Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Central figure of Christianity}} [1] => {{Redirect-several|Jesus|Christ|Jesus Christ|Jesus of Nazareth}} [2] => {{Pp-move}} [3] => {{Pp|small=yes}} [4] => {{Featured article}} [5] => {{Use Oxford spelling|date=March 2024}} [6] => {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}} [7] => {{Infobox person [8] => | name = Jesus [11] => | image = Spas vsederzhitel sinay.jpg [12] => | caption = {{longitem |The [[Christ Pantocrator (Sinai)|Christ Pantocrator]] of [[Saint Catherine's Monastery]] at [[Mount Sinai]], 6th century AD}} [13] => | birth_date = {{circa}} [[Date of birth of Jesus|6 to 4 BC]]{{efn|[[John P. Meier]] writes that Jesus' birth year is {{c.|7 or 6 BC}}.{{sfn|Meier|1991|p=407}} [[Karl Rahner]] states that the consensus among Christian scholars is {{c.|4 BC|lk=no}}.{{sfn|Rahner|2004|p=732}} [[E. P. Sanders]] also favours {{c.|4 BC|lk=no}} and refers to the general consensus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=10–11}} [[Jack Finegan]] uses the study of early Christian traditions to support {{c.|3 or 2 BC|lk=no}}.{{harvnb|Finegan|1998|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookbiblical00fine/page/n350 319]}} }} [18] => | birth_place = [[Herodian kingdom]], [[Roman Empire]]{{sfn|Brown|1977|p=513}} [19] => | death_date = AD 30 or 33 (aged 33 or 38) [20] => | death_place = [[Jerusalem]], [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judaea]],
[[Roman Empire]] [21] => | known_for = Central figure of Christianity
Major prophet [[Jesus in Islam|in Islam]] and [[Druze Faith]]
[[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestation of God]] in [[Baháʼí Faith]] [22] => | death_cause = [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]]{{efn|[[James Dunn (theologian)|James Dunn]] writes that the baptism and crucifixion of Jesus "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}} [[Bart Ehrman]] states that the crucifixion of Jesus on the orders of Pontius Pilate is the most certain element about him.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|p=101}} [[John Dominic Crossan]] and Richard G. Watts state that the crucifixion of Jesus is as certain as any historical fact can be.{{sfn|Crossan|Watts|1999|p=96}} Paul R. Eddy and [[Greg Boyd (theologian)|Gregory A. Boyd]] say that non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus is now "firmly established".{{sfn|Eddy|Boyd|2007|p=173}} }} [28] => | parents = {{hlist |[[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] |[[Saint Joseph|Joseph]]{{efn|Traditionally, Christians believe that Mary conceived her son miraculously by the agency of the Holy Spirit. Muslims believe that she conceived her son miraculously by the command of God. Joseph was from these perspectives and according to the canonical gospels the acting adoptive father of Jesus.}}}} [31] => }} [32] => [33] => [36] => '''Jesus'''{{efn|{{lang-grc-gre|Ἰησοῦς}} {{transliteration|grc|Iisoús}}, likely from {{lang-he|יֵשׁוּעַ|label=[[Hebrew]]/[[Aramaic]]}} ''Yēšūaʿ'' }} ({{circa|6 to 4 [[Before Christ|BC]]}}{{snd}}[[Anno Domini|AD]] 30 or 33), also referred to as '''Jesus Christ''',{{efn|[[Coptic language|Coptic]]: Ⲓⲏⲥⲟⲩⲥ Ⲡⲓⲭ́ρⲓⲥτⲟⲥ; [[Geʽez]]: መሲህ ኢየሱስ; [[Koine Greek|Greek]]: Ἰησοῦς Χριστός; [[Classical Hebrew|Hebrew]]: ישוע המשיח; [[Latin]]: ''Iesus Christus''; [[Church Slavonic|Slavonic]]: Исус Христос; [[Classical Syriac|Syriac]]: ܝܫܘܥ ܡܫܺܝܚܳܐ}} '''Jesus of Nazareth''', and many other [[Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament|names and titles]], was a first-century [[Jews|Jewish]] preacher and religious leader.{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} He is the central figure of [[Christianity]], the [[Major religious groups|world's largest religion]]. Most Christians believe Jesus to be the [[Incarnation (Christianity)|incarnation]] of [[God the Son]] and the awaited [[messiah]], the [[Christ (title)|Christ]] that is prophesied in the [[Old Testament]]. [51] => [52] => Virtually all modern scholars of [[classical antiquity|antiquity]] agree that [[Historicity of Jesus|Jesus existed historically]].{{efn |name=exist|In a 2011 review of the state of modern scholarship, [[Bart Ehrman]] wrote, "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees."{{sfn|Ehrman|2011|p=[https://archive.org/details/forged_ehrm_2011_000_10544376/page/n298 285]}} [[Richard A. Burridge]] states: "There are those who argue that Jesus is a figment of the Church's imagination, that there never was a Jesus at all. I have to say that I do not know any respectable critical scholar who says that any more."{{cite book|title=Jesus Now and Then|first1=Richard A.|last1=Burridge|first2=Graham|last2=Gould|year=2004|isbn=978-0-8028-0977-3|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusnowthen0000burr/page/34 34]|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusnowthen0000burr/page/34}} [[Robert M. Price]] does not believe that Jesus existed but agrees that this perspective runs against the views of the majority of scholars.{{cite encyclopedia|first= Robert M.|last= Price|title= Jesus at the Vanishing Point|encyclopedia= The Historical Jesus: Five Views|editor-last1= Beilby|editor-last2= Eddy|year= 2009|publisher= InterVarsity|isbn= 978-0-8308-7853-6|editor-first= James K.|pages= 55, 61|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=O33P7xrFnLQC&pg=PA55|editor2-first= Paul R.|access-date= 14 August 2015|archive-date= 7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907112540/https://books.google.com/books?id=O33P7xrFnLQC&pg=PA55|url-status= live}} [[James Dunn (theologian)|James D. G. Dunn]] calls the theories of Jesus' non-existence "a thoroughly dead thesis".{{cite encyclopedia|title=Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus|encyclopedia=Sacrifice and Redemption|first= Stephen W.|last= Sykes |year=2007| publisher= Cambridge University Press| isbn= 978-0-521-04460-8|pages=35–36}} [[Michael Grant (author)|Michael Grant]] (a [[classicist]]) wrote in 1977, "In recent years, 'no serious scholar has ventured to postulate the non historicity of Jesus' or at any rate very few, and they have not succeeded in disposing of the much stronger, indeed very abundant, evidence to the contrary."{{cite book|first=Michael|last=Grant|title=Jesus: An Historian's Review of the Gospels|publisher=Scribner's|year=1977|isbn=978-0-684-14889-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesushistoriansr00gran/page/200 200]|url=https://archive.org/details/jesushistoriansr00gran/page/200}} [[Robert E. Van Voorst]] states that biblical scholars and classical historians regard theories of non-existence of Jesus as effectively refuted.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|p=16}} Writing on ''[[The Daily Beast]]'', [[Candida Moss]] and Joel Baden state that "there is nigh universal consensus among biblical scholars – the authentic ones, at least – that Jesus was, in fact, a real guy."{{Cite news|url = https://www.thedailybeast.com/so-called-biblical-scholar-says-jesus-a-made-up-myth|title = So-Called 'Biblical Scholar' Says Jesus a Made-Up Myth|newspaper = The Daily Beast|date = 5 October 2014|last1 = Baden|first1 = Candida Moss|access-date = 14 July 2021|archive-date = 5 December 2021|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20211205210029/https://www.thedailybeast.com/so-called-biblical-scholar-says-jesus-a-made-up-myth|url-status = live}}}} Accounts of Jesus' life are contained in the [[Gospel]]s, especially the [[Canonical gospels|four canonical Gospels]] in the [[New Testament]]. [[Quest for the historical Jesus|Academic research]] has yielded various views on the [[historical reliability of the Gospels]] and how closely they reflect the [[historical Jesus]].{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=168–73}}{{efn|Ehrman writes: "The notion that the Gospel accounts are not completely accurate but still important for the religious truths they try to convey is widely shared in the scholarly world, even though it's not so widely known or believed outside of it."Bart D. Ehrman. [http://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/historical-jesus.html Historical Jesus. 'Prophet of the New Millennium']. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190123155853/https://www.thegreatcourses.com/courses/historical-jesus.html |date=23 January 2019 }} Course handbook, p. 10 (Lecture Three. V. B.) The Teaching Company, 2000, Lecture 24
Sanders writes: "The earliest Christians did not write a narrative of Jesus' life, but rather made use of, and thus preserved, individual units—short passages about his words and deeds. These units were later moved and arranged by authors and editors. ... Some material has been revised and some created by early Christians."{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=57}}}}{{cite book |title=Jesus, Skepticism & The Problem of History: Criteria and Context in the Study of Christian Origins |date=2019 |publisher=Zondervan Academic |isbn=9780310534761 |editor1-last=Komoszewski |editor1-first=J. Ed |pages=22–23 |quote=...a considerable number of specific facts about Jesus are so well supported historically as to be widely acknowledged by most scholars, whether Christian (of any stripe) or not:...(lists 18 points)...Nevertheless, what can be known about Jesus with a high degree of confidence, apart from theological or ideological agendas, is perhaps surprisingly robust. |editor2-last=Bock |editor2-first=Darrell}}Craig Evans, "Life-of-Jesus Research and the Eclipse of Mythology," Theological Studies 54 (1993) pp. 13–14 "First, the New Testament Gospels are now viewed as useful, if not essentially reliable, historical sources. Gone is the extreme skepticism that for so many years dominated gospel research. Representative of many is the position of E. P. Sanders and Marcus Borg, who have concluded that it is possible to recover a fairly reliable picture of the historical Jesus." Jesus [[Circumcision of Jesus|was circumcised]] at eight days old, was [[Baptism of Jesus|baptized]] by [[John the Baptist]] as a young adult, and after 40 days and nights of fasting in the wilderness, began [[Ministry of Jesus|his own ministry]]. Being an itinerant teacher, he was often referred to as "[[rabbi]]".{{cite web |year=1939 |editor=Orr |editor-first=James |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia Online |url=http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/R/rabbi.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160817024703/http://www.internationalstandardbible.com/R/rabbi.html |archive-date=17 August 2016 |access-date=30 July 2016 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing Company}} Jesus often debated with fellow Jews on how to best follow [[God in Christianity|God]], engaged in healings, taught in [[Parables of Jesus|parables]], and gathered followers, among whom [[Apostles in the New Testament|twelve]] were his primary [[Disciple (Christianity)|disciples]]. He was arrested in [[Jerusalem]] and tried by the [[Sanhedrin|Jewish authorities]],{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} turned over to the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] government, and [[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucified]] on the order of [[Pontius Pilate]], the [[Roman governor|Roman prefect]] of [[Judaea (Roman province)|Judea]]. After his death, his followers became convinced that he [[Resurrection of Jesus|rose from the dead]], and following his ascension, the community they formed eventually became the [[early Church|early Christian Church]] that expanded as a [[Spread of Christianity|worldwide movement]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=11, 14}} Accounts of his teachings and life were [[Oral gospel traditions|initially conserved by oral transmission]], which was the source of the written Gospels.{{cite book |last=Dunn |first=James D. G. |title=The Oral Gospel Tradition |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=2013 |pages=290–291 |language=en}} [53] => [54] => [[Christian theology]] includes the beliefs that Jesus was conceived by the [[Holy Spirit in Christianity|Holy Spirit]], was [[Virgin birth of Jesus|born of a virgin]] named [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], performed [[Miracles of Jesus|miracles]], founded the [[Christian Church]], died by [[crucifixion]] as a sacrifice to achieve [[Atonement in Christianity|atonement for sin]], rose from the dead, and [[Ascension of Jesus|ascended]] into [[Heaven in Christianity|Heaven]], from where he [[Second Coming|will return]]. Commonly, [[Jesus in Christianity|Christians believe Jesus]] enables people to be reconciled to God. The [[Nicene Creed]] asserts that Jesus will [[Last Judgment|judge the living and the dead]], either [[Intermediate state (Christianity)|before]] or [[Christian mortalism|after]] their [[Resurrection of the dead#Christianity|bodily resurrection]], an event tied to the [[Second Coming]] of Jesus in [[Christian eschatology]]. The great majority of Christians worship Jesus as the incarnation of God the Son, the second of three [[prosopon]]s of the [[Trinity]].{{efn|A small minority of Christian denominations reject trinitarianism, wholly or partly, as non-scriptural.}} The [[Nativity of Jesus|birth of Jesus]] is celebrated annually, generally on 25 December,{{efn|Part of the [[Eastern Christian]] churches celebrate Christmas on 25 December of the [[Julian calendar]], which currently corresponds to 7 January in the [[Gregorian calendar]]. In many countries, Christmas is celebrated on 24 December.}} as Christmas. His crucifixion is honoured on [[Good Friday]] and his resurrection on [[Easter Sunday]]. The world's most widely used [[calendar era]]—in which the current year is [[Anno Domini|AD]] [[{{CURRENTYEAR}}]] (or {{CURRENTYEAR}} [[Common Era|CE]])—is based on the approximate [[Date of birth of Jesus|birthdate of Jesus]].{{cite encyclopedia |year=2003 |title=anno Domini |encyclopedia=Merriam Webster Online Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-Webster |url=http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/Anno%20Domini |access-date=3 November 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071222112520/http://www.m-w.com/dictionary/anno%20domini |archive-date=22 December 2007 |quote=Etymology: Medieval Latin, in the year of our Lord |url-status=live}}. [55] => [56] => Jesus is also revered in [[Islam]], the [[Baháʼí Faith]], and the [[Druze Faith]]. [[Jesus in Islam|In Islam]], Jesus (often referred to by his Quranic name {{transliteration|ar|ISO|''[[Isa (name)|ʿĪsā]]''}}) is considered the penultimate [[Prophets in Islam|prophet]] of [[God in Islam|God]] and the [[Messiah#Islam|messiah]], who [[Second Coming#Islam|will return]] before the [[Judgement Day in Islam|Day of Judgement]]. [[Muslims]] believe Jesus was born of the virgin [[Mary in Islam|Mary]] but was neither God nor a son of God. Most Muslims do not believe that he [[Islamic views on Jesus' death|was killed or crucified]] but that God [[Entering heaven alive|raised him into Heaven while he was still alive]].{{efn|Some medieval Muslims believed that Jesus was crucified, as do the members of the modern Ahmadiyya movement; see [[#Islam|§ Islamic perspectives]].}} In contrast, [[Judaism's view of Jesus|Judaism rejects the belief]] that Jesus was the awaited messiah, arguing that he did not fulfill [[Messiah in Judaism|messianic prophecies]], was not [[Anointment|lawfully anointed]] and was neither divine nor resurrected. [57] => {{TOC limit|3}} [58] => [59] => == Name == [60] => [61] => {{further|Jesus (name)|Holy Name of Jesus|Names and titles of Jesus in the New Testament|Names of God in Christianity}} [62] => {{Jesus |right |width=22.0em}} [63] => [[File:JesusYeshua2.svg|thumb|Counter-clockwise from top-right: [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], [[Aramaic]], [[Greek language|Greek]], [[Latin]], and English transcriptions of the name ''Jesus''|upright=1.2]] [64] => [65] => === Naming conventions === [66] => A typical Jew in Jesus' time [[Jewish name|had only one name]], sometimes [[Patronymic|followed by the phrase "son of [father's name]"]], or the individual's hometown. Thus, in the New Testament, Jesus is commonly referred to as "Jesus of [[Nazareth]]".{{efn|This article uses quotes from the [[New Revised Standard Version]] of the Bible.}} Jesus' neighbours in Nazareth referred to him as "the carpenter, the son of [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] and brother of [[James, brother of Jesus|James]] and [[Joses, brother of James the younger|Joses]] and [[Jude, brother of Jesus|Judas]] and [[Simon, brother of Jesus|Simon]]", "the carpenter's son", or "[[Saint Joseph|Joseph]]'s son"; in the Gospel of John, the disciple [[Philip the Apostle|Philip]] refers to him as "Jesus son of Joseph from Nazareth". [67] => [68] => ===Etymology=== [69] => The English name ''Jesus'', from Greek ''Iēsous'', is a rendering of ''Joshua'' (Hebrew ''Yehoshua'', later ''Yeshua''), and was not uncommon in Judea at the time of the birth of Jesus. Popular etymology linked the names ''Yehoshua'' and ''Yeshua'' to the verb meaning "save" and the noun "salvation".{{sfn|Hare|1993|p=11}} The [[Gospel of Matthew]] tells of an [[angel]] that appeared to [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]] instructing him "to name him Jesus, for he will save his people from their sins".{{bibleverse|Matthew|1:21}}. [70] => [71] => ===Jesus Christ=== [72] => Since the early period of Christianity, Christians have commonly referred to Jesus as "Jesus Christ".{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=212}} The word ''[[Christ (title)|Christ]]'' was a [[Threefold office|title or office]] ("the Christ"), not a given name.{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|pp=30–31}}{{cite book|title=Theology of the New Testament| first=Rudolf K.|last= Bultmann |year=2007 |isbn= 978-1-932792-93-5 |page= 80 |publisher=Baylor University Press}} It derives from the Greek {{lang|grc|[[wikt:Χριστός|Χριστός]]}} (''Christos''),{{CathEncy |wstitle= Origin of the Name of Jesus Christ |first= Anthony J. |last= Maas}}{{cite book |last=Heil |first=John P. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=i4u42_PsPNsC&pg=PA66 |title=Philippians: Let Us Rejoice in Being Conformed to Christ |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2010 |isbn=978-1-58983-482-8 |page=66 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907173832/https://books.google.com/books?id=i4u42_PsPNsC&pg=PA66 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}} a translation of the Hebrew ''[[Messiah in Judaism|mashiakh]]'' ({{lang|he| [[wikt:מָשִׁיחַ|משיח]]}}) meaning "[[anointing|anointed]]", and is usually transliterated into English as "[[messiah]]".{{sfn|Vine|1940|pp=274–75}} In biblical Judaism, [[Holy anointing oil|sacred oil]] was used to anoint certain exceptionally holy people and objects as part of their religious investiture.See [[Leviticus]] 8:10–12 and [[Exodus 30]]:29. [73] => [74] => Christians of the time designated Jesus as "the Christ" because they believed him to be the messiah, whose arrival is [[Jesus and messianic prophecy|prophesied]] in the [[Hebrew Bible]] and Old Testament. In postbiblical usage, ''Christ'' became viewed as a name—one part of "Jesus Christ". [[wikt:etymon|Etymons]] of the term ''[[Christians|Christian]]'' (meaning a follower of Christ) have been in use since the 1st century.{{sfn|Mills|Bullard|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=goq0VWw9rGIC&pg=PA142 142]}} [75] => [76] => ==Life and teachings in the New Testament== [77] => {{Main|Life of Jesus}} [78] => {{Further|New Testament places associated with Jesus}} [79] => {{Gospel Jesus|state=collapsed}} [80] => [81] => ===Canonical gospels=== [82] => {{Main|Gospel|Gospel harmony|Historical reliability of the Gospels}}[[File:P. Chester Beatty I, folio 13-14, recto.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A 3rd-century Greek [[papyrus]] of the [[Gospel of Luke]]|alt=A four-page papyrus manuscript, which is torn in many places]] [83] => The four [[canonical gospel]]s ([[Gospel of Matthew|Matthew]], [[Gospel of Mark|Mark]], [[Gospel of Luke|Luke]], and [[Gospel of John|John]]) are the foremost sources for the life and message of Jesus. But other parts of the New Testament also include references to key episodes in his life, such as the [[Last Supper]] in [[1 Corinthians 11]]:23–26.{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|11:23–26|9}}.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=441–42}}{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–77}} [[Acts of the Apostles]]{{bibleverse|Acts|10:37–38|9}} and {{bibleverse|Acts|19:4|9}}. refers to Jesus' early ministry and its anticipation by [[John the Baptist]].{{cite book|title=The Book of the Acts|first=Frederick F.|last= Bruce|year= 1988 |isbn= 978-0-8028-2505-6 |page= 362 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing}}{{sfn|Rausch|2003|p=77}}{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} Acts 1:1–11{{bibleverse|Acts|1:1–11|9}}. says more about the [[Ascension of Jesus]]also mentioned in {{bibleverse|1 Timothy|3:16}}. than the canonical gospels do.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–30}} In the [[Pauline epistles#Authenticity|undisputed Pauline letters]], which were written earlier than the Gospels, Jesus' words or instructions are cited several times.{{bibleverse|1 Corinthians 7:10–11, 9:14, 11:23–25|multi=yes}}, {{bibleverse|2 Corinthians|12:9}}.{{efn|Powell writes: "[Paul] does cite words or instructions of Jesus in a few places,{{bibleverse|1 Cor. 7:10–11; 9:14; 11:23–25|multi=yes}}; {{bibleverse|2 Cor.|12:9}}; cf. {{bibleverse|Acts|20:35}} but for the most part he displays little interest in the details of Jesus' earthly life and ministry."{{cite book |last= Powell |first= Mark A. |title= Introducing the New Testament |url=https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00powe |url-access= limited |date= 2009 |publisher= Baker Academic |page= [https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00powe/page/248 248]|isbn= 978-0-8010-2868-7 }}}} [84] => [85] => Some [[Early Christianity|early Christian]] groups had separate descriptions of Jesus' life and teachings that are not in the New Testament. These include the [[Gospel of Thomas]], [[Gospel of Peter]], and [[Gospel of Judas]], the [[Apocryphon of James]], and [[New Testament apocrypha|many other apocryphal writings]]. Most scholars conclude that these were written much later and are less reliable accounts than the canonical gospels.{{sfn|Brown|1997|pp=835–40}}{{cite book |last1=Evans |first1=C. A. |title=Exploring the Origins of the Bible |date=2008 |publisher=Baker Academic |page=154 |language=en}}{{sfn|Keener|2009|p=56}} [86] => [87] => ====Authorship, date, and reliability==== [88] => [89] => The canonical gospels are four accounts, each by a different author. The authors of the Gospels are pseudonymous, attributed by tradition to the [[four evangelists]], each with close ties to Jesus:{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} Mark by [[John Mark]], an associate of [[Saint Peter|Peter]]; [[Matthew the Apostle|Matthew]] by one of Jesus' disciples;{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} [[Luke the Evangelist|Luke]] by a companion of [[Paul the Apostle|Paul]] mentioned in a few epistles;{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} and John by another of Jesus' disciples,{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} the "[[beloved disciple]]".{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=John, St.}} [90] => [91] => According to the [[Marcan priority]], the first to be written was the Gospel of Mark (written AD 60–75), followed by the Gospel of Matthew (AD 65–85), the Gospel of Luke (AD 65–95), and the Gospel of John (AD 75–100).