusion Energy |url= https://www.europarl.europa.eu/legislative-train/theme-new-boost-for-jobs-growth-and-investment/file-mff-the-international-thermonuclear-experimental-reactor-(iter)-project/03-2021 |publisher=European Parliament | access-date=2021-03-20}} As of 2016, the total price of constructing and operating the experiment is expected to be in excess of €22 billion, an increase of €4.6 billion of its 2010 estimate,"[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/10614542 EU member states agree on Iter funding shortfall"], BBC, 13 July 2010. and of €9.6 billion from the 2009 estimate."[http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8103557.stm Fusion falters under soaring costs"], BBC, 17 June 2009 (accessed 18 June 2009). [366] => [367] => At the June 2005 conference in Moscow the participating members of the ITER cooperation agreed on the following division of funding contributions for the construction phase: 45.4% by the hosting member, the European Union, and the rest split between the non-hosting members at a rate of 9.1% each for China, India, Japan, South Korea, the Russian Federation and the US.{{cite news|last=Amos|first=Jonathan|date=14 October 2010|title=Key component contract for Iter fusion reactor|work=BBC News|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-11541383 |access-date=21 May 2013}}[http://fusionforenergy.europa.eu/understandingfusion/ourcontribution.aspx ITER – Our Contribution] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151021113934/http://fusionforenergy.europa.eu/understandingfusion/ourcontribution.aspx |date=21 October 2015 }}. Europa (web portal). Retrieved 21 May 2013.[http://cordis.europa.eu/fetch?CALLER=NEWSLINK_EN_C&RCN=24051&ACTION=D Lengthy ITER dispute concludes in favour of France]. European Commission press release. Cordis.europa.eu (28 June 2005). Retrieved 21 May 2013. During the operation and deactivation phases, Euratom will contribute to 34% of the total costs,[https://archive.today/20120713083340/http://europa.eu/rapid/pressReleasesAction.do?reference=MEMO/10/165&format=H ITER & Fusion Research press release]. Europa (web portal), 5 May 2011. Retrieved 19 November 2011. Japan and the United States 13 percent, and China, India, Korea, and Russia 10 percent.{{Cite web|title=Frequently Asked Questions|url=http://www.iter.org/faq|access-date=28 July 2020|website=ITER|language=en}} [368] => [369] => Ninety percent of contributions will be delivered 'in-kind' using ITER's own currency, the ITER Units of Account (IUAs). Although Japan's financial contribution as a non-hosting member is one-eleventh of the total, the EU agreed to grant it a special status so that Japan will provide for two-elevenths of the research staff at Cadarache and be awarded two-elevenths of the construction contracts, while the European Union's staff and construction components contributions will be cut from five-elevenths to four-elevenths. [370] => [371] => The American contribution to ITER has been the subject to debate. The U.S. Department of Energy has estimated the total construction costs to 2025, including in-kind contributions, to be $65 billion, although ITER disputes this calculation. After having reduced funding to ITER in 2017, the United States ended up doubling its initial budget to $122 million in-kind contribution in 2018.{{cite news |last=De Clercq|first=Geert|title=ITER nuclear fusion project avoids delays as U.S. doubles budget|url= https://www.reuters.com/article/us-france-nuclear-iter-idUSKCN1271BC|publisher=Reuters|location=London, England|date=2018-03-26 |access-date=2021-03-28}} It is estimated the total contribution to ITER for the year 2020 was $247 million, an amount that is part of the U.S. Department of Energy's Fusion Energy Sciences program.{{ cite news | url=https://www.science.org/content/article/us-physicists-rally-around-ambitious-plan-build-fusion-power-plant | title=U.S. physicists rally around ambitious plan to build fusion power plant | last=Cho | first=Adrian | magazine=[[Science (journal)|Science]] | date=2020-12-08 }} Under a strategic plan to guide American fusion energy efforts that was approved in January 2021, the U.S. Department of Energy directed the Fusion Energy Sciences Advisory Committee to assume that the U.S. will continue to fund ITER for a ten-year period.{{cite web | author= |title=DOE Fusion Panel Approves Long-Range Plan|url= https://www.aip.org/fyi/2021/doe-fusion-panel-approves-long-range-plan|publisher=AIP Publishing|location=College Park, MD, US| date=2021-01-07 |access-date=2021-03-20}} [372] => [373] => Support for the European budget for ITER has also varied over the course of the project. It was reported in December 2010 that the European Parliament had refused to approve a plan by member states to reallocate €1.4 billion from the budget to cover a shortfall in ITER building costs in 2012–13. The closure of the 2010 budget required this financing plan to be revised, and the European Commission (EC) was forced to put forward an ITER budgetary resolution proposal in 2011.