{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&pg=PA58 | title=Can We Trust the Gospels?: Investigating the Reliability of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John | publisher=Crossway | year=2007 | page=58 | isbn=978-1-4335-1978-9 | first=Mark D. | last=Roberts | access-date=14 August 2015 | archive-date=7 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907174109/https://books.google.com/books?id=l2sloGWzzV8C&pg=PA58 | url-status=live }} Most scholars agree that the authors of Matthew and Luke used Mark as a source for their gospels. Since Matthew and Luke also share some content not found in Mark, many scholars assume that they used another source (commonly called the "[[Q source]]") in addition to Mark.{{sfn|Licona|2010|pp=210–21}} [92] => [93] => One important aspect of the study of the Gospels is the [[literary genre]] under which they fall. Genre "is a key convention guiding both the composition and the interpretation of writings".Burridge, R. A. (2006). Gospels. In J. W. Rogerson & Judith M. Lieu (Eds.) ''The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies''. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 433. Whether the gospel authors set out to write novels, myths, histories, or biographies has a tremendous impact on how they ought to be interpreted. Some recent studies suggest that the genre of the Gospels ought to be situated within the realm of ancient biography.Talbert, C. H. (1977). ''What is a Gospel? The Genre of the Canonical Gospels''. Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: Fortress Press.Wills, L. M. (1997). ''The Quest of the Historical Gospel: Mark, John and the Origins of the Gospel Genre''. London, England: Routledge. p. 10.Burridge, R. A. (2004). ''What are the Gospels? A Comparison with Graeco-Roman Biography''. revised updated edn. Grand Rapids, Michigan: Eerdmans. Although not without critics,e.g. Vines, M. E. (2002). ''The Problem of the Markan Genre: The Gospel of Mark and the Jewish Novel''. Atlanta, Georgia: Society of Biblical Literature. pp. 161–162. the position that the Gospels are a type of ancient biography is the consensus among scholars today.{{cite book |author=Stanton |first=Graham N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C |title=Jesus and Gospel |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-00802-0 |page=192 |language=en |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226005236/https://books.google.com/books?id=A7wNGMrAiD0C |archive-date=26 February 2020 |url-status=live}}{{cite book |last1=Rogerson |first1=J. W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC |title=The Oxford Handbook of Biblical Studies |last2=Lieu |first2=Judith M. |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-19-925425-5 |page=437 |language=en |access-date=22 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191225204746/https://books.google.com/books?id=eKZYMifS1fAC |archive-date=25 December 2019 |url-status=live}} [94] => [95] => Concerning the accuracy of the accounts, viewpoints run the gamut from considering them [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrant]] descriptions of Jesus' life,{{sfn|Grudem|1994|pp=90–91}} to doubting whether they are historically reliable on a number of points,{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} to considering them to provide very little historical information about his life beyond the basics.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=117–25}}{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=22–23}} According to a broad scholarly consensus, the [[Synoptic Gospels]] (the first three—Matthew, Mark, and Luke) are the most reliable sources of information about Jesus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=71}}{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}} [96] => [97] => ====Comparative structure and content==== [98] => {{Christianity sidebar}} [99] => Matthew, Mark, and Luke are known as the [[Synoptic Gospels]], from the Greek σύν (''syn'' "together") and ὄψις (''opsis'' "view"),{{OED|synoptic}} because they are similar in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure, and one can easily set them next to each other and synoptically compare what is in them.{{cite book|title=New Testament Theology|first=Paul |last=Haffner|year=2008 |isbn= 978-88-902268-0-9 |page= 135|publisher=Gracewing }}{{cite book|title=A Guide to the Gospels|first=W. Graham|last= Scroggie |year=1995 |isbn= 978-0-8254-9571-7 |page= 128 |publisher=[[Kregel Publications]]}}{{Cite news|title=Synoptic Gospels {{!}} Definition & Facts|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Synoptic-Gospels|access-date=26 October 2020|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|archive-date=30 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030013859/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Synoptic-Gospels|url-status=live}} Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the Synoptic Gospels and the Gospel of John.{{cite book|title=The Gospel of John|first1=Francis J.|last1=Moloney|first2=Daniel J.|last2=Harrington|year=1998|isbn=978-0-8146-5806-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3 3]|publisher=Liturgical Press|url=https://archive.org/details/gospelofjohn0004molo/page/3}} While the flow of many events (e.g., Jesus' baptism, [[Transfiguration of Jesus|transfiguration]], crucifixion and interactions with his [[Apostles in the New Testament|apostles]]) are shared among the Synoptic Gospels, incidents such as the transfiguration and Jesus' exorcising demons{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}} do not appear in John, which also differs on other matters, such as the [[Cleansing of the Temple]].{{cite book|last=Ladd|first=George E.|title=A Theology of the New Testament|year=1993|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-0680-2|page=251|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&pg=PA251|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907103156/https://books.google.com/books?id=eIdkM00EdlAC&pg=PA251|url-status=live}} [100] => [101] => The Synoptics emphasize different aspects of Jesus. In Mark, Jesus is the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]] whose mighty works demonstrate the presence of [[God's Kingdom]]. He is a tireless wonder worker, the servant of both God and man.Thompson, Frank Charles. The Thompson Chain-Reference Bible. Kirk bride Bible Company & Zondervan Bible Publishers. 1983. pp. 1563–1564. This short gospel records few of Jesus' words or teachings. The Gospel of Matthew emphasizes that Jesus is the fulfilment of God's will as revealed in the Old Testament, and the Lord of the Church.May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "Matthew" pp. 1171–1212. He is the "[[Davidic line|Son of David]]", a "king", and the messiah.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=4–6}} Luke presents Jesus as the divine-human saviour who shows compassion to the needy.May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "Luke" pp. 1240–1285. He is the friend of sinners and outcasts, come to seek and save the lost. This gospel includes well-known parables, such as the [[Parable of the Good Samaritan|Good Samaritan]] and the [[Parable of the Prodigal Son|Prodigal Son]]. [102] => [103] => The [[John 1:1|prologue to the Gospel of John]] identifies Jesus as an incarnation of the divine Word ([[Logos (Christianity)|Logos]]).May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "John" pp. 1286–1318. As the Word, Jesus was eternally present with God, active in all creation, and the source of humanity's moral and spiritual nature. Jesus is not only greater than any past human prophet but greater than any prophet could be. He not only speaks God's Word; he is God's Word.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–10}} In the Gospel of John, Jesus reveals his divine role publicly. Here he is the [[Bread of Life]], the [[Light of the World]], the [[True Vine]] and more. [104] => [105] => In general, the authors of the New Testament showed little interest in an absolute [[chronology of Jesus]] or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age.{{sfn|Rahner|2004|pp=730–31}} As stated in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#21:25|John 21:25]], the Gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in Jesus' life.{{cite book |last=O'Collins |first=Gerald |title=Christology: A Biblical, Historical, and Systematic Study of Jesus |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-955787-5 |location=Oxford, England |pages=1–3 |language=en-uk}} The accounts were primarily written as theological documents in the context of [[early Christianity]], with timelines as a secondary consideration.{{cite book|title=Interpreting Gospel Narratives: Scenes, People, and Theology|first=Timothy |last=Wiarda |year=2010 |isbn= 978-0-8054-4843-6 |pages= 75–78 |publisher= B&H Publishing Group}} In this respect, it is noteworthy that the Gospels devote about one third of their text to the last week of Jesus' life in [[Jerusalem]], referred to as [[Passion (Christianity)|the Passion]].{{cite book|title=Matthew|first=David L. |last=Turner|year= 2008| isbn= 978-0-8010-2684-3 |page= 613 |publisher= Baker Academic}} The Gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, but it is possible to draw from them a general picture of Jesus' life story.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}}{{sfn|Rahner|2004|pp=730–31}} [106] => [107] => ===Genealogy and nativity=== [108] => {{Main|Genealogy of Jesus|Nativity of Jesus}} [109] => [110] => Jesus was Jewish,{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} born to [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]], wife of [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]].[[Matthew 1]]; [[Luke 2]]. The Gospels of Matthew and Luke offer two accounts of his [[genealogy]]. Matthew traces Jesus' ancestry to [[Abraham]] through [[David]].{{bibleverse|Matthew|1:1–16}}.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}} Luke traces Jesus' ancestry through [[Adam]] to God.{{bibleverse|Luke|3:23–38}}.{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC&pg=PA163 163]}} The lists are identical between Abraham and David but differ radically from that point. Matthew has 27 generations from David to Joseph, whereas Luke has 42, with almost no overlap between the names on the two lists.{{efn|Compare {{bibleref2|Matthew|1:6–16|NIV}} with {{bibleref2|Luke|3:23–31|NIV}}. See also {{section link|Genealogy of Jesus|Comparison of the two genealogies}}.}}{{cite book |last=France |first=R. T. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ttTgacXnLV8C&pg=PA72 |title=The Gospel According to Matthew: An Introduction and Commentary |publisher=Eerdmans |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-8028-0063-3 |page=72 |language=en |author-link=R. T. France |access-date=15 October 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229004519/https://books.google.com/books?id=ttTgacXnLV8C&pg=PA72 |archive-date=29 February 2020 |url-status=live}} "From David the two lists diverge, as Matthew follows the line of succession to the throne of Judah from Solomon, whereas Luke's list goes through Nathan, ... and converges with Matthew's only for the two names of Shealtiel and Zerubabbel until Joseph is reached." Various theories have been put forward to explain why the two genealogies are so different.{{efn|For an overview of such theories, see {{section link|Genealogy of Jesus|Explanations for divergence}}.}} [111] => [112] => [[File:Gerard van Honthorst - Adoration of the Shepherds (1622).jpg|thumb|left|''Adoration of the Shepherds'' by [[Gerard van Honthorst]], 1622|alt=A Nativity scene; men and animals surround Mary and newborn Jesus, who are covered in light]] [113] => [114] => Matthew and Luke each describe Jesus' birth, especially that Jesus was born to a virgin named Mary in [[Bethlehem]] in fulfilment of [[prophecy]]. Luke's account emphasizes events before the [[Nativity of Jesus|birth of Jesus]] and centers on Mary, while Matthew's mostly covers those after the birth and centers on Joseph.{{sfn|Mills|Bullard|1998|p=556}}{{cite book |title=Jesus and the Gospels |last=Marsh |first=Clive |author2=Moyise, Steve |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-567-04073-2 |page=37 |publisher=Clark International |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecHpPzDLkhcC&pg=PA37 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907095218/https://books.google.com/books?id=ecHpPzDLkhcC&pg=PA37 |url-status=live }}{{sfn|Morris|1992|page=26}} Both accounts state that Jesus was born to [[Saint Joseph|Joseph]] and Mary, his [[betrothed]], in Bethlehem, and both support the doctrine of the [[virgin birth of Jesus]], according to which Jesus was miraculously conceived by the [[Holy Spirit]] in Mary's womb when she was still a virgin.{{cite book |last=Jeffrey |first=David L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7R0IGTSvIVIC |title=A Dictionary of biblical tradition in English literature |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-85244-224-1 |pages=538–540 |language=en |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=7R0IGTSvIVIC |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=30–37}}{{cite book |title=Who's Who in the New Testament |last=Brownrigg |first= Ronald |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-415-26036-7 |pages=96–100 |publisher=Taylor & Francis}} At the same time, there is evidence, at least in the Lukan [[Acts of the Apostles]], that Jesus was thought to have had, like many figures in antiquity, a dual paternity, since there it is stated he descended from the seed or loins of David.{{Cite journal |last=Lincoln |first=Andrew T. |date=2013 |title=Luke and Jesus' Conception: A Case of Double Paternity? |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/23487891 |journal=Journal of Biblical Literature |volume=132 |issue=3 |pages=639–658 |doi=10.2307/23487891 |jstor=23487891 |issn=0021-9231 |access-date=21 July 2018 |archive-date=20 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180720232133/https://www.jstor.org/stable/23487891 |url-status=live }} By [[Adoption in Judaism|taking him as his own]], Joseph will give him the necessary Davidic descent.{{Cite web |url=http://www.thesevernforum.org.uk/palette/lecture_lincoln_2015.pdf |title=Lincoln, Andrew T., "Conceiving Jesus: re-examining Jesus' conception in canon, Christology, and creed", Th Severn Forum, 5 March 2015, p. 4 |access-date=2 July 2019 |archive-date=10 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200510100248/http://www.thesevernforum.org.uk/palette/lecture_lincoln_2015.pdf |url-status=live }} Some scholars suggest that Jesus had [[Levite]] heritage from Mary, based on her blood relationship with [[Elizabeth (biblical figure)|Elizabeth]]. For example, {{citation |title=Carmen 18}} [115] => [116] => [[File:Bellini-circumcision-NG1455-fm.jpg|thumb|alt=74.9 x 102.2 cm|''The Circumcision'' by [[Giovanni Bellini]], {{Circa|1500}}. The work depicts the [[circumcision of Jesus]].]] [117] => [118] => In Matthew, Joseph is troubled because Mary, his betrothed, is pregnant,[[Matthew 1:19]]–[[Matthew 1:20|20]]. but in the first of [[St. Joseph's dream|Joseph's four dreams]] an angel assures him not to be afraid to take Mary as his wife, because her child was conceived by the Holy Spirit.{{cite book |title=Matthew |first=Charles H. |last=Talbert |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8010-3192-2 |publisher=Baker Academic |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmoR2j0-sgC |pages=29–30 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=tbmoR2j0-sgC |url-status=live }} In [[Matthew 2:1]]–[[Matthew 2:12|12]], [[Biblical Magi|wise men]] or [[Magi]] from the East bring gifts to the young Jesus as the [[Jesus, King of the Jews|King of the Jews]]. They find him in a house in Bethlehem. [[Herod the Great]] hears of Jesus' birth and, wanting him killed, [[Massacre of the Innocents|orders the murders of male infants]] in Bethlehem and its surroundings. But an angel warns Joseph in his second dream, and the family [[Flight to Egypt|flees to Egypt]]—later to return and settle in [[Nazareth]].{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–85}}{{cite book |last=Schnackenburg |first=Rudolf |title=The Gospel of Matthew |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-8028-4438-5 |publisher=Wm.B. Eerdmans Publishing |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pvR39Z9O01kC&pg=PA9 |pages=9–11 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907052207/https://books.google.com/books?id=pvR39Z9O01kC&pg=PA9 |url-status=live }} [119] => [120] => In Luke 1:31–38, Mary learns from the angel [[Gabriel]] that she will conceive and bear a child called Jesus through the action of the Holy Spirit. When Mary is due to give birth, she and Joseph travel from Nazareth to Joseph's ancestral home in Bethlehem to register in the census ordered by [[Augustus|Caesar Augustus]]. While there Mary gives birth to Jesus, and as they have found no room in the inn, she places the newborn in a [[manger]].{{bibleref2|Luke|2:1–7}}. An [[Annunciation to the shepherds|angel announces the birth to a group of shepherds]], who go to Bethlehem to see Jesus, and subsequently spread the news abroad.{{bibleref2|Luke|2:8–20}}. Luke 2:21 tells how Joseph and Mary [[circumcision of Jesus|have their baby circumcised on the eighth day after birth]], and name him Jesus, as Gabriel had commanded Mary.{{bibleref2|Luke|2:21}}. After the [[presentation of Jesus at the Temple]], Joseph, Mary and Jesus return to Nazareth. [121] => [122] => ===Early life, family, and profession=== [123] => {{Main|Christ Child}} [124] => {{See also|Return of the family of Jesus to Nazareth|Unknown years of Jesus|Brothers of Jesus}} [125] => [[File:William Holman Hunt - The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''[[The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple]]'', by [[William Holman Hunt]], 1860|alt=Mary and Joseph find Jesus in the Temple]] [126] => [127] => Jesus' childhood home is identified in the Gospels of Luke and Matthew as the town of Nazareth in [[Galilee]], where he lived with his family. Although Joseph appears in descriptions of Jesus' childhood, no mention is made of him thereafter.{{cite book |last=Perrotta |first=Louise B. |title=Saint Joseph: His Life and His Role in the Church Today |publisher=Our Sunday Visitor Publishing |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-87973-573-9 |pages=21, 110–112 |language=en}}{{cite book|author=Reverend Archdeacon Kinane|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EmUhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT138|title=Saint Joseph: His Life, His Virtues, His Privileges, His Power|page=138|chapter=Section VI – The perpetual virginity os St. Joseph|publisher=Aeterna Press|oclc=972347083|access-date=7 June 2021|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309230526/https://books.google.com/books?id=EmUhCgAAQBAJ&pg=PT138#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}} His other family members—his mother, Mary, [[Brothers of Jesus|his brothers]] [[James, brother of Jesus|James]], [[Joses, brother of Jesus|Joses (or Joseph)]], [[Jude, brother of Jesus|Judas]] and [[Simon, brother of Jesus|Simon]] and his unnamed sisters—are mentioned in the Gospels and other sources.{{cite book|title= Zealot: The Life and Times of Jesus of Nazareth|last= Aslan|first= Reza|author-link= Reza Aslan|year= 2013|publisher= Random House|page= [https://archive.org/details/zealotlifetimeso00reza/page/756 36]|isbn= 978-1-4000-6922-4|url=https://archive.org/details/zealotlifetimeso00reza/page/756}} Jesus' maternal grandparents are named [[Joachim]] and [[Saint Anne|Anne]] in the [[Gospel of James]].{{cite book|last=Brownrigg|first=Ronald|title=Who's Who in the New Testament|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&q=joachim|page=194|year=2003|publisher=Routledge|location=New York|isbn=978-1-134-50949-2|access-date=31 March 2023|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309230540/https://books.google.com/books?id=JXqBAgAAQBAJ&q=joachim#v=snippet&q=joachim&f=false|url-status=live}} The Gospel of Luke records that Mary was a relative of [[Elizabeth (biblical figure)|Elizabeth]], the mother of John the Baptist.{{Bibleverse|Luke|1:5, 36|KJV}}. Extra-biblical contemporary sources consider Jesus and John the Baptist to be second cousins through the belief that Elizabeth was the daughter of [[Sobe (sister of Saint Anne)|Sobe]], the sister of Anne.[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 97.1325.[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 120.189.[[Patrologia Graeca|PG]] 145.760 ([[Nicephorus Callistus Xanthopoulos|Nicephorus Callistus]], ''Historia ecclesiastica'', 2.3). [128] => [129] => The Gospel of Mark reports that at the beginning of [[Ministry of Jesus|his ministry]], Jesus comes into conflict with his neighbours and family.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–72}} Jesus' mother and brothers come to get him{{bibleref2|Mark|3:31–35}}. because people are saying that [[Mental health of Jesus|he is crazy]].{{bibleref2|Mark|3:21}}. Jesus responds that his followers are his true family. In the Gospel of John, Jesus and his mother attend a [[wedding at Cana]], where he performs his first miracle at her request.{{bibleref2|John|3:1–11}}. Later, she follows him to his crucifixion, and he expresses concern over her well-being.{{bibleref2|John|19:25–27}}. [130] => [131] => Jesus is called a τέκτων (''[[tektōn]]'') in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#6:3|Mark 6:3]], a term traditionally understood as carpenter but could also refer to makers of objects in various materials, including builders.{{cite book|last1=Liddell|first1=Henry G.|last2=Scott|first2=Robert|title=An Intermediate Greek–English Lexicon: The Seventh Edition of Liddell and Scott's Greek–English Lexicon |publisher=Clarendon Press|year=1889|page=797}}{{sfn|Dickson|2008| pp= 68–69}} The Gospels indicate that Jesus could read, paraphrase, and debate scripture, but this does not necessarily mean that he received formal scribal training.{{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=Context, family and formation |encyclopedia=Cambridge companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA14 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Evans |first=Craig A. |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N. A. |pages=14, 21 |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907175830/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA14 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}} [132] => [133] => The Gospel of Luke reports two journeys of Jesus and his parents in [[Jerusalem]] during his childhood. They come to the [[Temple in Jerusalem]] for the [[presentation of Jesus]] as a baby in accordance with Jewish Law, where a man named [[Simeon (Gospel of Luke)|Simeon]] prophesies about Jesus and Mary.{{bibleref2|Luke|2:22–35}}. When Jesus, at the age of twelve, goes missing on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem for [[Passover]], his parents [[Finding in the Temple|find him in the temple]] sitting among the teachers, listening to them and asking questions, and the people are amazed at his understanding and answers. Mary scolds Jesus for going missing, to which Jesus replies that he must "be in his father's house".{{bibleref2|Luke|2:41–52}}. [134] => [135] => ===Baptism and temptation=== [136] => {{Main|Baptism of Jesus|Temptation of Christ}} [137] => [[File:El bautismo de Jesús, por José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.75|''[[Baptism of Jesus|The Baptism of Christ]] by [[John the Baptist]]'', by [[José Ferraz de Almeida Júnior]], 1895|alt=Jesus is baptised by John. The Holy Spirit in the form of a dove is overhead.]] [138] => [139] => The [[synoptic gospels]] describe [[Baptism of Jesus|Jesus' baptism]] in the [[Jordan River]] and [[Temptation of Christ|the temptations he received]] while spending forty days in the [[Judaean Desert]], as a preparation for his [[ministry of Jesus|public ministry]].{{cite book|last=Sheen|first=Fulton J.|title=Life of Christ|year=2008|publisher=Random House|isbn=978-0-385-52699-9|page=65|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KyqQKohpVR4C&pg=PA65|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=10 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910165309/https://books.google.com/books?id=KyqQKohpVR4C&pg=PA65|url-status=live}} The accounts of Jesus' baptism are all preceded by information about [[John the Baptist]].{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–29}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=141–43}}{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=16–22}} They show John preaching penance and repentance for the remission of sins and encouraging the giving of [[alms]] to the poor{{bibleverse|Luke||3:11}}. as he baptizes people in the area of the Jordan River around [[Perea]] and foretells the arrival of someone "more powerful" than he.{{bibleref2|Luke|3:16}}.{{cite book|title=Eerdmans commentary on the Bible|first1=James D. G.|last1= Dunn|first2= John W. |last2=Rogerson|year= 2003 |isbn= 978-0-8028-3711-0 |page= 1010 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing}} [140] => [[File:Ary_Scheffer_-_The_Temptation_of_Christ_(1854).jpg|left|thumb|Jesus and the devil depicted in ''The Temptation of Christ'', by [[Ary Scheffer]], 1854|upright=.75]] [141] => In the Gospel of Mark, John the Baptist baptizes Jesus, and as he comes out of the water he sees the [[Holy Spirit]] descending to him like a dove and a voice comes from heaven declaring him to be God's Son.{{bibleref2|Mark|1:9–11}}. This is one of two events described in the Gospels where a voice from Heaven calls Jesus "Son", the other being the [[Transfiguration of Jesus|Transfiguration]].{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}} The spirit then drives him into the wilderness where he is tempted by [[Satan]].{{bibleref2|Mark|1:12–13}}. Jesus then begins his ministry in [[Galilee]] after John's arrest.{{bibleref2|Mark|1:14}}. [142] => [143] => In the Gospel of Matthew, as Jesus comes to him to be baptized, John protests, saying, "I need to be baptized by you."{{bibleref2|Matthew|3:14}}. Jesus instructs him to carry on with the baptism "to fulfill all righteousness".{{bibleref2|Matthew|3:15}}. Matthew details three temptations that Satan offers Jesus in the wilderness.{{bibleref2|Matthew|4:3–11}}. [144] => [145] => In the Gospel of Luke, the Holy Spirit descends as a dove after everyone has been baptized and Jesus is [[Prayers of Jesus|praying]].{{bibleref2|Luke|3:21–22}}. Later John implicitly recognizes Jesus (possibly from prison{{Citation needed|date=March 2024}}) after sending his followers to ask about him.{{bibleref2|Luke|7:18–23}}. Luke also describes three temptations received by Jesus in the wilderness, before starting his ministry in Galilee.{{bibleref2|Luke|4:1–14}}. [146] => [147] => The Gospel of John leaves out Jesus' baptism and temptation.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} Here, John the Baptist testifies that he saw the Spirit descend on Jesus.{{bibleref2|John|1:32}}.{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N0tLXRIiIe0C&pg=PA292 292]}} John publicly proclaims Jesus as the sacrificial [[Lamb of God]], and some of John's followers become disciples of Jesus.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}} Before John is imprisoned, Jesus leads his followers to baptize disciples as well,{{bibleref2|John|3:22–24}}. and they baptize more people than John.{{bibleref2|John|4:1}}. [148] => [149] => ==={{anchor|Ministry}} Public ministry=== [150] => [151] => {{Main|Ministry of Jesus}} [152] => [[File:Bloch-SermonOnTheMount.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''Sermon on the Mount'', by [[Carl Bloch]], 1877, depicts [[Sermon on the Mount|Jesus' important discourse]].|alt=Jesus sits atop a mount, preaching to a crowd]] [153] => The Synoptics depict two distinct geographical settings in Jesus' ministry. The first takes place north of [[Judea]], in [[Galilee]], where Jesus conducts a successful ministry, and the second shows Jesus rejected and killed when he travels to [[Jerusalem]]. Often referred to as "[[rabbi]]", Jesus preaches his message orally. Notably, Jesus forbids those who recognize him as the messiah to speak of it, including people he heals and demons he exorcises (see [[Messianic Secret]]).{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–96}} [154] => [155] => John depicts Jesus' ministry as largely taking place in and around Jerusalem, rather than in Galilee; and Jesus' divine identity is openly proclaimed and immediately recognized.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–10}} [156] => [157] => Scholars divide the ministry of Jesus into several stages. The Galilean ministry begins when Jesus returns to Galilee from the [[Judaean Desert]] after rebuffing the temptation of [[Satan]]. Jesus preaches around Galilee, and in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#4:18|Matthew 4:18–20]], [[first disciples of Jesus|his first disciples]], who will eventually form the core of the early Church, encounter him and begin to travel with him.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=16–22}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=117–30}} This period includes the [[Sermon on the Mount]], one of Jesus' major discourses,{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=117–30}}{{cite book|title=The Sermon on the mount: a theological investigation|first=Carl G.|last= Vaught|year=2001 |publisher=Baylor University Press |isbn =978-0-918954-76-3 |pages= xi–xiv}} as well as the [[calming the storm|calming of the storm]], the [[feeding the multitude|feeding of the 5,000]], [[Jesus walking on water|walking on water]] and a number of other miracles and [[parables of Jesus|parables]].{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=143–60}} It ends with the [[Confession of Peter]] and the Transfiguration.{{cite encyclopedia | title=Transfiguration, The | encyclopedia=The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Thought: Son of Man-Tremellius V11 | isbn=978-1-4286-3189-2 | publisher=Funk & Wagnalls Company | year=1909 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=js5-eDk13TcC&pg=PA493 | page=493 | last=Nash | first=Henry S. | editor-first=Samuel M. | editor-last=Jackson | access-date=14 August 2015 | archive-date=7 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907052036/https://books.google.com/books?id=js5-eDk13TcC&pg=PA493 | url-status=live }}{{cite book |last=Barton |first=Stephen C. |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00bart_994 |title=The Cambridge Companion to the Gospels |date=23 November 2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-80766-1 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgecompani00bart_994/page/n138 132]–133 |url-access=limited}} [158] => [159] => As Jesus travels towards Jerusalem, in the [[Perea]]n ministry, he returns to the area where he was baptized, about a third of the way down from the [[Sea of Galilee]] along the [[Jordan River]].[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#10:40|John 10:40–42]].{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=137}}{{sfn|Redford|2007| pp= 211–29}} The [[Ministry of Jesus#Final ministry in Jerusalem|final ministry in Jerusalem]] begins with Jesus' [[triumphal entry into Jerusalem|triumphal entry]] into the city on [[Palm Sunday]].{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–70}} In the Synoptic Gospels, during that week Jesus [[Cleansing of the Temple|drives the money changers]] from the [[Second Temple]] and [[Bargain of Judas|Judas bargains to betray]] him. This period culminates in the [[Last Supper]] and the [[Farewell Discourse]].{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–29}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–70}}{{sfn|Redford|2007|pp=257–74}} [160] => [161] => ====Disciples and followers==== [162] => {{Main|Apostles in the New Testament|Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles}} [163] => [[File:Brooklyn Museum - The Exhortation to the Apostles (Recommandation aux apôtres) - James Tissot.jpg|thumb|right|''The Exhortation to the Apostles'', by [[James Tissot]], portrays Jesus talking to his 12 disciples.]] [164] => Near the beginning of his ministry, Jesus [[Commissioning of the Twelve Apostles|appoints twelve apostles]]. In Matthew and Mark, despite Jesus only briefly requesting that they join him, Jesus' first four apostles, who were fishermen, are described as immediately consenting, and abandoning their nets and boats to do so.[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#4:18|Matthew 4:18–22]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#1:16|Mark 1:16–20]]. In John, Jesus' first two apostles were disciples of John the Baptist. The Baptist sees Jesus and calls him the [[Lamb of God]]; the two hear this and follow Jesus.{{sfn|Brown|1988|pp= 25–27}}{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pages= 292–93}} In addition to the Twelve Apostles, the opening of the passage of the [[Sermon on the Plain]] identifies a much larger group of people as disciples.[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#6:17|Luke 6:17]]. Also, in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#10:1|Luke 10:1–16]] Jesus sends [[Seventy disciples|70 or 72 of his followers]] in pairs to prepare towns for his prospective visit. They are instructed to accept hospitality, heal the sick, and spread the word that the [[Kingship and kingdom of God|Kingdom of God]] is coming.{{cite encyclopedia | title=The Gospel According to Luke | encyclopedia=New Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament | publisher=Liturgical Press | year=2009 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sdooTRyPMCwC&pg=PA255 | page=255 | first=Michael F. | last=Patella | editor-first=Daniel | editor-last=Durken | isbn=978-0-8146-3260-4 | access-date=14 August 2015 | archive-date=10 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910044704/https://books.google.com/books?id=sdooTRyPMCwC&pg=PA255 | url-status=live }} [165] => [166] => In Mark, the disciples are notably obtuse. They fail to understand Jesus' miracles,{{bibleref2|Mark|4:35–41}}, {{bibleref2|Mark|6:52}}. his parables,{{bibleref2|Mark|4:13}}. or what "rising from the dead" means.{{bibleref2|Mark|9:9–10}}. When Jesus is later arrested, they desert him.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–96}} [167] => [168] => ===={{anchor|Teachings and preachings}} Teachings and miracles==== [169] => {{Main|Sermon on the Mount|Parables of Jesus|Miracles of Jesus}} [170] => {{See also|Sermon on the Plain|Five Discourses of Matthew|Farewell Discourse|Olivet Discourse|Bread of Life Discourse}} [171] => [[File:Hoffman-ChristAndTheRichYoungRuler.jpg|thumb|upright=1|''[[Jesus and the rich young man]]'' by [[Heinrich Hofmann (painter)|Heinrich Hofmann]], 1889]] [172] => [173] => In the Synoptics, Jesus teaches extensively, often in [[parable]]s,{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=316–46}} about the Kingdom of God (or, in Matthew, the [[Kingdom of Heaven (Gospel of Matthew)|Kingdom of Heaven]]). The Kingdom is described as both imminent[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#1:15|Mark 1:15]]. and already present in the ministry of Jesus.{{bibleref2|Luke|17:21}}. Jesus promises inclusion in the Kingdom for those who accept his message.{{bibleref2|Mark|10:13–27}}. He talks of the "[[Son of man]]", an [[Apocalypse|apocalyptic]] figure who will come to gather the chosen. [174] => [175] => Jesus calls people to repent their sins and to devote themselves completely to God.{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ | title=Jesus Christ | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date=10 June 2015 | first1=E. P. | last1=Sanders | first2=Jaroslav J. | last2=Pelikan | archive-date=3 May 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503100711/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ | url-status=live }} He tells his followers to adhere to [[Jewish law]], although he is perceived by some to have broken the law himself, for example regarding the [[Sabbath]]. When asked what the greatest commandment is, Jesus replies: "You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart, and with all your soul, and with all your mind ... And a second is like it: 'You shall love your neighbor as yourself.{{'"}}[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#22:37|Matthew 22:37–39]]. Other ethical teachings of Jesus include [[Matthew 5:44|loving your enemies]], refraining from hatred and lust, [[turning the other cheek]], and forgiving people who have sinned against you.[[Sermon on the Mount|Matthew 5–7]].{{cite book |last1=Stassen |first1=Glen H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LlMVrmA-b-4C |title=Kingdom Ethics: Following Jesus in Contemporary Context |last2=Gushee |first2=David P. |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8308-2668-1 |pages=102–103, 138–140, 197–198, 295–298 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226062140/https://books.google.com/books?id=LlMVrmA-b-4C |archive-date=26 February 2020 |url-status=live}} [176] => [177] => John's Gospel presents the teachings of Jesus not merely as his own preaching, but as divine [[revelation]]. John the Baptist, for example, states in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#3:34|John 3:34]]: "He whom God has sent speaks the words of God, for he gives the Spirit without measure." In [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#7:16|John 7:16]] Jesus says, "My teaching is not mine but his who sent me." He asserts the same thing in [[s:Bible (American Standard)/John#14:10|John 14:10]]: "Do you not believe that I am in the Father and the Father is in me? The words that I say to you I do not speak on my own; but the Father who dwells in me does his works."{{cite book |last=Köstenberger |first=Andreas J. |title=The missions of Jesus and the disciples according to the Fourth Gospel |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-8028-4255-8 |pages=108–109 |language=en}} [178] => [179] => [[File:Pompeo Batoni 003.jpg|left|upright=.75|thumb|''[[Parable of the Prodigal Son|The Return of the Prodigal Son]]'' by [[Pompeo Batoni]], 1773]] [180] => Approximately 30 parables form about one-third of Jesus' recorded teachings.{{cite book|first=Eric F.|last= Osborn|year= 1993 |title=The emergence of Christian theology|url=https://archive.org/details/emergencechristi00osbo|url-access=limited| isbn= 978-0-521-43078-4 |page= [https://archive.org/details/emergencechristi00osbo/page/n115 98] |publisher=Cambridge University Press}}{{cite book|first=J. Dwight|last= Pentecost|year= 1998 |title=The parables of Jesus: lessons in life from the Master Teacher| isbn= 978-0-8254-9715-5 |page= 10 |publisher=Kregel Publications}} The parables appear within longer sermons and at other places in the narrative.{{cite book|title=The Sermons of Jesus the Messiah|first= E. Keith|last= Howick|year= 2003 |publisher= WindRiver Publishing |isbn= 978-1-886249-02-8| pages= 7–9}} They often contain symbolism, and usually relate the physical world to the [[Spirituality|spiritual]].{{cite book|first=Friedrich G. |last= Lisco |year=1850 |title=The Parables of Jesus |publisher= Daniels and Smith Publishers| pages= [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OoIuAAAAYAAJ/page/n12 9]–11 |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_OoIuAAAAYAAJ }}{{cite book|first=Ashton |last=Oxenden|year= 1864 |title=The parables of our Lord? |publisher=William Macintosh Publishers| page= [https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5bUCAAAAQAAJ/page/n15 6] |url=https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_5bUCAAAAQAAJ }} Common themes in these tales include the kindness and generosity of God and the perils of transgression.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dPdANFaNgagC&pg=448 |title=Interpreting the Parables |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=2012 |page=448 |isbn=978-0-8308-3967-4 |first=Craig L. |last=Blomberg |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910175429/https://books.google.com/books?id=dPdANFaNgagC&pg=448 |url-status=live }} Some of his parables, such as the [[Parable of the Prodigal Son|Prodigal Son]],[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#15:11|Luke 15:11–32]]. are relatively simple, while others, such as the [[Parable of the Growing Seed|Growing Seed]],[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#4:26|Mark 4:26–29]]. are sophisticated, profound and abstruse.{{cite web | first=Madeleine I. | last=Boucher |url=https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/parables.html | title=The Parables | publisher=BBC | access-date=3 June 2013 | archive-date=10 August 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130810144100/http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/pages/frontline/shows/religion/jesus/parables.html | url-status=live }} When asked by his disciples why he speaks in parables to the people, Jesus replies that the chosen disciples have been given to "know the secrets of the kingdom of heaven", unlike the rest of their people, "For the one who has will be given more and he will have in abundance. But the one who does not have will be deprived even more", going on to say that the majority of their generation have grown "dull hearts" and thus are unable to understand.[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#13:10|Matthew 13:10–17]]. [181] => [182] => [[File:Christ cleans leper man.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.8|[[Jesus cleansing a leper]], medieval [[mosaic]] from the [[Monreale Cathedral]], late 12th to mid-13th centuries|alt=Jesus, his head surrounded by a halo, puts his hands on a leper, thereby healing him]] [183] => In the gospel accounts, Jesus devotes a large portion of his ministry to performing [[miracle]]s, especially healings.{{sfn|Green|McKnight |Marshall|1992|p=299}} The miracles can be classified into two main categories: healing miracles and nature miracles.{{sfn|Twelftree|1999|p=350}}{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}}{{cite book |last1=Charlesworth |first1=James H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&pg=PT113 |title=The Historical Jesus: An Essential Guide |date=2008 |publisher=Abingdon Press |isbn=978-1-4267-2475-6 |page=113 |access-date=29 March 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221947/https://books.google.com/books?id=YTIGy5t45WgC&pg=PT113 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}} The healing miracles include cures for physical ailments, [[exorcism]]s,{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}}{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=298}} and [[Miracles of Jesus#Resurrection of the dead|resurrections of the dead]].{{sfn|Green|McKnight|Marshall|1992|p=300}}{{cite web |last=Tabor |first=James |date=22 March 2013 |title=What the Bible Says About Death, Afterlife, and the Future |url=https://clas-pages.uncc.edu/james-tabor/ancient-judaism/death-afterlife-future/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160823115040/https://clas-pages.uncc.edu/james-tabor/ancient-judaism/death-afterlife-future/ |archive-date=23 August 2016 |access-date=13 June 2015 |publisher=UNCC}}{{cite book |last=Hoekema |first=Anthony A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2yT_7xw35sC |title=The Bible and the Future |publisher=Eerdmans Publishing |year=1994 |isbn=978-0-85364-624-2 |pages=88–89 |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221946/https://books.google.com/books?id=c2yT_7xw35sC |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}} The nature miracles show Jesus' power over nature, and include [[turning water into wine]], walking on water, and calming a storm, among others. Jesus states that his miracles are from a divine source. When his opponents suddenly accuse him of performing exorcisms by the power of [[Beelzebul]], the prince of demons, Jesus counters that he performs them by the "Spirit of God" ([[s:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#12:28|Matthew 12:28]]) or "finger of God", arguing that all logic suggests that Satan would not let his demons assist the Children of God because it would divide Satan's house and bring his kingdom to desolation; furthermore, he asks his opponents that if he exorcises by [[Beelzebub]], "by whom do your sons cast them out?"[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#11:20|Luke 11:20]].{{cite encyclopedia|title=Jesus Christ|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ|access-date=10 June 2015|first1=E. P.|last1=Sanders|first2=Jaroslav J.|last2=Pelikan|archive-date=3 May 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150503100711/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/303091/Jesus-Christ|url-status=live}}{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Js9nFESO0VAC&pg=PA100|title=Zondervan King James Version Commentary: New Testament|last2=Mitchell|first2=Daniel R.|publisher=Zondervan|year=2010|isbn=978-0-310-25150-7|page=100|first1=Edward E.|last1=Hindson|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=10 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910171333/https://books.google.com/books?id=Js9nFESO0VAC&pg=PA100|url-status=live}} In [[s:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#12:28|Matthew 12:31–32]], he goes on to say that while all manner of sin, "even insults against God" or "insults against the son of man", shall be forgiven, whoever insults goodness (or "The [[Holy Spirit]]") shall never be forgiven; they carry the guilt of their sin forever. [184] => [185] => In John, Jesus' miracles are described as "signs", performed to prove his mission and divinity.{{sfn|Ehrman|2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/page/84 84]}} In the Synoptics, when asked by some teachers of the Law and some Pharisees to give miraculous signs to prove his authority, Jesus refuses,{{cite book|title=Introducing the New Testament: Its Literature and Theology|year=2001|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|isbn=978-0-8028-3717-2|page=[https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00paul/page/198 198] |url=https://archive.org/details/introducingnewte00paul/page/198|first1=Paul J.|last1=Achtemeier|first2=Joel B.|last2=Green|first3=Marianne M.|last3=Thompson}} saying that no sign shall come to corrupt and evil people except the sign of the prophet [[Jonah]]. Also, in the Synoptic Gospels, the crowds regularly respond to Jesus' miracles with awe and press on him to heal their sick. In John's Gospel, Jesus is presented as unpressured by the crowds, who often respond to his miracles with trust and faith.{{sfn|Twelftree|1999|p=236}} One characteristic shared among all miracles of Jesus in the gospel accounts is that he performed them freely and never requested or accepted any form of payment.