[https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/science-environment-12007965 Nuclear fusion finance plan rejected by EU Parliament], BBC, 16 December 2010 (accessed 19 December 2010). In the end, the European contribution to ITER for the 2014 to 2020 period was set at €2.9 billion.{{cite web | last=Mitev|first=Lubomir |title=European Commission Proposes Changers to Iter financing|url= https://www.nucnet.org/news/european-commission-proposes-changes-to-iter-financing |publisher=NucNet|location=Brussels, Belgium| date=2013-11-27 |access-date=2021-03-20}} Most recently, in February 2021, the European Council approved ITER financing of €5.61 billion for the period of 2021 to 2027.{{cite web |author= |title=Fusion energy: Council approves ITER financing |url= https://www.consilium.europa.eu/en/press/press-releases/2021/02/22/fusion-energy-council-approves-iter-financing/ |publisher=European Council |date= 2021-02-22 | access-date=2021-03-20}} [374] => [375] => == Manufacturing == [376] => [377] => The construction of the ITER tokamak has been compared to the assembly of “a giant three-dimensional puzzle” because the parts are manufactured around the world and then shipped to France for assembly.{{cite news|last=Ganley|first=Elaine|title=France's global nuclear fusion device a puzzle of huge parts|url=https://apnews.com/article/virus-outbreak-science-europe-france-c9e1780864431c3edcd1cc2c17568c54|newspaper=The Associated Press |location=New York, US|date=2020-07-28 |access-date=2021-08-29}} This assembly system is the result of the ITER Agreement that stipulates that member contributions were to be mostly “in-kind” with countries manufacturing components instead of providing money. This system was devised to provide economic stimulus and fusion expertise in the countries funding the project and the general framework called for 90% of member contributions to be in material or components and 10% to be in money.{{cite web |author= |title= ITER Reports on Progress|url=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsiter-reports-on-progress-8840244 |publisher=Nuclear Engineering International|access-date=2021-09-20}} [378] => [379] => As a result, more than 2800 design or manufacturing contracts have been signed since the launch of the project.{{cite web |author= |title=Manufacturing for ITER?|url= https://www.iter.org/mach/Manufacturing|access-date=2021-06-26}} According to a 2017 estimate from French Minister for Research, Education and Innovation, [[Frédérique Vidal]], there were 500 companies involved in the construction of ITER and Bernard Bigot stated that €7 billion in contracts had been awarded to prime contractors in Europe alone since 2007.{{cite web |author= |title=ITER Industry Day |url= https://ec.europa.eu/energy/events/iter-industry-day_en?redir=1|publisher=European Commission |access-date=2021-07-29}}{{cite web |author= |title=At the ITER worksite|url= https://www.investinprovence.com/en/news/at-iter-worksite-provence-companies-have-decisive-advantage |publisher=Invest in Provence|access-date=2021-10-01}} [380] => [381] => The overall assembly of the tokamak facility is being overseen through a €174-million contract awarded to Momentum, a joint venture between [[Amec Foster Wheeler]] (Britain), [[Assystem]] (France), and [[Korea Electric Power Corporation|Kepco]] (South Korea).{{cite magazine | author= |title=ITER: Will the world's biggest fusion project change the future of energy?|url= https://www.power-technology.com/features/featureiter-will-the-worlds-biggest-fusion-project-change-the-future-of-energy-5014242/| magazine=Power Technology|date=2016-10-19 |access-date=2021-09-29}} One of the largest tenders was a €530-million contract for HVAC systems and mechanical and electrical equipment that was awarded to a European consortium involving [[ENGIE]] (France) and [[Exyte]] (Germany).{{cite magazine |author= |title=Largest European Iter contract so far |url= https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Largest-European-Iter-contract-so-far |magazine= World Nuclear News |publisher=World Nuclear Association|location=London, England | date=2013-11-01 |access-date=2021-08-08}} A tokamak assembly contract worth €200 million also went to a European consortium, Dynamic, that includes the companies [[Ansaldo Energia]] (Italy), [[ENGIE]] (France), and SIMIC (Italy).