{{cite book |last=van der Loos |first=Hendrik |title=The Miracles Of Jesus |year=1965 |publisher=Brill |page=197 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=n4geAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA197 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910165838/https://books.google.com/books?id=n4geAAAAIAAJ&pg=PA197 |url-status=live }} The gospel episodes that include descriptions of the miracles of Jesus also often include teachings, and the miracles themselves involve an element of teaching.{{cite book |title=The words and works of Jesus Christ |first=J. Dwight |last=Pentecost |year=1981 |isbn=978-0-310-30940-6 |page=212 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bh3M_AfgXZAC&pg=PA212 |publisher=Zondervan |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910063513/https://books.google.com/books?id=bh3M_AfgXZAC&pg=PA212 |url-status=live }}{{sfn|Twelftree|1999 |p=95}} Many of the miracles teach the importance of faith. In the [[Cleansing ten lepers|cleansing of ten lepers]] and the [[Daughter of Jairus|raising of Jairus's daughter]], for instance, the beneficiaries are told that their healing was due to their faith.{{sfn|Donahue|Harrington |2002|p=182}}{{cite book|last=Lockyer|first= Herbert|year= 1988 |title=All the Miracles of the Bible| isbn= 978-0-310-28101-6 |page= 235 |publisher=Zondervan}} [186] => [187] => ====Proclamation as Christ and Transfiguration==== [188] => {{Main|Confession of Peter|Transfiguration of Jesus}} [189] => [[File:Transfigurationbloch.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|right|The [[Transfiguration of Jesus]], depicted by [[Carl Bloch]], 19th century]] [190] => At about the middle of each of the three Synoptic Gospels are two significant events: the Confession of [[Saint Peter|Peter]] and the Transfiguration of Jesus.{{cite book|title=The Christology of Mark's Gospel|url=https://archive.org/details/christologyofmar0000king|url-access=limited|first= Jack D. |last= Kingsbury |year=1983 |isbn= 978-1-4514-1007-5 |publisher= Fortress Press|pages= [https://archive.org/details/christologyofmar0000king/page/91 91]–95}}{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}} These two events are not mentioned in the Gospel of John.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=John, Gospel of}} [191] => [192] => In his Confession, [[Saint Peter|Peter]] tells Jesus, "You are the Messiah, the Son of the living God."{{cite book |last=Karris |first=Robert J. |title=The Collegeville Bible Commentary: New Testament |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8146-2211-7 |pages=885–886 |language=en}}{{cite book|title=Who do you say that I am? Essays on Christology|first1=Jack D.|last1= Kingsbury| first2=Mark A.|last2= Powell|first3= David R. |last3=Bauer |year=1999 |isbn= 978-0-664-25752-1 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |page= xvi}}{{sfn|Donahue|Harrington|2002|p= 336}} Jesus affirms that Peter's confession is divinely revealed truth.{{cite book |last=Yieh |first=John Y. H. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g0-NaraCrAoC |title=One teacher: Jesus' teaching role in Matthew's gospel |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |year=2004 |isbn=978-3-11-018151-7 |pages=240–241 |language=en |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008221947/https://books.google.com/books?id=g0-NaraCrAoC |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}}{{sfn|Pannenberg|1968|pp=53–54}} After the confession, Jesus tells his disciples about his upcoming death and resurrection.Matthew 16:21, Mark 8:31, and Luke 9:22. [193] => [194] => In the Transfiguration,[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#17:1|Matthew 17:1–9]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#9:2|Mark 9:2–8]], and [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#9:28|Luke 9:28–36]].{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}}{{cite book |last1=Harding |first1=Mark |title=The Content and the Setting of the Gospel Tradition |last2=Nobbs |first2=Alanna |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=2010 |isbn=978-0-8028-3318-1 |pages=281–282 |language=en}} Jesus takes Peter and two other apostles up an unnamed mountain, where "he was transfigured before them, and his face shone like the sun, and his clothes became dazzling white".{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=72–76}} A bright cloud appears around them, and a voice from the cloud says, "This is my Son, the Beloved; with him I am well pleased; listen to him."[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#17:1|Matthew 17:1–9]].{{sfn|Lee|2004|pp=21–30}} [195] => [196] => ===Passion Week=== [197] => The description of the last week of the life of Jesus (often called [[Passion Week]]) occupies about one-third of the narrative in the canonical gospels, starting with Jesus' [[triumphal entry into Jerusalem]] and ending with his Crucifixion.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=224–29}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–70}} [198] => [199] => ====Activities in Jerusalem==== [200] => {{Main|Triumphal entry into Jerusalem|Cleansing of the Temple|Bargain of Judas}} [201] => [[File:Gérôme - L'entrée du Christ à Jérusalem - cadre.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|A painting of Jesus' [[Triumphal entry into Jerusalem|final entry into Jerusalem]], by [[Jean-Léon Gérôme]], 1897|alt=Jesus, riding a donkey colt, rides towards Jerusalem. A large crowd greets him outside the walls.]] [202] => [203] => In the Synoptics, the last week in Jerusalem is the conclusion of the journey through Perea and [[Judea]] that Jesus began in Galilee.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–70}} Jesus rides a young donkey into Jerusalem, reflecting the tale of [[the Messiah's Donkey]], an oracle from the [[Book of Zechariah]] in which the Jews' humble king enters Jerusalem this way.{{Bibleverse|Zechariah|9:9|HE}}.May, Herbert G. and Bruce M. Metzger. The New Oxford Annotated Bible with the Apocrypha. 1977. "Mark" pp. 1213–1239. People along the way lay cloaks and small branches of trees (known as [[Palm branch|palm fronds]]) in front of him and sing part of Psalms 118:25–26.{{Bibleverse|Psalms|118:25–26|HE}}.{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pages=256–58}}{{sfn|Majerník|Ponessa|Manhardt|2005|pp=133–34}}{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=381–95}} [204] => [205] => Jesus next expels the money changers from the [[Second Temple]], accusing them of turning it into a den of thieves through their commercial activities. He then prophesies about the coming destruction, including false prophets, wars, earthquakes, celestial disorders, persecution of the faithful, the appearance of an "abomination of desolation", and unendurable tribulations.{{bibleref2|Mark|13:1–23}}. The mysterious "Son of Man", he says, will dispatch angels to gather the faithful from all parts of the earth.{{bibleref2|Mark|13:24–27}}. Jesus warns that these wonders will occur in the lifetimes of the hearers.{{bibleref2|Mark|13:28–32}}.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–96}} In John, the Cleansing of the Temple occurs at the beginning of Jesus' ministry instead of at the end.[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#2:13|John 2:13–16]].{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–10}} [206] => [207] => Jesus comes into conflict with the Jewish elders, such as when they [[Authority of Jesus questioned|question his authority]] and when he [[Woes of the Pharisees|criticizes them and calls them hypocrites]].{{sfn|Boring|Craddock|2004|pages=256–58}}{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=381–95}} [[Judas Iscariot]], one of the [[twelve apostles]], secretly strikes a bargain with the Jewish elders, agreeing to betray Jesus to them for [[Thirty pieces of silver|30 silver coins]].{{cite book |last=Lockyer |first=Herbert |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q7l-_UFHmYC |title=All the Apostles of the Bible |publisher=Zondervan |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-310-28011-8 |pages=106–111 |language=en |access-date=11 July 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200229044027/https://books.google.com/books?id=-Q7l-_UFHmYC |archive-date=29 February 2020 |url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=The Synoptic Gospels and the Book of Acts|first=Doremus A. |last= Hayes |year=2009 |isbn= 978-1-313-53490-1 |page= 88 |publisher=HardPress}} [208] => [209] => The Gospel of John recounts two other feasts in which Jesus taught in Jerusalem before the Passion Week.[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#7:1|John 7:1–10:42]].{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–72}} In [[Bethany (biblical village)|Bethany]], a village near Jerusalem, Jesus [[Raising of Lazarus|raises Lazarus from the dead]]. This potent sign{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=302–10}} increases the tension with authorities,{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–70}} who conspire to kill him.[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#11:1|John 11]].{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–72}} [[Mary of Bethany]] anoints Jesus' feet, foreshadowing his entombment.{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|pp=401–70}} Jesus then makes his messianic entry into Jerusalem.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–72}} The cheering crowds greeting Jesus as he enters Jerusalem add to the animosity between him and the establishment.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=155–70}} In John, Jesus has already cleansed the Second Temple during an earlier Passover visit to Jerusalem. John next recounts Jesus' Last Supper with his disciples.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=270–72}} [210] => [211] => ====Last Supper==== [212] => {{Main|Last Supper}} [213] => {{See also|Jesus predicts his betrayal|Denial of Peter|Last Supper in Christian art}} [214] => [[File:Última Cena - Juan de Juanes.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|The [[Last Supper]], depicted by [[Juan de Juanes]], {{circa|1562}}|alt=A depiction of the Last Supper. Jesus sits in the center, his apostles gathered around on either side of him.]] [215] => The Last Supper is the final meal that Jesus shares with his twelve apostles in Jerusalem before his crucifixion. The Last Supper is mentioned in all four canonical gospels; Paul's [[First Epistle to the Corinthians]]1 Corinthians [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#11:23|11:23–26]]. also refers to it.{{cite book|title=The Encyclopedia of Christianity|volume=4|first=Erwin|last=Fahlbusch|year=2005|isbn=978-0-8028-2416-5|pages=53–56|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA53|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907101720/https://books.google.com/books?id=C5V7oyy69zgC&pg=PA53|url-status=live}}{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–77}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=180–91}} During the meal, [[Jesus predicts his betrayal|Jesus predicts]] that one of his apostles will betray him.{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=182}} Despite each Apostle's assertion that he would not betray him, Jesus reiterates that the betrayer would be one of those present. Matthew 26:23–25 and John 13:26–27 specifically identify Judas as the traitor.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=465–77}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|p=182}} [216] => [217] => In the Synoptics, Jesus takes bread, breaks it, and gives it to the disciples, saying, "This is my body, which is given for you". He then has them all drink from a cup, saying, "This cup that is poured out for you is the new covenant in my blood."[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#22:19|Luke 22:19–20]].{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Eucharist}} The Christian [[sacrament]] or [[Ordinance (Christian)|ordinance]] of the [[Eucharist]] is based on these events.{{CathEncy| wstitle=The Blessed Eucharist as a Sacrament |first=Joseph |last=Pohle}} Although the Gospel of John does not include a description of the bread-and-wine ritual during the Last Supper, most scholars agree that John 6:22–59 (the [[Bread of Life Discourse]]) has a eucharistic character and resonates with the [[Origin of the Eucharist#Institution narratives|institution narratives]] in the Synoptic Gospels and in the Pauline writings on the Last Supper.{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=792}} [218] => [219] => In all four gospels, Jesus predicts that Peter will deny knowledge of him three times before the [[rooster]] crows the next morning.{{cite book|title=Peter: apostle for the whole church|first= Pheme |last=Perkins |publisher=Fortress Press |year=2000 |isbn= 978-1-4514-1598-8 |page= 85}}{{cite book|title=The Gospel according to Matthew, Volume 1|first= Johann P.|last= Lange|year= 1865| publisher= Charles Scribner Co| page= 499}} In Luke and John, the prediction is made during the Supper.[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Luke#22:33|Luke 22:34]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#22:33|John 22:34]]. In Matthew and Mark, the prediction is made after the Supper; Jesus also predicts that all his disciples will desert him.[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#26:31|Matthew 26:31–34]], [[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Mark#14:27|Mark 14:27–30]].{{sfn|Walvoord|Zuck|1983|pp=83–85}} The Gospel of John provides the only account of [[Maundy (foot washing)|Jesus washing his disciples' feet]] after the meal.{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–85}} John also includes a long sermon by Jesus, preparing his disciples (now without Judas) for his departure. Chapters 14–17 of the Gospel of John are known as the [[Farewell Discourse]] and are a significant source of [[Christology|Christological]] content.{{cite book |last1=O'Day |first1=Gail R. |title=John |last2=Hylen |first2=Susan |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-664-25260-1 |pages=142–168 |language=en-us}}{{cite book |last=Ridderbos |first=Herman |title=The Gospel according to John |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8028-0453-2 |pages=546–576 |language=en}} [220] => [221] => ====Agony in the Garden, betrayal, and arrest==== [222] => {{Main|Agony in the Garden|Kiss of Judas|Arrest of Jesus}} [223] => [[File:The Taking of Christ-Caravaggio (c.1602).jpg|thumb|A depiction of the [[kiss of Judas]] and [[arrest of Jesus]], by [[Caravaggio]], {{circa|1602}}|alt=Judas kisses Jesus, and soldiers rush to seize the latter.]] [224] => [225] => In the Synoptics, Jesus and his disciples go to the garden [[Gethsemane]], where Jesus prays to be spared his coming ordeal. Then Judas comes with an armed mob, sent by the chief priests, [[Scribe#Judaism|scribe]]s and elders. He [[Kiss of Judas|kisses Jesus]] to identify him to the crowd, which then [[arrest of Jesus|arrests Jesus]]. In an attempt to stop them, an unnamed disciple of Jesus uses a sword to cut off the ear [[Malchus|of a man]] in the crowd. After Jesus' arrest, his disciples go into hiding, and Peter, when questioned, thrice [[Denial of Peter|denies]] knowing Jesus. After the third denial, Peter hears the rooster crow and recalls Jesus' prediction about his denial. Peter then weeps bitterly.{{sfn|Walvoord|Zuck|1983|pp=83–85}}{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=285–96}} [226] => [227] => In John 18:1–11, Jesus does not pray to be spared his crucifixion, as the gospel portrays him as scarcely touched by such human weakness.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus}} The people who arrest him are [[Imperial Roman army|Roman soldiers]] and Temple guards.{{cite book|last1=Michaels|first1=J. Ramsey|title=John (Understanding the Bible Commentary Series)|date=2011|publisher=Baker Books|page=187|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zGr-amBm4PUC&pg=PT187|isbn=978-1-4412-3659-3|access-date=7 September 2017|archive-date=26 February 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200226071102/https://books.google.com/books?id=zGr-amBm4PUC&pg=PT187|url-status=live}} Instead of being betrayed by a kiss, Jesus proclaims his identity, and when he does, the soldiers and officers fall to the ground. The gospel identifies Peter as the disciple who used the sword, and Jesus rebukes him for it. [228] => [229] => ====Trials by the Sanhedrin, Herod, and Pilate==== [230] => {{Main|Sanhedrin trial of Jesus|Pilate's Court|Jesus at Herod's Court}} [231] => {{See also|Jesus, King of the Jews|John 18:38|Ecce homo}} [232] => [233] => After his arrest, Jesus is taken late at night to the private residence of the high priest, [[Caiaphas]], who had been installed by Pilate's predecessor, the Roman procurator [[Valerius Gratus]].[[Josephus]] Antiquities 18.2.2. The [[Sanhedrin]] was a Jewish judicial body.{{sfn|Brown|1997|p= 146}} The gospel accounts differ on the [[Sanhedrin trial of Jesus|details of the trials]].{{cite book |last=Bromiley |first=Geoffrey W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA1050 |title=International Standard Bible Encyclopedia: E–J |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-8028-3782-0 |pages=1050–1052 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907182833/https://books.google.com/books?id=yklDk6Vv0l4C&pg=PA1050 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}} In Matthew 26:57, Mark 14:53 and Luke 22:54, Jesus is taken to the house of the high priest, [[Caiaphas]], where he is [[Mocking of Jesus|mocked]] and beaten that night. Early the next morning, the chief priests and scribes lead Jesus away into their council.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}}{{cite book |title=Holman Concise Bible Dictionary |publisher=B&H Publishing Group |year=2011 |isbn=978-0-8054-9548-5 |pages=608–609 |language=en}} John 18:12–14 states that Jesus is first taken to [[Annas]], Caiaphas's father-in-law, and then to the high priest.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}} [234] => [235] => [[File:Ecce homo by Antonio Ciseri (1).jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|''Ecce homo!'' [[Antonio Ciseri]]'s 1871 depiction of [[Pontius Pilate]] presenting Jesus to the public|alt=A depiction of Jesus' public trial]] [236] => During the trials Jesus speaks very little, mounts no defence, and gives very infrequent and indirect answers to the priests' questions, prompting an officer to slap him. In Matthew 26:62, Jesus' unresponsiveness leads Caiaphas to ask him, "Have you no answer?"{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–400}} In Mark 14:61 the high priest then asks Jesus, "Are you the Messiah, the Son of the Blessed One?" Jesus replies, "I am", and then predicts the coming of the [[Son of man (Christianity)|Son of Man]]. This provokes Caiaphas to tear his own robe in anger and to accuse Jesus of blasphemy. In Matthew and Luke, Jesus' answer is more ambiguous:{{sfn|Evans|2003|p=495}} in Matthew 26:64 he responds, "You have said so", and in Luke 22:70 he says, "You say that I am".{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=396–98}}{{cite book|title=Luke's presentation of Jesus: a christology|first=Robert F.|last= O'Toole|year= 2004| isbn= 978-88-7653-625-0|page= 166 |publisher=Editrice Pontificio Istituto Biblico}} [237] => [238] => The Jewish elders take Jesus to [[Pilate's Court]] and ask the Roman governor, [[Pontius Pilate]], to judge and condemn Jesus for various allegations: subverting the nation, opposing the payment of tribute, claiming to be Christ, a King, and claiming to be the son of God.Matthew: "claiming to be king of the Jews". Mark: "king of the Jews". Luke: "subverting nation, opposing payment of taxes to Caesar, claiming to be Christ, a king" John: "breaking Jewish law, claiming to be the son of God". The use of the word "king" is central to the discussion between Jesus and Pilate. In John 18:36 Jesus states, "My kingdom is not from this world", but he does not unequivocally deny being the King of the Jews.{{cite book|publisher=Twenty-Third Publications|title=The Names of Jesus|first= Stephen J.|last= Binz |year=2004 |isbn= 978-1-58595-315-8| pages= 81–82}}{{cite book |last=Ironside |first=H. A. |title=John |publisher=Kregel Academic |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8254-9619-6 |page=454 |language=en}} In Luke 23:7–15, Pilate realizes that Jesus is a Galilean, and thus comes under the jurisdiction of [[Herod Antipas]], the [[Herodian Tetrarchy|Tetrarch]] of Galilee and Perea.{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|p=172}}{{sfn|Majerník|Ponessa|Manhardt|2005|p=181}} Pilate sends Jesus to Herod to be tried,{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=120–21}} but Jesus says almost nothing in response to Herod's questions. Herod and his soldiers mock Jesus, put an expensive robe on him to make him look like a king, and return him to Pilate,{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|p=172}} who then calls together the Jewish elders and announces that he has "not found this man guilty".{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=120–21}} [239] => [240] => Observing a [[Passover]] custom of the time, Pilate allows one prisoner chosen by the crowd to be released. He gives the people a choice between Jesus and a murderer called [[Barabbas]] ({{lang|he| [[wikt:בר-אבא|בר-אבא]]}} or ''Bar-abbâ'', "son of the father", from the common given name ''[[Abba (given name)|Abba]]'': 'father').{{sfn|Evans|2012b|p=453}} Persuaded by the elders,[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Matthew#27:20|Matthew 27:20]]. the mob chooses to release Barabbas and crucify Jesus.{{sfn|Blomberg|2009| pp=400–01}} Pilate writes a sign in Hebrew, Latin, and Greek that reads "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews" (abbreviated as [[INRI]] in depictions) to be affixed to Jesus' cross,[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/John#19:19|John 19:19–20]].{{sfn|Brown|1988|p=93}} then [[Flagellation of Christ|scourges Jesus]] and sends him to be crucified. The soldiers place a [[crown of thorns]] on Jesus' head and ridicule him as the King of the Jews. They beat and taunt him before taking him to [[Calvary]],{{cite book|title=The Passion of Jesus in the Gospel of Matthew|first= Donald |last=Senior |year=1985| isbn= 978-0-8146-5460-6 |publisher=Liturgical Press |page= 124}} also called Golgotha, for crucifixion.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=487–500}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|p=402}} [241] => [242] => ====Crucifixion and entombment==== [243] => {{Main|Crucifixion of Jesus|Burial of Jesus}} [244] => {{See also|Sayings of Jesus on the cross|Crucifixion darkness}} [245] => [[File:Pietro Perugino 040.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|[[Pietro Perugino]]'s depiction of the [[Crucifixion of Jesus|Crucifixion]] as ''[[Stabat Mater (art)|Stabat Mater]]'', 1482|alt=A depiction of Jesus on the cross]] [246] => Jesus' crucifixion is described in all four canonical gospels. After the trials, Jesus is led to Calvary [[Christ Carrying the Cross|carrying his cross]]; the route traditionally thought to have been taken is known as the [[Via Dolorosa]]. The three Synoptic Gospels indicate that [[Simon of Cyrene]] assists him, having been compelled by the Romans to do so.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=211–14}} In Luke 23:27–28, Jesus tells the women in the multitude of people following him not to weep for him but for themselves and their children.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}} At [[Calvary]], Jesus is offered a sponge soaked in a concoction usually offered as a [[Analgesic|painkiller]]. According to Matthew and Mark, he refuses it.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=211–14}} [247] => [248] => The soldiers then crucify Jesus and [[Sortes (ancient Rome)|cast lots]] for his clothes. Above Jesus' head on the cross is Pilate's inscription, "Jesus of Nazareth, the King of the Jews". Soldiers and passersby [[Mocking of Jesus|mock]] him about it. Two convicted thieves are crucified along with Jesus. In Matthew and Mark, both thieves mock Jesus. In Luke, [[Impenitent thief|one of them]] rebukes Jesus, while [[Penitent thief|the other]] defends him.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}}{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=271}}{{sfn|Ehrman|2009|page=[https://archive.org/details/jesusinterrupted00ehrm_0/page/82 82]}} Jesus tells the latter: "today you will be with me in Paradise".Luke 23:43. The four gospels mention the presence of [[Women at the crucifixion|a group of female disciples of Jesus]] at the crucifixion. In John, Jesus sees his mother [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] and the [[beloved disciple]] and tells him to take care of her.John 19:26–27. [249] => [250] => In John 19:33–34, Roman soldiers break the two thieves' legs to hasten their death, but not those of Jesus, as he is already dead. Instead, [[Longinus|one soldier]] pierces Jesus' side with a [[Holy Lance|lance]], and [[Five Holy Wounds|blood and water]] flow out.{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p= 271}} The Synoptics report a [[Crucifixion darkness|period of darkness]], and the heavy curtain in the Temple is torn when Jesus dies. In Matthew 27:51–54, an earthquake breaks open tombs. In Matthew and Mark, terrified by the events, a Roman [[centurion]] states that Jesus was the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]].{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=213–14}} [251] => [252] => On the same day, [[Joseph of Arimathea]], with Pilate's permission and with [[Nicodemus]]'s help, [[Descent from the Cross|removes Jesus' body from the cross]], wraps him in a clean cloth, and buries him in his new [[Sepulchre|rock-hewn tomb]].{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}} In Matthew 27:62–66, on the following day the chief Jewish priests ask Pilate for the tomb to be secured, and with Pilate's permission the priests place seals on the large stone covering the entrance.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=509–20}}{{sfn|Morris|1992|page=727}} [253] => [254] => ===Resurrection and ascension=== [255] => {{Main|Resurrection of Jesus|Empty tomb|Ascension of Jesus}} [256] => {{Further|Overview of resurrection appearances in the Gospels and Paul}} [257] => {{See also|Resurrection of Jesus in Christian art|Ascension of Jesus in Christian art}} [258] => [259] => [[File:Alexander Ivanov - Christ's Appearance to Mary Magdalene after the Resurrection - Google Art Project.jpg|right|thumb|upright=1.2|alt=Jesus appearing to Mary Magdalene after his [[Resurrection of Jesus|resurrection from the dead]], depicted by [[Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov]].|''Appearance of Jesus Christ to Maria Magdalena'' by [[Alexander Andreyevich Ivanov]], 1835]] [260] => [261] => The Gospels do not describe the moment of the [[resurrection of Jesus]]. They describe the discovery of his [[empty tomb]] and several appearances of Jesus, with distinct differences in each narrative.{{Cite book |last=Vermes |first=Geza |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1PYcnn9WxVcC |title=The Resurrection |publisher=Penguin |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-14-191263-9 |place=London, England |page=141 |language=en-uk |access-date=30 March 2023 |archive-date=9 March 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309231513/https://books.google.com/books?id=1PYcnn9WxVcC |url-status=live }} [262] => [263] => In the four Gospels, [[Mary Magdalene]] goes to the tomb on Sunday morning, alone or with one or several [[Myrrhbearers|other women]].{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp= 308–09}} The tomb is empty, with the stone rolled away, and there are one or two angels, depending on the accounts. In the Synoptics, the women are told that Jesus is not here and that he is risen.{{bibleref2|Mark|16:5–6}}, {{bibleref2|Matthew|28:5–6}}, and {{bibleref2|Luke|24:4–6}}. In Mark and Matthew, the angel also instructs them to tell the disciples to meet Jesus in Galilee.{{bibleref2|Mark|16:7}}, {{bibleref2|Matthew|28:7}}. In Luke, [[Saint Peter|Peter]] visits the tomb after he is told it is empty.{{bibleref2|Luke|24:12}}. In John, he goes there with the [[beloved disciple]].{{bibleref2|John|20:2–8}}. Matthew mentions Roman guards at the tomb,{{bibleref2|Matthew|28:7}}. who report to the priests of Jerusalem what happened. The priests bribe them to say that the disciples [[Stolen body hypothesis|stole Jesus' body]] during the night.{{bibleref2|Matthew|28:11–15}}. [264] => [265] => The four Gospels then describe various appearances of Jesus in his resurrected body. Jesus first reveals himself to Mary Magdalene in Mark 16:9 and John 20:14–17,{{bibleref2|Mark|16:9}}, {{bibleref2|John|20:14–17}}. along with "the other Mary" in Matthew 28:9,{{bibleref2|Matthew|28:9–10}}. while in Luke the first reported appearance is to [[Road to Emmaus appearance|two disciples]] heading to [[Emmaus]].{{bibleref2|Luke|24:13–31}}. Jesus then reveals himself to the eleven disciples, in Jerusalem or in Galilee.{{bibleref2|Mark|16:14}}, {{bibleref2|Matthew|28:16–17}}, and {{bibleref2|John|20:19–23}}. In Luke 24:36–43, he eats and shows them his [[Five Holy Wounds|tangible wounds]] to prove that he is not a spirit.{{bibleref2|Luke|24:36–43}}. He also shows them to [[Thomas the Apostle|Thomas]] to end [[doubting Thomas|his doubts]], in John 20:24–29.{{bibleref2|John|20:24–29}}. In the Synoptics, Jesus [[Great Commission|commissions the disciples]] to spread the gospel message to all nations,{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=272–85}}{{sfn|Harris|1985|pp=297–301}} while in [[John 21]], he [[Restoration of Peter|tells Peter]] to take care of his sheep.{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–30}}{{sfn|Cox|Easley|2007|pp=216–26}} [266] => [267] => Jesus' [[Entering Heaven alive|ascension into Heaven]] is described in Luke 24:50–53, Acts 1:1–11 and mentioned in 1 Timothy 3:16. In the [[Acts of the Apostles]], forty days after the Resurrection, as the disciples look on, "he was lifted up, and a cloud took him out of their sight". 1 Peter 3:22 states that Jesus has "gone into heaven and is at the right hand of God".{{sfn|Evans|2003|pp=521–30}} [268] => [269] => The Acts of the Apostles describes several appearances of Jesus after his Ascension. In Acts 7:55, [[Saint Stephen|Stephen]] gazes into heaven and sees "Jesus standing at the right hand of God" just before his death.{{cite book |last=Bruce |first=Frederick F. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2lN0ibbLOHEC&pg=PA210 |title=The Acts of the Apostles |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |year=1990 |isbn=978-0-8028-0966-7 |page=210 |language=en |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222000/https://books.google.com/books?id=2lN0ibbLOHEC&pg=PA210 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}} On the road to [[Damascus]], the Apostle [[Conversion of Paul the Apostle|Paul is converted]] to Christianity after seeing a blinding light and hearing a voice saying, "I am Jesus, whom you are persecuting."[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/Acts#9:5|Acts 9:5]]. In Acts 9:10–18, Jesus instructs [[Ananias of Damascus]] in a vision to heal Paul.{{cite book |last1=Johnson |first1=Luke T. |title=The Acts of the Apostles |last2=Harrington |first2=Daniel J. |publisher=Liturgical Press |year=1992 |isbn=978-0-8146-5807-9 |pages=164–167 |language=en}} The [[Book of Revelation]] includes a revelation from Jesus concerning the [[Christian eschatology|last days of Earth]].{{CathEncy |wstitle=Apocalypse |last=Van den Biesen |first= Christian}} [270] => {{clear}} [271] => [272] => ==Early Christianity== [273] => {{Main|Early Christianity}} [274] => [[File:Good shepherd 02b close.jpg|thumb|A 3rd-century depiction of Jesus as the [[Good Shepherd]]|upright=.8]] [275] => After Jesus' life, his followers, as described in the first chapters of the [[Acts of the Apostles]], were all Jews either by birth or [[conversion to Judaism|conversion]], for which the biblical term "[[proselyte]]" is used,[http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12481c.htm Catholic Encyclopedia: Proselyte] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170610204154/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/12481c.htm |date=10 June 2017 }}: "The English term 'proselyte' occurs only in the New Testament where it signifies a convert to the Jewish religion ({{bibleverse||Matthew|23:15|NAB}}; {{bibleverse||Acts|2:11|NAB}}; {{bibleverse-nb||Acts|6:5|NAB}}; etc.), though the same Greek word is commonly used in the [[Septuagint]] to designate a foreigner living in Palestine. Thus the term seems to have passed from an original local and chiefly political sense, in which it was used as early as 300 BC, to a technical and religious meaning in the Judaism of the [[Apostolic Age|New Testament epoch]]." and referred to by historians as [[Jewish Christian]]s. The early Gospel message was spread [[oral gospel traditions|orally]], probably in [[Aramaic language|Aramaic]],{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|pp=87–90}} but almost immediately also in [[Koine Greek|Greek]].{{cite book |last1=Jaeger |first1=Werner |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kYfAUnFMhPMC&pg=PA108 |title=Early Christianity and Greek Paideia |date=1961 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-22052-2 |pages=6, 108–109 |language=en |access-date=26 February 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191217042345/https://books.google.com/books?id=kYfAUnFMhPMC&pg=PA108 |archive-date=17 December 2019 |url-status=live}} The [[New Testament]]'s Acts of the Apostles and [[Epistle to the Galatians]] record that the first Christian community was [[First Christian church|centered in Jerusalem]] and its leaders included [[Saint Peter|Peter]], [[James (brother of Jesus)|James, the brother of Jesus]], and [[John the Apostle]].{{bibleverse||Galatians|2:9|NIV}}, {{bibleverse||Acts|1:13|NIV}}; See [[Historical reliability of the Acts of the Apostles]] for details. [276] => [277] => After [[conversion of Paul the Apostle|his conversion]], [[Paul the Apostle]] spread the teachings of Jesus to various [[Gentiles|non-Jewish]] communities throughout the eastern Mediterranean region. Paul's influence on Christian thinking is said to be more significant than that of any other [[authorship of the New Testament|New Testament author]].{{cite book |title=The Oxford dictionary of the Christian Church |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-280290-3 |editor1-last=Cross |editor1-first=F. L. |edition=3rd rev. |location=Oxford, England |language=en |chapter=Paul}} By the end of the [[Christianity in the 1st century|1st century]], Christianity began to be recognized internally and externally as a [[split of early Christianity and Judaism|separate religion from Judaism]] which itself was refined and developed further in the centuries after the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70 CE)|destruction]] of the [[Second Temple]].Cohen, Shaye J.D. (1988). ''From the Maccabees to the Mishnah,'' {{ISBN|978-0-664-25017-1}}, pp. 224–225. [278] => [279] => Numerous quotations in the New Testament and other Christian writings of the first centuries, indicate that early Christians generally used and revered the [[Hebrew Bible]] (the [[Tanakh]]) as [[religious text]], mostly in the Greek ([[Septuagint]]) or Aramaic ([[Targum]]) translations.{{cite book|last1=Fee|first1=Gordon|author-link1=Gordon Fee|last2=Stuart|first2=Douglas|author-link2=Douglas Stuart (biblical scholar)|title=How to Read the Bible for All Its Worth: Fourth Edition|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sGBtAgAAQBAJ|year=2014|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=978-0-310-51783-2|access-date=1 May 2018|archive-date=26 June 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190626225710/https://books.google.com/books?id=sGBtAgAAQBAJ|url-status=live}} [280] => [281] => Early Christians wrote many religious works, including the ones included in the [[canon of the New Testament]]. The canonical texts, which have become the main sources used by historians to try to understand the historical Jesus and sacred texts within Christianity, were probably written between 50 and 120 AD.{{cite book |author=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-19-508481-8 |page=8 |quote=The New Testament contains twenty-seven books, written in Greek, by fifteen or sixteen different authors, who were addressing other Christian individuals or communities between the years 50 and 120 C.E. (see box 1.4). As we will see, it is difficult to know whether any of these books was written by Jesus' own disciples. |access-date=1 May 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416082406/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ |archive-date=16 April 2019 |url-status=live}} [282] => [283] => ==Historical views== [284] => {{Main|Historical Jesus|Quest for the historical Jesus|Scholarly interpretation of Gospel elements}} [285] => {{See also|Biblical criticism}} [286] => Prior to the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]], the Gospels were usually regarded as accurate historical accounts, but since then scholars have emerged who question the reliability of the Gospels and draw a distinction between the Jesus described in the Gospels and the Jesus of history.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=5}} Since the 18th century, three separate scholarly quests for the historical Jesus have taken place, each with distinct characteristics and based on different research criteria, which were often developed during the quest that applied them.{{sfn|Witherington|1997|p=113}}{{sfn|Powell|1998|pp=19–23}} While there is widespread scholarly agreement on the existence of Jesus,{{efn|name=exist}} and a basic consensus on the general outline of his life,{{efn|[[Amy-Jill Levine]] writes: "There is a consensus of sorts on a basic outline of Jesus' life. Most scholars agree that Jesus was baptized by John, debated with fellow Jews on how best to live according to God's will, engaged in healings and exorcisms, taught in parables, gathered male and female followers in Galilee, went to Jerusalem, and was crucified by Roman soldiers during the governorship of Pontius Pilate"[[Amy-Jill Levine]] in ''The Historical Jesus in Context'' edited by Amy-Jill Levine et al. Princeton University Press {{ISBN|978-0-691-00992-6}} p. 4}} the portraits of Jesus constructed by various scholars often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the gospel accounts.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|p=5}}James H. Charlesworth, Petr Pokomy (15 September 2009)''. Jesus Research: An International Perspective (Princeton-Prague Symposia Series on the Historical Jesus),'' {{ISBN|978-0-8028-6353-9}}, pp. 1–2. [287] => [288] => Approaches to the historical reconstruction of the life of Jesus have varied from the "maximalist" approaches of the 19th century, in which the gospel accounts were accepted as reliable evidence wherever it is possible, to the "minimalist" approaches of the early 20th century, where hardly anything about Jesus was accepted as historical.{{sfn|Keener|2012|p=163}} In the 1950s, as the second quest for the historical Jesus gathered pace, the minimalist approaches faded away, and in the 21st century, minimalists such as [[Robert M. Price|Price]] are a small minority.{{sfn|Chilton|Evans|1998|p= 27}}{{sfn|Evans|2012a|pp=4–5}} Although a belief in the [[Biblical inerrancy|inerrancy]] of the Gospels cannot be supported historically, many scholars since the 1980s have held that, beyond the few facts considered to be historically certain, certain other elements of Jesus' life are "historically probable".{{sfn|Chilton|Evans|1998|p= 27}}{{cite book|title= Jesus in Contemporary Scholarship|first= Marcus J.|last= Borg|year= 1994|isbn= 978-1-56338-094-5|publisher= Continuum|pages= [https://archive.org/details/jesusincontempor00borg/page/4 4–6]|url=https://archive.org/details/jesusincontempor00borg/page/4}}{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|pp=142–143}} Modern scholarly research on the historical Jesus thus focuses on identifying the most probable elements.{{cite book|title= John, Jesus, and History, Volume 1: Critical Appraisals of Critical Views|first1= Paul N.|last1= Anderson|first2= Felix|last2= Just|first3= Tom|last3= Thatcher|year= 2007|isbn= 978-1-58983-293-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC|publisher= Society of Biblical Lit|page= 131|access-date= 14 August 2015|archive-date= 18 April 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170418011840/https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC|url-status= live}}{{sfn|Meier|2006|p=124}} [289] => [290] => ===Judea and Galilee in the 1st century=== [291] => [[File:The Ministry of Jesus.svg|thumb|upright=1.4|[[Judea]], [[Galilee]] and neighbouring areas at the time of Jesus|alt=Topographical map of Palestine in the First Century highlighting places mentioned in the canonical gospels.]] [292] => In AD 6, [[Judea]], [[Edom|Idumea]], and [[Samaria]] were transformed from a [[Herodian dynasty|Herodian]] client kingdom of the [[Roman Empire]] into an imperial province, also called [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]]. A Roman [[prefect]], rather than a client king, ruled the land. The prefect ruled from [[Caesarea Maritima]], leaving [[Jerusalem]] to be run by the [[List of High Priests of Israel|High Priest of Israel]]. As an exception, the prefect came to Jerusalem during religious festivals, when religious and patriotic enthusiasm sometimes inspired unrest or uprisings. Gentile lands surrounded the Jewish territories of Judea and [[Galilee]], but Roman law and practice allowed Jews to remain separate legally and culturally. Galilee was evidently prosperous, and poverty was limited enough that it did not threaten the social order. [293] => [294] => This was the era of [[Hellenistic Judaism]], which combined [[Judaism|Jewish religious tradition]] with elements of [[Hellenistic]] Greek culture. Until the [[fall of the Western Roman Empire]] and the [[Early Muslim conquests|Muslim conquests]] of the Eastern Mediterranean, the main centers of Hellenistic Judaism were [[Alexandria]] (Egypt) and [[Antioch]] (now Southern Turkey), the two main [[Greek colonies|Greek urban settlements]] of the [[MENA|Middle East and North Africa]] area, both founded at the end of the 4th century BC in the wake of the conquests of [[Alexander the Great]]. Hellenistic Judaism also existed in [[Jerusalem during the Second Temple Period]], where there was conflict between [[Hellenizers]] and traditionalists (sometimes called [[Judaizers]]). The [[Hebrew Bible]] was translated from [[Biblical Hebrew]] and [[Biblical Aramaic]] into [[Jewish Koine Greek]]; the [[Targum]] translations into Aramaic were also generated during this era, both due to the decline of knowledge of Hebrew.{{cite book |last1=Barr |first1=James |title=The Cambridge history of Judaism. Volume 2: The Hellenistic Age |date=1989 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-05512-3 |editor1-last=Davies |editor1-first=W. D. |edition=1. publ. |location=Cambridge |pages=79–114 |language=en |chapter=Chapter 3 – Hebrew, Aramaic and Greek in the Hellenistic age |editor2-last=Finkelstein |editor2-first=Louis}} [295] => [296] => Jews based their faith and religious practice on the [[Torah]], five books said to have been given by God to [[Moses]]. The three prominent religious parties were the [[Pharisees]], the [[Essenes]], and the [[Sadducees]]. Together these parties represented only a small fraction of the population. Most Jews looked forward to a time that God would deliver them from their pagan rulers, possibly through war against the Romans. [297] => [298] => ===Sources=== [299] => {{Main|Sources for the historicity of Jesus}} [300] => {{See also|Josephus on Jesus|Tacitus on Christ}} [301] => [[File:WorksJosephus1640TP.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|A 1640 edition of the works of Josephus, a 1st-century [[Roman Jews|Roman-Jewish]] historian who referred to Jesus{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=431–36}}]] [302] => [303] => New Testament scholars face a formidable challenge when they analyse the canonical Gospels.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} The Gospels are not biographies in the modern sense, and the authors explain Jesus' theological significance and recount his public ministry while omitting many details of his life.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} [304] => [305] => The reports of supernatural events associated with Jesus' death and resurrection make the challenge even more difficult.{{sfn|Harris|1985|p=263}} [306] => Scholars regard the Gospels as compromised sources of information because the writers were trying to glorify Jesus.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} [307] => Even so, the sources for Jesus' life are better than sources scholars have for the life of [[Alexander the Great]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=3}} [308] => [309] => Scholars use a number of criteria, such as the [[criterion of multiple attestation|criterion of independent attestation]], the [[Biblical criticism#Coherence|criterion of coherence]], and the [[criterion of discontinuity]] to judge the historicity of events.{{sfn|Rausch|2003|pp=36–37}} The historicity of an event also depends on the reliability of the source; indeed, the Gospels are not independent nor consistent records of Jesus' life. Mark, which is most likely the earliest written gospel, has been considered for many decades the most historically accurate.{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Paul N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |title=John, Jesus, and History |last2=Just |first2=Felix |last3=Thatcher |first3=Tom |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-58983-293-0 |volume=2 |page=291 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170334/https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |url-status=live}} John, the latest written gospel, differs considerably from the Synoptic Gospels, and thus is generally considered less reliable, although more and more scholars now also recognize that it may contain a core of older material as historically valuable as the Synoptic tradition or even more so.{{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Paul N. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |title=John, Jesus, and History |last2=Just |first2=Felix |last3=Thatcher |first3=Tom |publisher=Society of Biblical Literature |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-58983-293-0 |volume=2 |page=292 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170334/https://books.google.com/books?id=ryybidJYMAQC&pg=PA291 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |url-status=live}} [310] => [311] => Some scholars (most notably the [[Jesus Seminar]]) believe that the non-canonical [[Gospel of Thomas]] might be an independent witness to many of Jesus' parables and aphorisms. For example, Thomas confirms that Jesus blessed the poor and that this saying circulated independently before being combined with similar sayings in the [[Q source]].{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|pp=471–532}} However, the majority of scholars are sceptical about this text and believe it should be dated to the 2nd century AD.