{{cite magazine |author= |title=Dynamic contracted for ITER tokamak assembly |url= https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Dynamic-contracted-for-ITER-Tokamak-Assembly|magazine= World Nuclear News |publisher=World Nuclear Association|location=London, England | date=2019-09-30 |access-date=2021-09-08}} The French industrial conglomerate [[Daher]] was awarded more than €100 million in logistics contracts for ITER, which includes the shipment of the heavy components from the different manufacturers around the world.{{cite web |author= |title= DAHER selected as ITER logistics service provider|url=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsdaher-selected-as-iter-logistics-service-provider |publisher=Nuclear Engineering International|date=2012-02-20|access-date=2021-10-15}}{{cite web |author= |title=Europe signs a Eur 100 million contract for global logistics | url= https://www.iter.org/newsline/-/2154| magazine=ITER Newsline |publisher=ITER|location=St. Paul-lez-Durance, France|date=2015-03-30|access-date=2021-10-15}} [382] => [383] => In America, US ITER has awarded $1.3 billion in contracts to American companies since the beginning of the project and there is an estimated $800 million in future contracts still to come.{{cite web | author= |url= https://www.usiter.org/resources/us-iter-participants |title=US ITER Participants |website=US ITER |location=Oak Ridge, Tennessee|access-date=2021-07-07}} The major US contracts include [[General Atomics]] being selected to design and manufacture the crucial central solenoid magnet.{{cite web |author= |title= ITER Reports on Progress|url= https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsgeneral-atomics-prepares-to-ship-first-module-of-iters-central-solenoid-8822680|publisher=Nuclear Engineering International| date=2021-06-15 |access-date=2021-09-20}} [384] => [385] => In 2019, the Chinese consortium led by China Nuclear Power Engineering Corporation signed a contract for machine assembly at ITER that was the biggest nuclear energy contract ever signed by a Chinese company in Europe.{{cite magazine |author= |title=Chinese consortium signs ITER contract |url= https://www.world-nuclear-news.org/Articles/Chinese-consortium-signs-ITER-contract|magazine= World Nuclear News |publisher=World Nuclear Association|location=London, England | date=2013-11-01 |access-date=2021-09-08}} [386] => [387] => Russia is supplying magnet and vacuum-injection systems for ITER with construction being done at the [[Sredne-Nevsky Shipyard]] in Saint Petersburg.{{cite web |author= |title= Russia completes key equipment for ITER|url= https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsrussia-completes-key-equipment-for-iter-8616768|publisher=Nuclear Engineering International|date=2021-03-22 |access-date=2021-09-14}} [388] => [389] => In India, the contract for construction of the cryostat, one of the fundamental pieces of the tokamak, was awarded to [[Larsen & Toubro]], who also have ITER contracts for water cooling systems.{{cite web |author= |title=L&T builds key cryostat for world's largest nuclear fusion reactor|url= https://www.financialexpress.com/industry/lt-builds-key-cryostat-for-worlds-largest-nuclear-fusion-reactor-in-france-for-20-billion/2008988/ [390] => |publisher= Financial Express | location=Uttar Pradesh, India| date=2020-06-30 |access-date=2021-05-21}} InoxCVA, an [[INOX Leisure|Inox]] Group company will supply cryolines for the ITER Project.{{cite web | url=https://www.energetica-india.net/news/inoxcva-completes-manufacturing-of-group-y-cryolines--group-w-warmlines-for-iter-project | title=INOXCVA Completes Manufacturing of Group-Y Cryolines & Group-W Warmlines for ITER Project - Asia Pacific | Energetica India Magazine }}{{cite web | url=https://www.projectstoday.com/News/INOX-India-bags-contract-for-Thermo-nuclear-Fusion-Reactor | title=INOX India bags contract for Thermo-nuclear Fusion Reactor }} [391] => [392] => Two of Japan's industrial leaders, Toshiba Energy Systems & Solutions and [[Mitsubishi Heavy Industries]], have contracts to manufacture the toroidal field coils for ITER. Construction of another key part of the tokamak, the vacuum vessel, was awarded to [[Hyundai Heavy Industries]] and is being built in Korea.{{cite web |author= |title= Hyundai to build ITER vessel|url= https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newshyundai-to-build-iter-vessel [393] => |publisher=Nuclear Engineering International|date=2010-01-22 |access-date=2021-09-15}} [394] => [395] => Delays were acknowledged in 2023, which would impact the target to create plasma by 2025, however it was hoped the 2035 full-fusion target could be maintained. A new schedule will be issued by the end of 2023.{{cite news |url=https://www.neimagazine.com/news/newsmore-delays-for-iter-10511382 |title=More delays for ITER |publisher=Nuclear Engineering International |date=12 January 2023 |access-date=17 January 2023}} [396] => [397] => == Criticism == [398] => [399] => The ITER project has been criticized for issues such as its possible environmental impacts, its usefulness as a response to climate change, the design of its tokamak, and how the experiment's objectives have been expressed. [400] => [401] => When France was announced as the site of the ITER project in 2005, several European environmentalists stated their opposition to the project. For example, the French politician [[Noël Mamère]] argued that the fight against global warming would be neglected as a result of ITER: “This is not good news for the fight against the greenhouse effect because we're going to put ten billion euros towards a project that has a term of 30–50 years when we're not even sure it will be effective."{{cite web |title=Mixed reactions to ITER |url= https://www.euractiv.com/section/innovation-industry/news/mixed-reactions-to-iter/ |website= Euractiv |location=Brussels, Belgium |date=2005-07-01 |access-date=2021-04-02}} However, another French environmental association, Association des Ecologistes Pour le Nucléaire (AEPN), welcomed the ITER project as an important part of the response to climate change. [402] => [403] => Within the broader fusion sector, a number of researchers working on non-tokamak systems, such as the independent fusion scientist [[Eric Lerner]], have argued that other fusion projects would be a fraction of ITER's cost and could be a potentially more viable and/or more cost-effective path to fusion power.{{cite journal |first1=Eric J. |last=Lerner |author1-link=Eric Lerner |first2=Syed M. |last2=Hassan |first3=Ivana |last3=Karamitsos-Zivkovič |first4=Rudolph |last4=Fritsch |title=What are the fastest routes to fusion energy? |journal=Physics of Plasmas |volume=30 |issue=120602 |date=December 2023 |doi=10.1063/5.0170216 |url= https://pubs.aip.org/aip/pop/article/30/12/120602/2928807/What-are-the-fastest-routes-to-fusion-energy |access-date=6 March 2024 |doi-access=free }} Other critics, such as Daniel Jassby, accuse ITER researchers of being unwilling to face up to the technical and economic potential problems posed by tokamak fusion schemes.{{cite web |last= Jassby|first= Daniel| title=ITER is a showcase… for the drawbacks of fusion energy|url= https://thebulletin.org/2018/02/iter-is-a-showcase-for-the-drawbacks-of-fusion-energy/ |website= Bulletin of the Atomic Scientists |location=Chicago, IL, US |date=2018-02-14 |access-date=2021-04-02}} [404] => [405] => In terms of the design of the tokamak, one concern arose from the 2013 tokamak parameters database interpolation that revealed the power load on a tokamak [[divertor]] would be five times the previously expected value. Given that the projected power load on the ITER divertor will already be very high, these new findings led to new design testing initiatives.[http://fire.pppl.gov/FPA13_Porkolab_MIT.pdf Innovation is Key from ITER to DEMO. Dec 2013] Porkolab. MIT [406] => [407] => Another issue that critics raised regarding ITER and future deuterium-tritium (DT) fusion projects is the available supply of tritium. As it stands, ITER will use all existing supplies of tritium for its experiment and the current state-of-the-art technology isn't sufficient to generate enough tritium to fulfill the needs of future DT fuel cycle experiments for fusion energy. According to the conclusion of a 2020 study that analyzed the tritium issue, “successful development of the DT fuel cycle for DEMO and future fusion reactors requires an intensive R&D program in key areas of plasma physics and fusion technologies.”{{cite journal |last1=Abdou|first1=Mohamed| title=Physics and technology considerations for the deuterium–tritium fuel cycle and conditions for tritium fuel self sufficiency|url= https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1741-4326/abbf35 |journal=Nuclear Fusion|year=2021|volume=61|issue=1|page=013001|publisher=IAEA |location=Vienna, Austria|doi=10.1088/1741-4326/abbf35|bibcode=2021NucFu..61a3001A|s2cid=229444533|access-date=2021-10-13}} [408] => [409] => === Responses to criticism === [410] => Proponents believe that much of the ITER criticism is misleading and inaccurate, in particular the allegations of the experiment's "inherent danger". The stated goals for a commercial fusion power station design are that the amount of [[radioactive waste]] produced should be hundreds of times less than that of a fission reactor, and that it should produce no long-lived radioactive waste, and that it is impossible for any such reactor to undergo a [[nuclear meltdown|large-scale runaway chain reaction]].{{Cite news|url=https://www.iter.org/sci/Fusion|title=Advantages of fusion|newspaper=ITER|access-date=19 October 2016}} A direct contact of the plasma with ITER inner walls would contaminate it, causing it to cool immediately and stop the fusion process. In addition, the amount of fuel contained in a fusion reactor chamber (one half gram of deuterium/tritium fuel[http://www.iter.org/ ITER website]. Iter.org. Retrieved 21 May 2013.) is only sufficient to sustain the fusion burn pulse from minutes up to an hour at most, whereas a fission reactor usually contains several years' worth of fuel.