{{Cite book|last=Casey|first=Maurice|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC|title=Jesus of Nazareth: An Independent Historian's Account of His Life and Teaching|date=30 December 2010|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-0-567-64517-3|language=en|access-date=18 May 2021|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232056/https://books.google.com/books?id=lXK0auknD0YC|url-status=live}}{{Cite book|last=Ehrman|first=Bart D.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ|title=The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings|date=1997|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-508481-8|language=en|access-date=1 May 2018|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309231638/https://books.google.com/books?id=xpoNAQAAMAAJ|url-status=live}} [312] => [313] => Other select non-canonical Christian texts may also have value for historical Jesus research.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}} [314] => [315] => Early non-Christian sources that attest to the historical existence of Jesus include the works of the historians [[Josephus]] and [[Tacitus]].{{efn|Tuckett writes: "All this does at least render highly implausible any far-fetched theories that even Jesus' very existence was a Christian invention. The fact that Jesus existed, that he was crucified under Pontius Pilate (for whatever reason) and that he had a band of followers who continued to support his cause, seems to be part of the bedrock of historical tradition. If nothing else, the non-Christian evidence can provide us with certainty on that score."{{cite encyclopedia|editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first= Markus N.A. |title=Sources and methods |first=Christopher |last=Tuckett |year=2001|encyclopedia= Cambridge Companion to Jesus|publisher= Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-79678-1|pages=123–24}}}}{{sfn|Blomberg|2009|pp=431–36}}{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000|pp=39–53}} Josephus scholar [[Louis Feldman]] has stated that "few have doubted the genuineness" of Josephus's reference to Jesus in [[s:The Antiquities of the Jews/Book XX#Chapter 9|book 20]] of the ''[[Antiquities of the Jews]]'', and it is disputed only by a small number of scholars.{{sfn|Van Voorst|2000| p= 83}}{{cite book|last= Maier|first= Paul L.|year= 1995|title= Josephus, the essential works: a condensation of Jewish antiquities and The Jewish war|isbn= 978-0-8254-3260-6|page= 285|publisher= Kregel Academic|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=c2Tu1Yp3n0EC&pg=PA285|access-date= 14 August 2015|archive-date= 7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907111405/https://books.google.com/books?id=c2Tu1Yp3n0EC&pg=PA285|url-status= live}} Tacitus referred to Christ and his execution by Pilate in [[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|book 15]] of his work ''[[Annals (Tacitus)|Annals]]''. Scholars generally consider Tacitus's reference to the execution of Jesus to be both authentic and of historical value as an independent Roman source.{{cite book|title=Jesus and His Contemporaries: Comparative Studies|first=Craig A.|last=Evans|year=2001|isbn=978-0-391-04118-9|page=42|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DRcQ2bkLxc8C&pg=PA42|publisher=Brill|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=10 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910175221/https://books.google.com/books?id=DRcQ2bkLxc8C&pg=PA42|url-status=live}} [316] => [317] => Non-Christian sources are valuable in two ways. First, they show that even neutral or hostile parties never show any doubt that Jesus actually existed. Second, they present a rough picture of Jesus that is compatible with that found in the Christian sources: that Jesus was a teacher, had a reputation as a miracle worker, had a brother James, and died a violent death.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998}} [318] => [319] => Archaeology helps scholars better understand Jesus' social world.{{sfn|Reed|2002|p=18}} Recent archaeological work, for example, indicates that [[Capernaum]], a city important in Jesus' ministry, was poor and small, without even a [[Forum (Roman)|forum]] or an [[agora]].{{cite book |title=What are they saying about the historical Jesus?|first=David B. |last=Gowler |year=2007| isbn= 978-0-8091-4445-7|publisher=Paulist Press| page= 102}}{{cite encyclopedia |encyclopedia=Jesus and archaeology |editor-first=James H. |editor-last=Charlesworth |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8028-4880-2 |page=127 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA127 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |title=Archived copy |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907182047/https://books.google.com/books?id=QoIS7VApH6cC&pg=PA127 |url-status=live }} This archaeological discovery resonates well with the scholarly view that Jesus advocated reciprocal sharing among the destitute in that area of Galilee. [320] => [321] => ===Chronology=== [322] => {{Main|Chronology of Jesus}} [323] => {{See also|Anno Domini{{!}}''Anno Domini''|Saturnalia#Influence}} [324] => {{Jewish Christianity}} [325] => Jesus was a Galilean Jew,{{sfn|Vermes|1981|pp=20, 26, 27, 29}} born around the beginning of the 1st century, who died in 30 or 33 AD in [[Judea (Roman province)|Judea]].{{sfn|Humphreys|Waddington|1992|p=340}} The general scholarly consensus is that Jesus was a contemporary of [[John the Baptist]] and was crucified as ordered by the Roman governor [[Pontius Pilate]],{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} who held office from 26 to 36 AD.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} [326] => [327] => The Gospels offer several indications concerning the year of Jesus' birth. Matthew 2:1 associates the birth of Jesus with the reign of [[Herod the Great]], who died around 4 BC, and Luke 1:5 mentions that Herod was on the throne shortly before the birth of Jesus,{{sfn|Maier|1989|pp=115–18}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=121–22}} although this gospel also associates the birth with the [[Census of Quirinius]] which took place ten years later.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=137–38}}{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=122–24}} Luke 3:23 states that Jesus was "about thirty years old" at the start of his [[ministry of Jesus|ministry]], which according to Acts 10:37–38 was preceded by John the Baptist's ministry, which was recorded in Luke 3:1–2 to have begun in the 15th year of [[Tiberius]]'s reign (28 or 29 AD).{{sfn|Niswonger|1992|pp=121–22}}{{cite book | first = Géza | last = Vermes | title = The Nativity: History and Legend | publisher = Random House Digital | year = 2010 | pages = 81–82 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a9EiEU_Yz_kC&pg=PA81 | isbn = 978-0-307-49918-9 | access-date = 25 January 2016 | archive-date = 3 May 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503100006/https://books.google.com/books?id=a9EiEU_Yz_kC&pg=PA81 | url-status = live }} By collating the gospel accounts with historical data and using various other methods, most scholars arrive at a date of birth for Jesus between 6 and 4 BC,{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=324}} but some propose estimates that include a wider range.{{efn|For example, John P. Meier states that Jesus' birth year is ''c.'' 7/6 BC,{{sfn|Meier|1991|p=407}} while Finegan favours ''c.'' 3/2 BC.{{harvnb|Finegan|1998|page=[https://archive.org/details/handbookbiblical00fine/page/n350 319]}}}} [328] => [329] => The date range for Jesus' ministry has been estimated using several different approaches.{{sfn|Köstenberger |Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=140}}{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=249}} One of these applies the reference in Luke 3:1–2, Acts 10:37–38, and the dates of Tiberius's reign, which are well known, to give a date of around 28–29 AD for the start of Jesus' ministry.{{sfn|Maier|1989|pp=120–21}} Another approach estimates a date around 27–29 AD by using the statement about the temple in John 2:13–20, which asserts that the [[Second Temple|temple in Jerusalem]] was in its 46th year of construction at the start of Jesus' ministry, together with Josephus's statement{{Citation |last=Josephus |title=Book XV |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV |work=The Antiquities of the Jews |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=24 July 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230724214731/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/The_Antiquities_of_the_Jews/Book_XV |url-status=live }}. that the temple's reconstruction was started by Herod the Great in the 18th year of his reign.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|p=140}}{{sfn|Maier|1989|p=123}} A further method uses the date of the [[Beheading of St. John the Baptist|death of John the Baptist]] and the marriage of [[Herod Antipas]] to [[Herodias]], based on the writings of Josephus, and correlates it with Matthew 14:4 and Mark 6:18.{{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=Josephus on John the Baptist |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Context |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wMbEyeDSQQgC&pg=PA55 |access-date=25 January 2016 |last=Evans |first=Craig |editor-last1=Levine |editor-first=Amy-Jill |publication-place=Princeton, New Jersey, USA |pages=55–58 |isbn=978-0-691-00992-6 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503120729/https://books.google.com/books?id=wMbEyeDSQQgC&pg=PA55 |archive-date=3 May 2016 |editor-last2=Allison |editor-first3=John D. |editor-last3=Crossan |editor2-first=Dale C. |url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=Herodias: at home in that fox's den|first= Florence M.|last= Gillman |year=2003| isbn= 978-0-8146-5108-7| pages=25–30 |publisher= Liturgical Press}} Given that most scholars date the marriage of Herod and Herodias as AD 28–35, this yields a date about 28–29 AD.{{sfn|Freedman|2000|p=249}} [330] => [331] => A number of approaches have been used to estimate the year of the crucifixion of Jesus. Most scholars agree that he died in 30 or 33 AD.{{sfn|Humphreys|Waddington |1992|p=340}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles |2009|p=398}} The Gospels state that the event occurred during the prefecture of Pilate, the Roman governor of Judea from 26 to 36 AD.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=81–83}}{{cite book |last=Green |first=Joel B. |title=The gospel of Luke: New International Commentary on the New Testament Series |year=1997 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-2315-1 |page=168 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-date=25 April 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200425204312/https://books.google.com/books?id=wzRVN2S8cVgC |url-status=live }}{{sfn|Carter|2003|pp=44–45}} The date for the [[conversion of Paul]] (estimated to be 33–36 AD) acts as an upper bound for the date of Crucifixion. The dates for Paul's conversion and ministry can be determined by analysing the [[Pauline epistles]] and the [[Acts of the Apostles]].{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum |Quarles |2009|pp=398–400}}{{cite book|first=Paul|last=Barnett|title=Jesus & the Rise of Early Christianity: A History of New Testament Times|year=2002|isbn=978-0-8308-2699-5|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC&pg=PA21|publisher=InterVarsity Press|page=21|access-date=25 January 2016|archive-date=3 May 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160503144441/https://books.google.com/books?id=NlFYY_iVt9cC&pg=PA21|url-status=live}} Astronomers have tried to estimate the precise date of the Crucifixion by analysing lunar motion and calculating historic dates of [[Passover]], a festival based on the lunisolar [[Hebrew calendar]]. The most widely accepted dates derived from this method are 7 April 30 AD, and 3 April 33 AD (both [[Julian calendar|Julian]]).{{cite journal |last=Pratt |first=J. P. |year=1991 |title=Newton's Date for the Crucifixion |url=http://www.johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html |url-status=live |journal=Journal of the Royal Astronomical Society |volume=32 |pages=301–304 |bibcode=1991QJRAS..32..301P |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100116085454/http://johnpratt.com/items/docs/newton.html |archive-date=16 January 2010 |access-date=17 May 2013}} [332] => [333] => ===Historicity of events=== [334] => {{Main|Historicity of Jesus}} [335] => {{See also|Cultural and historical background of Jesus|History of the Jews in the Roman Empire|Historical criticism|Textual criticism|Historical reliability of the Gospels}} [336] => {{multiple image [337] => | footer = Roman senator and historian [[Tacitus]] (pictured left) mentioned the execution of "Christus" (Jesus) by Pilate in a passage describing the [[Great Fire of Rome]] and [[Nero]]'s persecution of Christians in the ''[[s:The Annals (Tacitus)/Book 15#44|Annals]]'', a history of the Roman Empire during the 1st century. [338] => | align = right [339] => | image1 = Wien- Parlament-Tacitus.jpg [340] => | width1 = 150 [341] => | caption1 = [342] => | alt1=A white statue of a man [343] => | image2 = MII.png [344] => | width2 = 152 [345] => | caption2 = [346] => | alt2=An apparently old document [347] => }} [348] => Nearly all historians (both modern and historical) agree that Jesus was a real person who historically existed.{{efn|name=exist}} Scholars have reached a limited consensus on the basics of Jesus' life.{{cite book |title=Scripting Jesus: The Gospels in Rewrite |first=L. Michael |last=White |year=2010 |publisher=HarperOne}} [349] => [350] => ====Family==== [351] => {{See also|Brothers of Jesus}} [352] => Many scholars agree that Joseph, Jesus' father, died before Jesus began his ministry. Joseph is not mentioned in the Gospels during Jesus' ministry. Joseph's death would explain why in Mark 6:3, Jesus' neighbours refer to Jesus as the "son of Mary" (sons were usually identified by their fathers).{{sfn|Brown|1978|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ML1mnUBwmhcC&pg=PA64 64]}} [353] => [354] => According to Theissen and Merz, it is common for extraordinary [[Charismatic authority|charismatic leaders]], such as Jesus, to come into conflict with their ordinary families.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=194}} In Mark, Jesus' family comes to get him, fearing that he is mad (Mark 3:20–34), and this account is thought to be historical because early Christians would likely not have invented it.{{cite book |author-link=Robert W. Funk |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2-link=Jesus Seminar |author2=The Jesus Seminar |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1998 |chapter=Mark |pages=51–161}} After Jesus' death, many members of his family joined the Christian movement.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=194}} Jesus' brother [[James, brother of Jesus|James]] became a leader of the Jerusalem Church.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=James, St.}} [355] => [356] => [[Géza Vermes]] says that the doctrine of the [[virgin birth of Jesus]] arose from theological development rather than from historical events.{{sfn|Vermes|1981|p=283}} [357] => Despite the widely held view that the authors of the Synoptic Gospels drew upon each other (the so-called [[synoptic problem]]), other scholars take it as significant that the virgin birth is [[criterion of multiple attestation|attested]] by two separate gospels, Matthew and Luke.Bromiley, Geoffrey (1995) ''International Standard Bible Encyclopedia'', Eerdmans Publishing, {{ISBN|978-0-8028-3784-4}}, p. 991.{{sfn|Keener|2009b|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8C2Y_HaL5W0C&pg=PA83 83]}}Donald A. Hagner, ''Matthew 1–13'' (Paternoster Press 1993 {{ISBN|978-0-8499-0232-1}}), pp. 14–15, cited in the preceding.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0PbBz6-XcssC&pg=PA761 |page=761 |title=Christian Theology |isbn=978-1-4412-0010-5 |last1=Erickson |first1=Millard J. |date=August 1998 |publisher=Baker Publishing |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913031951/https://books.google.com/books?id=0PbBz6-XcssC&pg=PA761 |url-status=live }}{{cite book |title=Christmas – Philosophy for Everyone: Better Than a Lump of Coal |first=Scott C. |last=Lowe |publisher=Wiley |date=20 September 2010 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2hYEngEACAAJ |page=28 |isbn=978-1-4443-3090-8 |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913014940/https://books.google.com/books?id=2hYEngEACAAJ |url-status=live }}{{cite book |last=Bruner |first=Frederick Dale |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=5jZlfg1yxIEC&pg=PA41 |title=Matthew a Commentary: The Christbook, Matthew 1–12, Volume 1 |date=30 April 2004 |publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing |isbn=978-0-8028-1118-9 |page=41 |language=en |author-link=F. Dale Bruner |access-date=4 July 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160913024157/https://books.google.com/books?id=5jZlfg1yxIEC&pg=PA41 |archive-date=13 September 2016 |url-status=live}} [358] => [359] => According to [[E. P. Sanders]], the [[Nativity of Jesus|birth narratives]] in the [[Gospel of Matthew]] and the [[Gospel of Luke]] are the clearest case of invention in the Gospel narratives of Jesus' life. Both accounts have Jesus born in [[Bethlehem]], in accordance with Jewish salvation history, and both have him growing up in Nazareth. But Sanders points out that the two Gospels report completely different and irreconcilable explanations for how that happened. Luke's account of a census in which everyone returned to their ancestral cities is not plausible. Matthew's account is more plausible, but the story reads as though it was invented to identify Jesus as like a new [[Moses]], and the historian [[Josephus]] reports Herod the Great's brutality without ever mentioning that [[Massacre of the Innocents|he massacred little boys]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=85–88}} The contradictions between the two Gospels were probably apparent to the early Christians already, since attempts to harmonize the two narratives are already present in the earlier apocryphal [[infancy gospels]] (the [[Infancy Gospel of Thomas]] and the [[Gospel of James]]), which are dated to the 2nd century AD.{{Cite book|last=Cousland|first=J. R. C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rMw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3|title=Holy Terror: Jesus in the Infancy Gospel of Thomas|date=16 November 2017|publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing|isbn=978-0-567-66817-2|language=en|access-date=17 May 2021|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232719/https://books.google.com/books?id=rMw6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3#v=onepage&q&f=false|url-status=live}}{{Cite book|last=Gambero|first=Luigi|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero,+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church|title=Mary and the Fathers of the Church: The Blessed Virgin Mary in Patristic Thought|date=1999|publisher=Ignatius Press|isbn=978-0-89870-686-4|language=en|access-date=17 May 2021|archive-date=9 March 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240309232541/https://books.google.com/books?id=dsZzsAtggnUC&q=L.+Gambero,+Mary+and+the+Fathers+of+the+Church#v=snippet&q=L.%20Gambero%2C%20Mary%20and%20the%20Fathers%20of%20the%20Church&f=false|url-status=live}} [360] => [361] => Sanders says that the genealogies of Jesus are based not on historical information but on the authors' desire to show that Jesus was the universal Jewish saviour.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}} In any event, once the doctrine of the virgin birth of Jesus became established, that tradition superseded the earlier tradition that he was descended from [[David]] through Joseph.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=196}} The [[Gospel of Luke]] reports that Jesus was a [[Consanguinity|blood relative]] of [[John the Baptist]], but scholars generally consider this connection to be invented.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=80–91}}{{cite book |author-link=Robert W. Funk |last=Funk |first=Robert W. |author2-link=Jesus Seminar |author2=The Jesus Seminar |title=The acts of Jesus: the search for the authentic deeds of Jesus |publisher=HarperSanFrancisco |year=1998 |chapter=Birth & Infancy Stories |pages=497–526}} [362] => [363] => ====Baptism==== [364] => [[File:ဗတ္တိဇံ.jpg|thumb|Baptism in the [[Jordan River]], the river where Jesus was baptized]] [365] => Most modern scholars consider Jesus' baptism to be a definite historical fact, along with his crucifixion.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}} Theologian [[James Dunn (theologian)|James D. G. Dunn]] states that they "command almost universal assent" and "rank so high on the 'almost impossible to doubt or deny' scale of historical facts" that they are often the starting points for the study of the historical Jesus.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}} Scholars adduce the [[criterion of embarrassment]], saying that early Christians would not have invented a baptism that might imply that Jesus committed [[sin]]s and wanted to [[Repentance|repent]].{{sfn|Powell|1998|p=47}}{{cite book|last=Murphy|first=Catherine|title=John the Baptist: Prophet of Purity for a New Age|year=2003|publisher=Liturgical Press|isbn=978-0-8146-5933-5|pages=29–30|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=so_G78SBXAoC&pg=PA29|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907065554/https://books.google.com/books?id=so_G78SBXAoC&pg=PA29|url-status=live}} According to Theissen and Merz, Jesus was inspired by [[John the Baptist]] and took over from him many elements of his teaching.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=235}} [366] => [367] => ====Ministry in Galilee==== [368] => Most scholars hold that Jesus lived in [[Galilee]] and [[Judea]] and did not preach or study elsewhere.{{cite encyclopedia |year=2006 |title=The Spirit-Filled Experience of Jesus |encyclopedia=The Historical Jesus in Recent Research |publisher=Eisenbrauns |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC&pg=PA303 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Borg |first=Marcus J. |editor-last1=Dunn |editor-first=James D. G. |page=303 |isbn=978-1-57506-100-9 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910073549/https://books.google.com/books?id=37uJRUF6btAC&pg=PA303 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |editor2-last=McKnight |editor2-first=Scot |url-status=live}} They agree that Jesus debated with Jewish authorities on the subject of God, performed some healings, taught in [[parable]]s and gathered followers.{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=4}} Jesus' Jewish critics considered his ministry to be scandalous because he feasted with sinners, fraternized with women, and allowed his followers to pluck grain on the Sabbath.{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=3}} According to Sanders, it is not plausible that disagreements over how to interpret the Law of Moses and the Sabbath would have led Jewish authorities to want Jesus killed.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=205–23}} [369] => [370] => According to Ehrman, Jesus taught that a coming kingdom was everyone's proper focus, not anything in this life.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=167–70}} He taught about the Jewish Law, seeking its true meaning, sometimes in opposition to traditions.