[https://web.archive.org/web/20100630030449/http://www.stpnoc.com/Fyi.htm Facts and Stats... 1/3 of fuel rods changed every 18 months]. STPNOC.com. [411] => Moreover, some detritiation systems will be implemented, so that, at a fuel cycle inventory level of about {{cvt|2|kg}}, ITER will eventually need to recycle large amounts of tritium and at turnovers orders of magnitude higher than any preceding tritium facility worldwide.{{cite web |title=Detritiation Systems at ITER |url=http://www.asn.fr/sites/tritium/fichiers/Tritium_CHAP_2-5.pdf |publisher=French Nuclear Safety Authority |year=2010 |access-date=12 August 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140913054421/http://www.asn.fr/sites/tritium/fichiers/Tritium_CHAP_2-5.pdf |archive-date=13 September 2014 }} [412] => [413] => In the case of an accident (or sabotage), it is expected that a fusion reactor would release far less radioactive pollution than would an ordinary fission nuclear station. Furthermore, ITER's type of fusion power has little in common with nuclear weapons technology, and does not produce the fissile materials necessary for the construction of a weapon. Proponents note that large-scale fusion power would be able to produce reliable electricity on demand, and with virtually zero pollution (no gaseous CO2, SO2, or NOx by-products are produced).{{Cite web|title=Advantages of fusion|url=http://www.iter.org/sci/fusion|access-date=2022-02-11|website=ITER|language=en}} [414] => [415] => According to researchers at a demonstration reactor in Japan, a fusion generator should be feasible in the 2030s and no later than the 2050s. Japan is pursuing its own research program with several operational facilities that are exploring several fusion paths.{{cite journal|doi= 10.1088/0029-5515/45/2/004|title= Demonstration tokamak fusion power station for early realization of net electric power generation|year= 2005|last1= Hiwatari|first1=R.|last2= Okano|first2=K.|last3=Asaoka|first3= Y.|last4=Shinya|first4= K.|last5=Ogawa|first5=Y.|journal= Nuclear Fusion|volume= 45|page= 96|bibcode = 2005NucFu..45...96H|issue=2|s2cid= 119594462}} [416] => [417] => In the United States alone, electricity accounts for US$210 billion in annual sales.[http://www.eia.doe.gov/cneaf/electricity/chg_str_fuel/html/frontintr.html DOE/EIA-0623 Challenges of Electric Power Industry Restructuring for Fuel Suppliers]. Eia.doe.gov (September 1998). Retrieved 21 May 2013. Asia's electricity sector attracted US$93 billion in private investment between 1990 and 1999.{{cite web|url=http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3650/is_200207/ai_n9093799|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090306170520/http://findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_qa3650/is_200207/ai_n9093799|archive-date=6 March 2009|title=Worldwide power – Electric Perspectives – Find Articles at BNET|date=6 March 2009|access-date=12 September 2018}} These figures take into account only current prices. Proponents of ITER contend that an investment in research now should be viewed as an attempt to earn a far greater future return and a 2017–18 study of the impact of ITER investments on the EU economy have concluded that 'in the medium and long-term, there is likely to be a positive return on investment from the EU commitment to ITER.'{{cite web | author= |title= Study on the impact of the ITER activities in the EU |url= http://trinomics.eu/project/iter-impacts/|website= Trinomics |location=Rotterdam, Netherlands | access-date=2021-04-02}} [418] => Also, worldwide investment of less than US$1 billion per year into ITER is not incompatible with concurrent research into other methods of power generation, which in 2007 totaled US$16.9 billion.{{cite web|url=http://www.sefi.unep.org/fileadmin/media/sefi/docs/publications/Exec_summary.pdf|title=GLOBAL TRENDS IN SUSTAINABLE ENERGY INVESTMENT 2008|access-date=10 October 2010|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110721182043/http://www.sefi.unep.org/fileadmin/media/sefi/docs/publications/Exec_summary.pdf|archive-date=21 July 2011}} [419] => [420] => Supporters of ITER emphasize that the only way to test ideas for withstanding the intense neutron flux is to subject materials experimentally to that flux, which is one of the primary missions of ITER and the IFMIF, and both facilities will be vitally important to that effort.[http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/proceedings/2004csewgusndp/tuesday/mbphysics/09_DSmith.pdf Nuclear Data for Helium Production in Fusion] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070703182817/http://www.nndc.bnl.gov/proceedings/2004csewgusndp/tuesday/mbphysics/09_DSmith.pdf |date=3 July 2007 }}. (PDF). Retrieved 21 May 2013. The purpose of ITER is to explore the scientific and engineering questions that surround potential fusion power stations. It is nearly impossible to acquire satisfactory data for the properties of materials expected to be subject to an intense neutron flux, and burning plasmas are expected to have quite different properties from externally heated plasmas.{{cite web |author= |title=Fusion Science and Technology Definitions – Burning Plasma | url=https://www.psfc.mit.edu/sparc/definitions |publisher=Plasma Science and Fusion Center |access-date=2021-04-04}} Supporters contend that the answer to these questions requires the ITER experiment, especially in the light of the monumental potential benefits.{{cite web |last= Kelly|first= Éanna| title=ITER Chief: I won't live to see benefits of fusion, but I will help us get there|url= https://sciencebusiness.net/news/iter-chief-i-wont-live-see-benefits-fusion-i-will-help-us-get-there|website= Science Business |location= Brussels, Belgium |date=2018-05-18 |access-date=2021-04-02}} [421] => [422] => Furthermore, the main line of research via [[tokamak]]s has been developed to the point that it is now possible to undertake the penultimate step in magnetic confinement plasma physics research with a self-sustained reaction. In the tokamak research program, recent advances devoted to controlling the configuration of the plasma have led to the achievement of substantially improved energy and pressure confinement, which reduces the projected cost of electricity from such reactors by a factor of two to a value only about 50% more than the projected cost of electricity from advanced [[Light water reactor|light-water reactors]].[http://fire.pppl.gov/fusion_critic_response_stacey.pdf Commentaries on criticisms of magnetic fusion], Weston M. Stacey, Georgia Institute of Technology, March 1999 In addition, progress in the development of advanced, low activation structural materials supports the promise of environmentally benign fusion reactors and research into alternate confinement concepts is yielding the promise of future improvements in confinement.{{cite web |last= Khan|first= Aneeqa| title=Nuclear fusion: building a star on Earth is hard, which is why we need better materials|url= https://theconversation.com/nuclear-fusion-building-a-star-on-earth-is-hard-which-is-why-we-need-better-materials-155917|website= The Conversation |location= Melbourne, Australia |date=2021-03-01 |access-date=2021-04-02}} Finally, supporters contend that other potential replacements to the fossil fuels have environmental issues of their own. [[solar power|Solar]], [[wind power|wind]], and [[hydroelectricity|hydroelectric]] power all have very low [[surface power density]] compared to ITER's successor DEMO which, at 2,000 MW, would have an energy density that exceeds even large fission power stations.{{cite web|title=Demonstration Fusion Reactors|url=http://fusionforenergy.europa.eu/3_4_demo_en.htm|access-date=17 November 2008|website=Fusion for Energy|publisher=European Joint Undertaking for ITER and the Development of Fusion Energy|archive-date=8 July 2007|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070708082042/http://www.fusionforenergy.europa.eu/3_4_demo_en.htm|url-status=dead}} [423] => [424] => Safety of the project is regulated according to French and EU nuclear power regulations. In 2011, the French Nuclear Safety Authority (ASN) delivered a favorable opinion, and then, based on the French Act on Nuclear Transparency and Safety, the licensing application was subject to public enquiry that allowed the general public to submit requests for information regarding safety of the project. According to published safety assessments (approved by the ASN), in the worst case of reactor leak, released radioactivity will not exceed 1/1000 of natural background radiation and no evacuation of local residents will be required. The whole installation includes a number of stress tests to confirm efficiency of all barriers. The whole reactor building is built on top of almost 500 seismic suspension columns and the whole complex is located almost 300 m above sea level. Overall, extremely rare events such as 100-year flood of the nearby Durance river and 10,000-year earthquakes were assumed in the safety design of the complex and respective safeguards are part of the design. [425] => [426] => Between 2008 and 2017, the project has generated 34,000 job-years in the EU economy alone. It is estimated that in the 2018–2030 period, it will generate a further 74,000 job-years and €15.9 billion in gross value. [427] => [428] => == Similar projects == [429] => Precursors to ITER were [[Joint European Torus|JET]],{{cite