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=164–67}} Jesus put love at the center of the Law, and following that Law was an apocalyptic necessity.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=164–67}} His ethical teachings called for forgiveness, not judging others, loving enemies, and caring for the poor.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=171–76}} Funk and Hoover note that typical of Jesus were [[paradox]]ical or surprising turns of phrase, such as advising one, when struck on the cheek, [[Turning the other cheek|to offer the other cheek]] to be struck as well.Luke 6:29.{{sfn|Funk|Hoover|The Jesus Seminar|1993|p=294}} [371] => [372] => The Gospels portray Jesus teaching in well-defined sessions, such as the [[Sermon on the Mount]] in the Gospel of Matthew or the parallel [[Sermon on the Plain]] in Luke. According to Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz, these teaching sessions include authentic teachings of Jesus, but the scenes were invented by the respective evangelists to frame these teachings, which had originally been recorded without context.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=17–62}} While Jesus' [[miracle]]s fit within the social context of [[Ancient history|antiquity]], he defined them differently. First, he attributed them to the faith of those healed. Second, he connected them to [[Eschatology|end times]] prophecy.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=310}} [373] => [374] => Jesus chose [[Apostles in the New Testament|twelve disciples]] (the "Twelve"),{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=10}} evidently as an [[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic]] message.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} All three Synoptics mention the Twelve, although the names on Luke's list vary from those in Mark and Matthew, suggesting that Christians were not certain who all the disciples were.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} The twelve disciples might have represented the twelve original [[Twelve Tribes of Israel|tribes of Israel]], which would be restored once God's rule was instituted.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} The disciples were reportedly meant to be the rulers of the tribes in the coming Kingdom.Matthew 19:28, Luke 22:30.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} According to Bart Ehrman, Jesus' promise that the Twelve would rule is historical, because the Twelve included [[Judas Iscariot]]. In Ehrman's view, no Christians would have invented a line from Jesus, promising rulership to the disciple who betrayed him.{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=186–87}} [375] => [376] => In Mark, the disciples play hardly any role other than a negative one. While others sometimes respond to Jesus with complete faith, his disciples are puzzled and doubtful.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=123–24}} They serve as a [[Foil (literature)|foil]] to Jesus and to other characters.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=123–24}} The failings of the disciples are probably exaggerated in Mark, and the disciples make a better showing in Matthew and Luke.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=123–24}} [377] => [378] => Sanders says that Jesus' mission was not about [[repentance]], although he acknowledges that this opinion is unpopular. He argues that repentance appears as a strong theme only in Luke, that repentance was [[John the Baptist]]'s message, and that Jesus' ministry would not have been scandalous if the sinners he ate with had been repentant.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=230–36}} According to Theissen and Merz, Jesus taught that God was generously giving people an opportunity to repent.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=336}} [379] => [380] => ====Role==== [381] => Jesus taught that an apocalyptic figure, the "[[Son of man (Christianity)|Son of Man]]", would soon come on clouds of glory to gather the elect, or chosen ones.Mark 13:24–27, Matthew 24:29–31, and Luke 21:25–28. He referred to himself as a "[[son of man]]" in the colloquial sense of "a person", but scholars do not know whether he also meant himself when he referred to the heavenly "Son of Man". [[Paul the Apostle]] and other early Christians interpreted the "Son of Man" as the risen Jesus. [382] => [383] => The Gospels refer to Jesus not only as a messiah but in the absolute form as "the Messiah" or, equivalently, "the Christ". In early Judaism, this absolute form of the title is not found, but only phrases such as "his messiah". The tradition is ambiguous enough to leave room for debate as to whether Jesus defined his [[Eschatology|eschatological]] role as that of the messiah.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Messiah}} The Jewish messianic tradition included many different forms, some of them focused on a messiah figure and others not.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=533–40}} Based on the Christian tradition, [[Gerd Theissen]] advances the hypothesis that Jesus saw himself in messianic terms but did not claim the title "Messiah".{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=533–40}} Bart Ehrman argues that Jesus did consider himself to be the messiah, albeit in the sense that he would be the king of the new political order that God would usher in,{{cite web|last=Ehrman|first=Bart|url=http://ehrmanblog.org/judas-and-the-messianic-secret/|title=Judas and the Messianic Secret|website=The Bart Ehrman Blog|date=1 December 2015|access-date=15 February 2016|archive-date=23 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223091403/http://ehrmanblog.org/judas-and-the-messianic-secret/|url-status=live}} not in the sense that most people today think of the term.{{cite web|last=Ehrman|first=Bart|url=http://ehrmanblog.org/jesus-claim-to-be-the-messiah/|title=Jesus' Claim to be the Messiah|website=The Bart Ehrman Blog|date=1 December 2015|access-date=15 February 2016|archive-date=23 February 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160223082758/http://ehrmanblog.org/jesus-claim-to-be-the-messiah/|url-status=live}} [384] => [385] => ====Passover and crucifixion in Jerusalem==== [386] => Around AD 30, Jesus and his followers travelled from [[Galilee]] to [[Jerusalem]] to observe [[Passover]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=10}} Jesus caused a disturbance in the [[Second Temple]],{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} which was the center of Jewish religious and civil authority. Sanders associates it with Jesus' prophecy that the Temple would be totally demolished.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=254–62}} Jesus held a last meal with his disciples, which is the origin of the [[Eucharist|Sacrament of the Holy Eucharist]]. His words as recorded in the Synoptic gospels and Paul's [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|First Letter to the Corinthians]] do not entirely agree, but this meal appears to have pointed to Jesus' place in the coming Kingdom of God when very probably Jesus knew he was about to be killed, although he may have still hoped that God might yet intervene.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=263–64}} [387] => [388] => The Gospels say that Jesus was betrayed to the authorities by a disciple, and many scholars consider this report to be highly reliable.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} He was executed on the orders of [[Pontius Pilate]], the Roman [[prefect]] of [[Judea (Roman province)|Judaea]].{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} Pilate most likely saw Jesus' reference to the Kingdom of God as a threat to Roman authority and worked with the Temple elites to have Jesus executed.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=465–66}} The Sadducean high-priestly leaders of the Temple more plausibly had Jesus executed for political reasons than for his teaching.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} They may have regarded him as a threat to stability, especially after he caused a disturbance at the Second Temple.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}}{{cite web |last1=Jacobs |first1=Joseph |last2=Kohler |first2=Kaufmann |last3=Gottheil |first3=Richard |last4=Krauss |first4=Samuel |title=Jesus of Nazareth |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8616-jesus-of-nazareth |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160226102548/http://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/8616-jesus-of-nazareth |archive-date=26 February 2016 |website=Jewish Encyclopedia}} See ''Avodah Zarah 17a:1'', ''Sanhedrin 43a:20'', ''Gittin 57a:3–4'', and ''Sotah 47a:6''. Other factors, such as Jesus' triumphal entry into Jerusalem, may have contributed to this decision.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=269–73}} Most scholars consider Jesus' crucifixion to be factual, because early Christians would not have invented the painful death of their leader.{{sfn|Dunn|2003|p=339}}{{sfn|Meier|2006|pp=126–28}} [389] => [390] => ====After crucifixion==== [391] => [[File:The Resurrection Beaufort arms in border (f. 131) Cropped.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The Resurrection of Christ from a 16th-century manuscript of ''La Passion de Nostre Seigneur'']] [392] => After Jesus' death, his followers said he was restored to life, although exact details of their experiences are unclear. The gospel reports contradict each other, possibly suggesting competition among those claiming to have seen him first rather than deliberate fraud.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|pp=276–81}} On the other hand, [[L. Michael White]] suggests that inconsistencies in the Gospels reflect differences in the agendas of their unknown authors. The followers of Jesus formed a community to wait for his return and the founding of his kingdom.{{sfn|Sanders|1993|p=11}} [393] => [394] => ===Portraits of Jesus=== [395] => {{Main|Historical Jesus|Quest for the historical Jesus}} [396] => [397] => Modern research on the historical Jesus has not led to a unified picture of the historical figure, partly because of the variety of academic traditions represented by the scholars.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|pp=4–5}} Given the scarcity of historical sources, it is generally difficult for any scholar to construct a portrait of Jesus that can be considered historically valid beyond the basic elements of his life.{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=117–25}}{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|pp=22–23}} The portraits of Jesus constructed in these quests often differ from each other, and from the image portrayed in the Gospels.{{sfn|Theissen|Winter|2002|p=5}}{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Historical Jesus, Quest of the}} [398] => [399] => Jesus is seen as the founder of, in the words of Sanders, a "renewal movement within Judaism". One of the criteria used to discern historical details in the "third quest" is the criterion of plausibility, relative to Jesus' Jewish context and to his influence on Christianity. A disagreement in contemporary research is whether Jesus was [[Apocalypticism|apocalyptic]]. Most scholars conclude that he was an apocalyptic preacher, like [[John the Baptist]] and [[Paul the Apostle]]. In contrast, certain prominent North American scholars, such as [[Burton Mack]] and John Dominic Crossan, advocate for a non-[[Eschatology|eschatological]] Jesus, one who is more of a Cynic [[Sage (philosophy)|sage]] than an apocalyptic preacher.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=1–15}} In addition to portraying Jesus as an apocalyptic prophet, a charismatic healer or a [[Cynicism (philosophy)|cynic philosopher]], some scholars portray him as the true messiah or an [[Egalitarianism|egalitarian]] prophet of [[social change]].{{cite book|title=The Cambridge History of Christianity|volume=1|first1=Margaret M.|last1=Mitchell|first2=Frances M.|last2=Young|year=2006|isbn=978-0-521-81239-9|publisher=Cambridge University Press|page=23|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6UTfmw_zStsC&pg=PA23|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907180601/https://books.google.com/books?id=6UTfmw_zStsC&pg=PA23|url-status=live}}{{sfn|Köstenberger|Kellum|Quarles|2009|pp=124–25}} However, the attributes described in the portraits sometimes overlap, and scholars who differ on some attributes sometimes agree on others.{{cite encyclopedia | title=Why Study the Historical Jesus? | encyclopedia=Handbook for the Study of the Historical Jesus | publisher=Brill | year=2011 | first=Colin | last=Brown | page=1416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LuKMmVu0tpMC&pg=PA1416 | isbn=978-90-04-16372-0 | editor1-first=Tom | editor1-last=Holmen | editor2-first=Stanley E. | editor2-last=Porter | access-date=14 August 2015 | archive-date=10 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910170524/https://books.google.com/books?id=LuKMmVu0tpMC&pg=PA1416 | url-status=live }} [400] => [401] => Since the 18th century, scholars have occasionally put forth that Jesus was a political national messiah, but the evidence for this portrait is negligible. Likewise, the proposal that Jesus was a [[Zealots (Judea)|Zealot]] does not fit with the earliest strata of the Synoptic tradition.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Jesus Christ}} [402] => [403] => ===Language, ethnicity, and appearance=== [404] => {{further|Language of Jesus|Race and appearance of Jesus}} [405] => [[File:CompositeJesus.JPG|thumb|The ethnicity of Jesus in art has been influenced by cultural settings.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}}|alt=Twelve depictions of Jesus from around the world]] [406] => Jesus grew up in Galilee and much of his ministry took place there.{{sfn|Green|McKnight|Marshall|1992|p=442}} The languages spoken in Galilee and Judea during the 1st century AD include [[Jewish Palestinian Aramaic]], [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], and [[Koine Greek|Greek]], with Aramaic being predominant.{{cite journal|first=James|last=Barr|title=Which language did Jesus speak|journal=Bulletin of the John Rylands University Library of Manchester|year=1970|volume=53|issue=1|pages=9–29|url=https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2973|doi=10.7227/BJRL.53.1.2|access-date=27 July 2011|archive-date=3 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203184449/https://www.escholar.manchester.ac.uk/uk-ac-man-scw:1m2973|url-status=live}}{{cite book |last=Porter |first=Stanley E. |url=https://archive.org/details/handbooktoexeges00port |title=Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament |publisher=Brill |year=1997 |isbn=978-90-04-09921-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/handbooktoexeges00port/page/n124 110]–112 |language=en |url-access=limited}} There is substantial consensus that Jesus gave most of his teachings in Aramaic{{sfn|Dunn|2003|pp=313–15}} in the [[Galilean dialect]].{{cite encyclopedia |year=1987 |title=Aramaic |encyclopedia=The Eerdmans Bible Dictionary |publisher=William B. Eerdmans |location=Grand Rapids, Michigan |url=https://archive.org/details/eerdmansbibledic00myer/page/72 |editor=Myers |editor-first=Allen C. |page=[https://archive.org/details/eerdmansbibledic00myer/page/72 72] |isbn=978-0-8028-2402-8 |quote=It is generally agreed that Aramaic was the common language of Israel in the first century AD. Jesus and his disciples spoke the Galilean dialect, which was distinguished from that of Jerusalem (Matt. 26:73).}}{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32043/Aramaic-language |title=Aramaic language |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=27 June 2019 |archive-date=27 April 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150427072726/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/32043/Aramaic-language |url-status=live }} Other than Aramaic and Hebrew, it is likely that he was also able to speak in [[Koine Greek]].{{Cite book | last=Porter | first=Stanley E. | author-link=Stanley E. Porter | title=Handbook to exegesis of the New Testament | publisher=Brill | year=1997 | isbn=90-04-09921-2 | pages=110–112 }}{{Cite book | last=Hoffmann | first=R. Joseph | title=Jesus in history and myth | publisher=Prometheus Books | year=1986 | isbn=0-87975-332-3 | page=98 }}{{Cite book|title=The Interpretation of Scripture in Early Judaism and Christianity: Studies in Language and Tradition|first=Craig A.|last=Evans|publisher=A&C Black|isbn=978-1841270760|date=1 June 2000|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WbbUAwAAQBAJ&dq=G.R.+Selby,+Jesus,+Aramaic+and+Greek&pg=PA244|access-date=13 August 2023|archive-date=6 September 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230906220012/https://books.google.com/books?id=WbbUAwAAQBAJ&dq=G.R.+Selby,+Jesus,+Aramaic+and+Greek&pg=PA244|url-status=live}} [407] => [408] => Modern scholars agree that Jesus was a Jew of 1st-century [[Judea]].{{sfn|Ehrman|1999|p= 96}} ''[[Ioudaios]]'' in New Testament Greek{{efn|In the New Testament, Jesus is described as Jewish / Judean (''[[Ioudaios]]'' as written in Koine Greek) on three occasions: by the Magi in [[Matthew 2]], who referred to Jesus as "King of the Jews" (''basileus ton ioudaion''); by both the [[Samaritan woman at the well]] and by Jesus himself in [[John 4]]; and (in all four gospels) during the Passion, by the Romans, who also used the phrase "King of the Jews".{{cite journal|first=John |last=Elliott|journal= Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus |year=2007|volume= 5|issue= 119|title=Jesus the Israelite Was Neither a 'Jew' nor a 'Christian': On Correcting Misleading Nomenclature|page=119|doi=10.1177/1476869007079741|doi-access=free}}}} is a term which in the contemporary context may refer to religion ([[Second Temple Judaism]]), ethnicity (of Judea), or both.{{cite book |last=Garroway |first=Rabbi Joshua |url=https://archive.org/details/jewishannotatedn0000unse/page/524 |title=The Jewish Annotated New Testament |date=2011 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-529770-6 |editor=Levine |editor-first=Amy-Jill |pages=[https://archive.org/details/jewishannotatedn0000unse/page/524 524–526] |chapter=Ioudaios |editor2=Brettler |editor-first2=Marc Z. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DZRJ5zXUI2QC&pg=PA524}}{{cite journal|first=David M.|last=Miller|title=The Meaning of ''Ioudaios'' and its Relationship to Other Group Labels in Ancient 'Judaism'|journal=Currents in Biblical Research|volume=9|issue=1|date=2010|pages=98–126|doi=10.1177/1476993X09360724|s2cid=144383064}}{{cite journal|first=Steve |last=Mason |title=Jews, Judaeans, Judaizing, Judaism: Problems of Categorization in Ancient History |journal=Journal for the Study of Judaism |volume=38 |issue=4 |date=2007 |pages=457–512 |url=http://www.stevemason.eu/resources/SMason-JSJ-2007-Jews-Judaism.pdf |doi=10.1163/156851507X193108 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150325062826/http://www.stevemason.eu/resources/SMason-JSJ-2007-Jews-Judaism.pdf |archive-date=25 March 2015}} In a review of the state of modern scholarship, [[Amy-Jill Levine]] writes that the entire question of ethnicity is "fraught with difficulty", and that "beyond recognizing that 'Jesus was Jewish', rarely does the scholarship address what being 'Jewish' means".{{sfn|Levine|2006|p=10}} [409] => [410] => The New Testament gives no description of the physical appearance of Jesus before his death—it is generally indifferent to racial appearances and does not refer to the features of the people it mentions.{{cite encyclopedia|first=Robin M. |last=Jensen |title=Jesus in Christian art|encyclopedia=The Blackwell Companion to Jesus|editor-first=Delbert|editor-last= Burkett|year= 2010 |isbn= 978-1-4443-5175-0 |pages= 477–502 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}}{{cite book |last=Perkinson |first=Stephen |title=The likeness of the king: a prehistory of portraiture in late medieval France |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-226-65879-7 |location=Chicago, Illinois, USA |page=30 |language=en-us}}{{cite book|title=The forging of races: race and scripture in the Protestant Atlantic world|url=https://archive.org/details/forgingracesrace00kidd|url-access=limited|first= Colin|last= Kidd|year= 2006| isbn =978-1-139-45753-8 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |pages= [https://archive.org/details/forgingracesrace00kidd/page/n57 48]–51}} Jesus probably looked like a typical Jewish man of his time and place; standing around {{convert|166|cm|ftin|abbr=on}} tall with a thin but fit build, [[Olive skin|olive-brown skin]], brown eyes and short, dark hair. He also likely had a beard that was not particularly long or heavy.{{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=Joan E. |title=What did Jesus look like? |date=2018 |publisher=Bloomsbury Publishing Plc |location=London |page=168|isbn=978-0-567-67150-9 |edition=1st |url=https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/what-did-jesus-look-like-9780567671509/ |access-date=20 May 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222012/https://www.bloomsbury.com/uk/what-did-jesus-look-like-9780567671509/ |url-status=live }} His clothing may have suggested poverty, consisting of a mantle (shawl) with tassels, a knee-length basic tunic and sandals.{{cite web |last1=Taylor |first1=Joan |title=What Did Jesus Wear? |url=https://getpocket.com/explore/item/what-did-jesus-wear |website=Pocket |publisher=Mozilla |access-date=20 May 2020 |archive-date=20 May 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200520060147/https://getpocket.com/explore/item/what-did-jesus-wear |url-status=live }} [411] => [412] => ===Christ myth theory=== [413] => {{Main|Christ myth theory}} [414] => The Christ myth theory is the hypothesis that Jesus of Nazareth never existed; or if he did, that he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity and the accounts in the [[gospels]].{{efn|Ehrman writes: "In simpler terms, the historical Jesus did not exist. Or if he did, he had virtually nothing to do with the founding of Christianity." Further quoting as authoritative the fuller definition provided by [[Earl Doherty]] in ''Jesus: Neither God Nor Man''. Age of Reason, 2009, pp. vii–viii: it is "the theory that no historical Jesus worthy of the name existed, that Christianity began with a belief in a spiritual, mythical figure, that the Gospels are essentially allegory and fiction, and that no single identifiable person lay at the root of the Galilean preaching tradition."{{sfn|Ehrman|2012|p=12}}}} Stories of Jesus' birth, along with other key events, have so many mythic elements that some scholars have suggested that Jesus himself was a myth.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=113–15}} [415] => [416] => [[Bruno Bauer]] (1809–1882) taught that the first Gospel was a work of literature that produced history rather than described it.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=90}} [417] => According to [[Albert Kalthoff]] (1850–1906), a social movement produced Jesus when it encountered Jewish messianic expectations.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=90}} [418] => [[Arthur Drews]] (1865–1935) saw Jesus as the concrete form of a myth that predated Christianity.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|p=90}} [419] => [420] => Despite arguments put forward by authors who have questioned the existence of a [[historical Jesus]], virtually all scholars of antiquity accept that Jesus was a historical figure and consider Christ myth theory fringe.