web |title=EFDA-JET |url=http://www.jet.efda.org/ |publisher=[[European Fusion Development Agreement|EFDA]] |year=2009 |access-date=29 May 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090723101818/http://www.jet.efda.org/ |archive-date=23 July 2009 |url-status=dead}} [[Tore Supra]],{{cite web|title=Tore Supra |url=http://www-drfc.cea.fr/gb/cea/ts/ts.htm |publisher=[[Commissariat à l'énergie atomique et aux énergies alternatives|CEA]] |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121115112229/http://www-drfc.cea.fr/gb/cea/ts/ts.htm |archive-date=15 November 2012}} [[Mega Ampere Spherical Tokamak|MAST]],{{cite web |title=MAST |url=http://www.fusion.org.uk/MAST.aspx |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100213180559/http://www.fusion.org.uk/MAST.aspx |archive-date=13 February 2010 |publisher=[[Mega Ampere Spherical Tokamak]] |year=2010 |access-date=1 February 2010}} [[SST-1 (tokamak)|SST-1]], [[Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak|EAST]], and [[KSTAR]]. [430] => Other planned and proposed fusion reactors include [[National Ignition Facility|NIF]],{{cite web |title=National Ignition Facility & Photon Science |url=https://lasers.llnl.gov/ |publisher=[[Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory]] |access-date=29 May 2009}} [[W7X]], [[T-15 (reactor)#Upgrade to T-15MD|T-15MD]], [[Spherical Tokamak for Energy Production|STEP]], [[SPARC (tokamak)|SPARC]], [[SST-1 (tokamak)#SST-2|SST-2]],{{Cite journal|last=Srinivasan|first=R.|date=2015|title=Progress on design of SST-2 fusion reactor|url=http://inis.iaea.org/Search/search.aspx?orig_q=RN:48020177|journal=Proceedings of the Thirtieth National Symposium on Plasma Science and Technology: Book of Abstracts|language=en}} [[CFETR]],{{cite web |url=http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/physics/meetings/TM45256/talks/Gao.pdf |title=Physics meeting |website=www-naweb.iaea.org |access-date=17 August 2015 |archive-date=30 March 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190330120409/http://www-naweb.iaea.org/napc/physics/meetings/TM45256/talks/Gao.pdf |url-status=dead }}{{cite journal| doi=10.1016/j.fusengdes.2013.06.008 | volume=88 | issue=11 | title=Concept design of CFETR superconducting magnet system based on different maintenance ports | year=2013 | journal=Fusion Engineering and Design | pages=2960–2966 | last1 = Zheng | first1 = Jinxing}}{{cite journal|title=Concept Design of CFETR Tokamak Machine|first1=Y. T.|last1=Song|first2=S. T.|last2=Wu|first3=J. G.|last3=Li|first4=B. N.|last4=Wan|first5=Y. X.|last5=Wan|first6=P.|last6=Fu|first7=M. Y.|last7=Ye|first8=J. X.|last8=Zheng|first9=K.|last9=Lu|first10=X.|last10=Gao|first11=S. M.|last11=Liu|first12=X. F.|last12=Liu|first13=M. Z.|last13=Lei|first14=X. B.|last14=Peng|first15=Y.|last15=Chen|date=1 March 2014|journal=IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science|volume=42|issue=3|pages=503–509|doi=10.1109/TPS.2014.2299277|bibcode=2014ITPS...42..503S|s2cid=24159256}}{{cite web |url=http://aries.ucsd.edu/LIB/MEETINGS/1302-USJ-PPS/Ye.pdf |title=Meeting info |website=aries.ucsd.edu |access-date=17 August 2015 |archive-date=25 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151125075902/http://aries.ucsd.edu/LIB/MEETINGS/1302-USJ-PPS/Ye.pdf |url-status=dead }} [[DEMOnstration Power Station|DEMO]],{{cite web|url=http://www.iter.org/proj/Pages/ITERAndBeyond.aspx |title=Beyond ITER |publisher=iter.org |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090520151601/http://www.iter.org/PROJ/Pages/ITERAndBeyond.aspx |archive-date=20 May 2009 }} K-DEMO and other 'DEMO-phase' national or private-sector fusion power plants.{{Cite journal|last1=Carayannis|first1=Elias G.|last2=Draper|first2=John|last3=Bhaneja|first3=Balwant|date=2020-10-02|title=Towards Fusion Energy in the Industry 5.0 and Society 5.0 Context: Call for a Global Commission for Urgent Action on Fusion Energy|url= |journal=Journal of the Knowledge Economy|volume=12|issue=4|pages=1891–1904|language=en|doi=10.1007/s13132-020-00695-5|issn=1868-7873|pmc=7529587}}{{Cite web|date=2021-05-06|title=Demonstration fusion plants|url=https://www.iaea.org/fusion-energy/demonstration-fusion-plants|access-date=2021-05-28|website=www.iaea.org|language=en}} [431] => [432] => == See also == [433] => {{Portal|Nuclear technology|Energy|Science|France}} [434] => [435] => * [[DEMOnstration Power Plant]], generic term for a future class of [[Magnetic confinement fusion|fusion reactors]] that produce useful power [436] => * [[Experimental Advanced Superconducting Tokamak]] (EAST), China's ongoing effort at [[Hefei Institutes of Physical Science|Hefei Institutes]] [437] => * [[Wendelstein 7-X]], an advanced [[stellarator]] of [[Max Planck Institute for Plasma Physics|Max Planck IPP]] in Germany for evaluating components of future [[Magnetic confinement fusion|fusion power plants]]{{cite web |title=Wendelstein 7-X |url=http://www.ipp.mpg.de/ippcms/eng/for/projekte/w7x/index.html |publisher=[[Max-Planck-Institut für Plasmaphysik]] |date=3 April 2009 |access-date=29 May 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090521173232/http://www.ipp.mpg.de/ippcms/eng/for/projekte/w7x/index.html |archive-date=21 May 2009 }} [438] => [439] => == Notes == [440] => {{notelist}} [441] => {{reflist|group=note}} [442] => [443] => == References == [444] => {{Reflist}} [445] => [446] => == Further reading == [447] => Claessens, Michel. (2020). ''ITER: The giant fusion reactor: Bringing a Sun to Earth''. Springer. [448] => [449] => Clery, Daniel. (2013). ''A Piece of the Sun''. Gerald Duckworth & Co. Ltd. [450] => [451] => ITER. (2018). ''[https://www.iter.org/doc/www/content/com/Lists/ITER%20Technical%20Reports/Attachments/9/ITER_Research_Plan_within_the_Staged_Approach_levIII_provversion.pdf ITER Research Plan within the Staged Approach (Level III – Provisional Version)]''. ITER. [452] => [453] => Wendell Horton Jr, C., and Sadruddin Benkadda. (2015). ''ITER physics''. World Scientific. [454] => [455] => == External links == [456] => {{Commons|ITER}} [457] => * {{Official website|https://www.iter.org}} [458] => * [https://english.iterchina.cn/ ITER China website] [459] => * [https://fusionforenergy.europa.eu/ ITER EU (Fusion for Energy) website] [460] => * [https://www.iter-india.org/ ITER India website] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416162740/https://iter-india.org/ |date=16 April 2021 }} [461] => * [https://www.fusion.qst.go.jp/ITER/english/iter.html ITER Japan website] [462] => * [https://www.iterkorea.org/eng ITER Korea website] [463] => * [https://iterrf.ru/ ITER Russia website] [464] => * [https://www.usiter.org/ ITER US website] [465] => * [http://www.newyorker.com/reporting/2014/03/03/140303fa_fact_khatchadourian The New Yorker, 3 March 2014, Star in a Bottle, by Raffi Khatchadourian] [466] => * [http://archives.eui.eu/en/fonds/154224?item=ITER%20 Archival material] collected by Prof. McCray relating to ITER's early phase (1979–1989) can be consulted at the [http://www.eui.eu/Research/HistoricalArchivesOfEU/Index.aspx Historical Archives of the European Union] in Florence [467] => * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kDaTQSmsJC8 "ITER Talks (1): Introduction to ITER" video (53:00)] at YouTube, by ITER Organization, July 23, 2021. [468] => * [http://www-fusion-magnetique.cea.fr/actualites/2005-06-28-iter-a-cadarache/joint-paper.pdf The roles of the Host and the non-Host for the ITER Project. June 2005] The broader approach agreement with Japan. [469] => * [https://www.euro-fusion.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/JG12.356-web.pdf Fusion Electricity – A roadmap to the realisation of fusion energy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170530221846/https://www.euro-fusion.org/wpcms/wp-content/uploads/2013/01/JG12.356-web.pdf |date=30 May 2017 }} EFDA 2012 – 8 missions, ITER, project plan with dependencies, ... [470] => [471] => {{Fusion experiments}} [472] => {{Nuclear power in France}} [473] => {{Authority control}} [474] => {{coord|43.70831|N|5.77741|E|type:landmark_region:FR|display=title}} [475] => [476] => [[Category:ITER| ]] [477] => [[Category:Buildings and structures in Bouches-du-Rhône]] [478] => [[Category:International science experiments]] [479] => [[Category:Science diplomacy]] [] => )
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ITER

ITER (International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor) is an international nuclear fusion research and engineering project. It is located in Saint-Paul-lès-Durance, in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, southern France.

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It is located in Saint-Paul-lès-Durance, in Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, southern France. ITER aims to demonstrate the scientific and technological feasibility of nuclear fusion as a clean and sustainable energy source. Nuclear fusion is the process by which the sun and other stars produce light and heat. ITER is designed to create and control a plasma with temperatures of over 150 million degrees Celsius. The project involves the collaboration of 35 countries, including the European Union, the United States, Russia, China, India, Japan, and South Korea. The construction of ITER began in 2013, and it is expected to achieve its first plasma in 2025. Once operational, ITER will produce 500 MW of fusion power for periods of 400 seconds or longer. This project serves as a significant step towards the development of a commercial fusion power plant that can generate clean and abundant energy.

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