[[Bart Ehrman]]: "He certainly existed, as virtually every competent scholar of antiquity, Christian or non-Christian, agrees, based on certain and clear evidence." B. Ehrman, 2011 ''Forged: writing in the name of God,'' {{ISBN|978-0-06-207863-6}}. pp. 256–257.{{cite journal |last=Gullotta |first=Daniel N.|title=On Richard Carrier's Doubts: A Response to Richard Carrier's On the Historicity of Jesus: Why We Might Have Reason for Doubt|journal=Journal for the Study of the Historical Jesus|year=2017|volume=15|issue=2–3|pages=312|quote=[Per Jesus mythicism] Given the fringe status of these theories, the vast majority have remained unnoticed and unaddressed within scholarly circles.|doi=10.1163/17455197-01502009}}[[James D.G. Dunn|James D. G. Dunn]] "Paul's understanding of the death of Jesus" in ''Sacrifice and Redemption'' edited by S. W. Sykes (3 December 2007) Cambridge University Press {{ISBN|978-0-521-04460-8}} pp. 35–36.Richard A. Burridge and Graham Gould (1 April 2004)''. Jesus Now and Then,'' {{ISBN|978-0-8028-0977-3}} p. 34.Michael Grant (2004)''. Jesus'' {{ISBN|978-1-898799-88-7}} p. 200.[[Graham Stanton]] (1989), ''The Gospels and Jesus''. {{ISBN|978-0-19-213241-3}} Oxford University Press, p. 145.[[Robert E. Van Voorst]]. ''Jesus Outside the New Testament: An Introduction to the Ancient Evidence.'' Eerdmans Publishing, 2000. {{ISBN|978-0-8028-4368-5}} p. 16. [421] => [422] => ==Religious perspectives== [423] => {{Main|Religious perspectives on Jesus}} [424] => Jesus' teachings and the retelling of his life story have significantly influenced the course of [[human history]], and have directly or indirectly affected the lives of billions of people, even non-Christians, worldwide.''The Cambridge companion to Jesus'' edited by Markus N. A. Bockmuehl 2001 {{ISBN|0-521-79678-4}} pp. 156–157.C. Stephen Evans (1996)''. The historical Christ and the Jesus of faith'', Oxford University Press {{ISBN|0-19-826397-X}} p. v. He is considered by many people to be the most influential figure to have ever lived, finding a significant place in numerous cultural contexts.{{cite book|last1=Bauckham|first1=Richard|title=Jesus: A Very Short Introduction|date=2011|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=United States|isbn=978-0199575275|pages=1–2}}{{cite news |first1=Steven |last1=Skiena |first2=Charles B. |last2=Ward |date=10 January 2014 |title=Who's the most significant historical figure? |url=https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/jan/30/whos-most-significant-historical-figure |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |access-date=10 August 2023 |archive-date=4 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161204180532/https://www.theguardian.com/books/2014/jan/30/whos-most-significant-historical-figure |url-status=live }} [425] => [426] => Apart from his own disciples and followers,{{Cite book |title=Jewish believers in Jesus: the early centuries |last1=Skarsaune |first1=Oskar |publisher=Hendrickson Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-56563-763-4 |page=55 |last2=Hvalvik |first2=Reidar |url=https://archive.org/details/jewishbelieversi0000unse/page/55}} the Jews of Jesus' day generally [[Rejection of Jesus|rejected him as the messiah]],{{sfn|Levine|2007|p=61}} as does Judaism today.{{sfn|Levine|2007|p=17}} Christian theologians, [[ecumenical council]]s, reformers and others have written extensively about Jesus over the centuries. [[Christian denomination]]s have often been defined or characterized by their descriptions of Jesus. Meanwhile, [[Manichaeism|Manichaeans]], [[Gnosticism|Gnostics]], [[Muslims]], [[Druze]]s,{{cite book|title=The Origins of the Druze People and Religion: With Extracts from Their Sacred Writings| first= Philip K.|last= Hitti|year= 1928| isbn= 978-1-4655-4662-3| page =37 |publisher=Library of Alexandria}} the [[Baháʼí Faith|Baháʼís]], and others, have found prominent places for Jesus in their religions.{{cite encyclopedia |year=2001 |title=The quest for the real Jesus |encyclopedia=Cambridge companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA156 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Watson |first=Francis |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N. A. |pages=156–157 |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910064807/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA156 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |url-status=live}}{{cite book|title=The historical Christ and the Jesus of faith|first= C. Stephen|last= Evans |year=1996|publisher= Oxford University Press| isbn= 978-0-19-152042-6 |page= v}}{{cite book|title=The Blackwell Companion to Jesus|last= Delbert|first= Burkett|year= 2010| isbn= 978-1-4443-5175-0 |page= 1 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}} [427] => [428] => ===Christianity=== [429] => {{Main|Jesus in Christianity|Christ (title)|Christology}} [430] => [[File:Shield-Trinity-Scutum-Fidei-English.svg|thumb|right|The [[Trinity]] is the belief in Christianity that God is one God in three persons: [[God the Father]], [[God the Son]] ([[Jesus in Christianity|Jesus]]), and [[Holy Spirit (Christianity)|God the Holy Spirit]].]] [431] => [[File:Christ with beard.jpg|thumb|right|Jesus is depicted with the [[Alpha and Omega]] letters in the [[Catacombs of Rome]] from the 4th century.]] [432] => [433] => Jesus is the central figure of Christianity.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=4–6}} Although Christian views of Jesus vary, it is possible to summarize the key beliefs shared among major [[Christian denomination|denominations]], as stated in their [[catechism|catechetical]] or [[Confessionalism (religion)|confessional]] texts.{{cite book|last=Jackson|first= Gregory L. |title= Catholic, Lutheran, Protestant: a doctrinal comparison|year= 1993 |isbn= 978-0-615-16635-3| pages= 11–17 |publisher=Christian News}}{{cite book|title=The Orthodox Church: An Introduction to Its History, Doctrine|first= John A.|last= McGuckin |year=2010| pages= 6–7 |isbn=978-1-4443-9383-5 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons }}{{cite book|title=Basic Christian doctrine|last=Leith|first=John H.|year= 1993 |isbn= 978-0-664-25192-5 |pages= 1–2 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}} Christian views of Jesus are derived from the texts of the [[New Testament]], including the [[canonical gospels]] and letters such as the [[Pauline epistles]] and the [[Johannine writings]]. These documents outline the key beliefs held by Christians about Jesus, including his divinity, humanity, and earthly life, and that he is the Christ and the [[Son of God (Christianity)|Son of God]].{{cite book|last=Schreiner|first=Thomas R.|title=New Testament Theology: Magnifying God in Christ|year=2008|publisher=Baker Academic|isbn=978-0-8010-2680-5|pages=23–37|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=elw8xkVeTTUC&pg=PA23|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=10 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910052649/https://books.google.com/books?id=elw8xkVeTTUC&pg=PA23|url-status=live}} Despite their many shared beliefs, not all Christian denominations agree on all doctrines, and both [[East–West Schism|major and minor differences]] on teachings and beliefs have persisted throughout Christianity for centuries.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Great Schism}} [434] => [435] => The New Testament states that the [[resurrection of Jesus]] is the foundation of the Christian faith.[[wikisource:Bible (American Standard)/1 Corinthians#15:12|1 Corinthians 15:12–20]].{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/137622/The-Letter-of-Paul-to-the-Corinthians | title=The Letter of Paul to the Corinthians | encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica | access-date=26 June 2013 | archive-date=12 May 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512045839/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/137622/The-Letter-of-Paul-to-the-Corinthians | url-status=live }} Christians believe that through his sacrificial death and resurrection, humans can be [[reconciliation (theology)|reconciled with God]] and are thereby offered [[Salvation in Christianity|salvation]] and the promise of [[Eternal life (Christianity)|eternal life]].{{cite book|title=Oxford Companion to the Bible|first1=Bruce M.|last1= Metzger|first2= Michael D.|last2= Coogan| page= [https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458/page/649 649]| publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780195046458 |url-access=registration|isbn=978-0-19-974391-9|year=1993}} Recalling the words of [[John the Baptist]] in the [[gospel of John]], these doctrines sometimes refer to Jesus as the [[Lamb of God]], who was crucified to fulfill his role as the servant of God.{{cite book|title=The Christology of the New Testament|first= Oscar |last=Cullmann |year=1959 |isbn= 978-0-664-24351-7| page= 79 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}}{{cite book|title=The Christology of Anselm of Canterbury|first= Dániel|last= Deme|year= 2004| isbn= 978-0-7546-3779-0 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing |pages= 199–200}} Jesus is thus seen as the [[new Adam|new and last Adam]], whose obedience contrasts with [[Fall of man|Adam's disobedience]].{{cite book|title=Systematic Theology| volume= 2|first= Wolfhart |last=Pannenberg |author-link=Wolfhart Pannenberg |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-567-08466-8 |pages= 297–303 |publisher=Continuum}} Christians view Jesus as a role model, whose God-focused life believers are encouraged to imitate.{{sfn|McGrath|2006|pp=4–6}} [436] => [437] => At present, most Christians believe that Jesus is both human and the Son of God.{{sfn|Ehrman|2014}} While there has been [[Christological controversies|theological debate]] over his nature,{{efn|Following the [[Apostolic Age]], there was fierce and often politicized debate in the [[Early centers of Christianity|early church]] on many interrelated issues. [[Christology]] was a major focus of these debates, and was addressed at every one of the [[first seven ecumenical councils]]. Some early beliefs viewed Jesus as ontologically subordinate to the Father ([[Subordinationism]]), and others considered him an aspect of the Father rather than a separate person ([[Sabellianism]]), both were condemned as heresies by the Catholic Church.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Antitrinitarianism}} The Church resolved the issues in ancient councils, which established the Holy Trinity, with Jesus both fully human and fully God.}} Trinitarian Christians generally believe that Jesus is the Logos, God's incarnation and [[God the Son]], both fully divine and fully human. However, the doctrine of the Trinity is not universally accepted among Christians.{{cite encyclopedia|title=Antitrinitarianism|url=http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A597.html|last=Friedmann|first=Robert|encyclopedia=Global Anabaptist Mennonite Encyclopedia|access-date=24 October 2012|archive-date=20 October 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121020232847/http://www.gameo.org/encyclopedia/contents/A597.html|url-status=live}}{{CathEncy|wstitle=Blessed Trinity|first=George H. |last= Joyce}} With the [[Reformation]], Christians such as [[Michael Servetus]] and the [[Socinian]]s started questioning the ancient creeds that had established Jesus' two natures. Nontrinitarian Christian groups include [[the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints]],{{citation |title= Mormonism 101: What is Mormonism |url=http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/mormonism-101 |work= MormonNewsroom.org |publisher= LDS Church |access-date= 21 October 2014 |date= 13 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021175426/http://www.mormonnewsroom.org/article/mormonism-101 |archive-date= 21 October 2014 |url-status=dead }} [[Unitarianism|Unitarians]] and [[Jehovah's Witnesses]].{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005 |loc=Antitrinitarianism}} [438] => [439] => Christians revere not only Jesus himself, but also [[Name of Jesus|his name]]. Devotions to the [[Holy Name of Jesus]] go back to the earliest days of Christianity.{{cite book|title=Outlines of dogmatic theology | volume=2 |first= Sylvester |last=Hunter|year= 2010| isbn= 978-1-177-95809-7 |page= 443 |publisher=Nabu Press}}{{sfn|Houlden|2006|p=426}} These devotions and feasts exist in both [[Eastern Christianity|Eastern]] and [[Western Christianity]].{{sfn|Houlden|2006|p=426}} [440] => [441] => ===Judaism's view=== [442] => {{Main|Judaism's view of Jesus}} [443] => {{See also|Jesus in the Talmud}} [444] => [445] => Judaism rejects the idea of Jesus (or any future Jewish messiah) being God, or a mediator to God, or part of a Trinity.{{cite web|last=Kessler|first=Ed|title=Jesus the Jew|url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/thepassion/articles/jesus_the_jew.shtml|publisher=BBC|access-date=18 June 2013|archive-date=7 December 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121207081354/http://www.bbc.co.uk/thepassion/articles/jesus_the_jew.shtml|url-status=live}} It holds that Jesus is not the messiah, arguing that he neither fulfilled the messianic prophecies in the [[Tanakh]] nor embodied the personal qualifications of the messiah.{{cite book |first=Asher |last=Norman |title=Twenty-six reasons why Jews don't believe in Jesus |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tx5qrKz6dRMC&pg=PA59 |publisher=Feldheim Publishers |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-9771937-0-7 |pages=59–70 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910065007/https://books.google.com/books?id=tx5qrKz6dRMC&pg=PA59 |url-status=live }} Jews argue that Jesus did not fulfill prophecies to build the [[Third Temple]],{{Bibleverse|Ezekiel|37:26–28|HE}}. gather Jews back to Israel,{{Bibleverse|Isaiah|43:5–6|HE}}. bring world peace,{{Bibleverse|Isaiah|2:4|HE}}. and unite humanity under the God of Israel.{{Bibleverse|Zechariah|14:9|HE}}.{{Cite web |last=Tzvi |date=9 May 2009 |others=Simmons, Rabbi Shraga |title=Do Jews Believe In Jesus? {{!}} Aish |url=https://aish.com/why-jews-dont-believe-in-jesus/ |access-date=24 July 2023 |website=Aish.com |language=en-US |archive-date=25 August 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230825033652/https://aish.com/why-jews-dont-believe-in-jesus/ |url-status=live }} Furthermore, according to Jewish tradition, there were no prophets after [[Malachi]],{{cite web |last= Simmons |first= Shraga |url=http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Why_Jews_Dont_Believe_In_Jesus.asp |title= Why Jews Do not Believe in Jesus |date= 6 March 2004 |publisher= Aish.com |access-date= 24 February 2006 |archive-date= 16 March 2006 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060316040138/http://www.aish.com/jewishissues/jewishsociety/Why_Jews_Dont_Believe_In_Jesus.asp |url-status= live }} who delivered his prophecies in the 5th century BC.{{cite encyclopedia | title=Malachi, Book of | encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia | access-date=3 July 2013 |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10321-malachi-book-of | archive-date=18 May 2013 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130518045350/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/10321-malachi-book-of | url-status=live }} [446] => [447] => Judaic criticism of Jesus is long-standing, and includes a [[Jesus in the Talmud|range of stories]] in the [[Talmud]], written and compiled from the 3rd to the 5th century AD.{{cite encyclopedia | title=Talmud | encyclopedia=Jewish Encyclopedia | access-date=3 July 2013 |url=http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/14213-talmud | archive-date=6 September 2011 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110906061120/http://www.jewishencyclopedia.com/view.jsp?artid=32&letter=T | url-status=live }} In one such story, ''[[Yeshu]] HaNozri'' ("Jesus the Nazarene"), a lewd apostate, is executed by the Jewish high court for spreading idolatry and practising magic.{{cite book |title=A Dictionary of Jewish-Christian Relations |first1=Edward |last1=Kessler |first2=Neil |last2=Wenborn |year=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-139-44750-8 |page=416 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QkI_JNv3rIwC&pg=PA416 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907090106/https://books.google.com/books?id=QkI_JNv3rIwC&pg=PA416 |url-status=live }} According to some, the form Yeshu is an [[acronym]] which in Hebrew reads: "may his name and memory be blotted out".{{Cite news |last=Neuhaus |first=David M. |title=How Israeli Jews' Fear of Christianity Turned Into Hatred |language=en |work=Haaretz |url=https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-02-06/ty-article/.highlight/how-israeli-jews-fear-of-christianity-turned-into-hatred/0000017f-dbd5-d3ff-a7ff-fbf562150000 |access-date=24 July 2023 |quote=The religious public in Israel is in many cases aware of the traditional interpretation of the term "Yeshu": an acronym in Hebrew for "may his name and memory be blotted out. |archive-date=27 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230327165613/https://www.haaretz.com/israel-news/2021-02-06/ty-article/.highlight/how-israeli-jews-fear-of-christianity-turned-into-hatred/0000017f-dbd5-d3ff-a7ff-fbf562150000 |url-status=live }} The majority of contemporary scholars consider that this material provides no information on the historical Jesus.{{sfn|Theissen|Merz|1998|pp=74–75}} The ''[[Mishneh Torah]]'', a late 12th-century work of [[Halakha|Jewish law]] written by [[Moses Maimonides]], states that Jesus is a "stumbling block" who makes "the majority of the world to err and serve a god other than the Lord".{{cite book|last=Jeffrey|first=Grant R.|title=Heaven: The Mystery of Angels|year=2009|publisher=Random House Digital|isbn=978-0-307-50940-6|page=108|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xCW8fjiE-DYC&pg=PA108|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=14 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914213327/https://books.google.com/books?id=xCW8fjiE-DYC&pg=PA108|url-status=live}} [448] => [449] => Medieval Hebrew literature contains the anecdotal "Episode of Jesus" (known also as ''[[Toledot Yeshu]]''), in which Jesus is described as being the son of Joseph, the son of [[Tiberius Julius Abdes Pantera|Pandera]] (see: [[s:Translation:Story of Jesus|''Episode of Jesus'']]). The account portrays Jesus as an impostor.{{cite book |author=Sutcliffe |first=Adam |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vjilDDXfmqEC&pg=PA141 |title=Judaism and Enlightenment |date=2005 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-67232-0 |pages=141– |access-date=11 January 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191208000728/https://books.google.com/books?id=vjilDDXfmqEC&pg=PA141 |archive-date=8 December 2019 |url-status=live}} [450] => [451] => ===Manichaeism=== [452] => {{Main|Jesus in Manichaeism}}{{Expand section|date=April 2024}} [453] => [[Manichaeism]] was the first organized religion outside of Christianity to venerate Jesus.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=57nFeeC3GKoC&q=Mani+declared+he+was+an+apostle+of+Jesus&pg=PA315 |title=The Manichean Debate |access-date=18 August 2012|isbn=978-1-56548-247-0|year=2006|author=Augustine of Hippo|publisher=New City Press |author-link=Augustine of Hippo|editor=Ramsey, Boniface |editor-link=Boniface Ramsey}}{{cite book |author=Reeves |first=John C. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ewM1xTuRQaoC&pg=PA6 |title=Heralds of That Good Realm: Syro-Mesopotamian Gnosis and Jewish Traditions |publisher=Brill |year=1996 |isbn=978-90-04-10459-4 |pages=6– |access-date=27 August 2012}}{{cite encyclopedia |year=1930 |title=Manichaeism |encyclopedia=Encyclopaedia of Religion and Ethics |publisher=Kessinger Publishing |last=Bevan |first=A. A. |editor-last=Hastings |editor-first=James |volume=8 |isbn=978-0-7661-3666-3}} He is considered one of the four prophets, along with [[Zoroaster]], [[Gautama Buddha]], and [[Mani (prophet)|Mani]].{{cite book|last=Gulácsi |first=Zsuzsanna |date=2015 |title=Mani's Pictures: The Didactic Images of the Manichaeans from Sasanian Mesopotamia to Uygur Central Asia and Tang-Ming China |series=Nag Hammadi and Manichaean Studies |volume=90 |place=Leiden |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-30894-7 |url=https://gnosis.study/library/%D0%94%D1%80%D1%83%D0%B3%D0%B8%D0%B5%20%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%8F/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B8%D1%85%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE/%D0%9A%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B3%D0%B8/ENG/Gul%C3%A1csi%20Z.%20-%20Mani's%20Pictures.pdf}}{{cite book |title=Manichaeism in the Later Roman Empire and Medieval China |first=Samuel N. C. |last=Lieu |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hmNPz9teHqUC&q=manichaeism+divinity+of+Jesus&pg=PA161 |isbn=978-3-16-145820-0 |date= 1992 |publisher=J.C.B. Mohr }} [454] => [455] => ===Islam=== [456] => [457] => {{Main|Jesus in Islam}} [458] => {{Islamic prophets}} [459] => [[File:Virgin Mary and Jesus (old Persian miniature).jpg|thumb|upright=.9|[[Persian miniature]] of Mary and Jesus]] [460] => A major figure in Islam,{{cite web|url=http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/004-qmt.php#004.157 |title=Quran 3:46–158 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150501064500/http://www.usc.edu/org/cmje/religious-texts/quran/verses/004-qmt.php |archive-date=1 May 2015 |url-status=dead}}{{cite book |last=Siddiqui |first=Mona |title=Christians, Muslims, and Jesus |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2013 |author-link = Mona Siddiqui |url=https://archive.org/details/christiansmuslim0000sidd |url-access=registration |isbn=978-0-300-16970-6 }} Jesus (often referred to by his Quranic name {{transliteration|ar|ISO|[[Isa (name)|''ʿĪsā'']]}}) is considered to be a [[Prophets and messengers in Islam|messenger]] of [[God in Islam|God]] and the messiah ([[Masih (title)|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|al-Masīḥ}}]]) who was sent to guide the [[Israelites|Children of Israel]] ({{transliteration|ar|ISO|Banī Isrāʾīl}}) with a new scripture, the Gospel (referred to in Islam as [[Gospel in Islam|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|Injīl}}]]).{{cite book|title=The Oxford Dictionary of Islam|year=2003|first=John L.|last=Esposito|page=158|publisher=Oxford University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA159|isbn=978-0-19-975726-8|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907105909/https://books.google.com/books?id=E324pQEEQQcC&pg=PA159|url-status=live}} Muslims regard the gospels' accounts in the New Testament as partially authentic, and believe that Jesus' original message was altered ([[tahrif|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|taḥrīf}}]]) and that [[Muhammad in Islam|Muhammad]] came later to revive it.{{cite encyclopedia |editor-last=Bockmuehl |editor-first=Markus N.A. |title=Quests for the historical Jesus |first=James C. |last=Paget |year=2001 |encyclopedia=Cambridge companion to Jesus |publisher=Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA183 |isbn=978-0-521-79678-1 |page=183 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910045903/https://books.google.com/books?id=vSehrtQpcYcC&pg=PA183 |url-status=live }} Belief in Jesus (and all other [[Prophets in Islam|messengers of God]]) is a requirement for being a [[Muslim]].{{cite AV media | title=The Muslim Jesus | publisher=ITV Productions | date=19 August 2007 | people=Ashraf, Irshad (Director) | medium=Television production}} The Quran mentions Jesus by name 25 times—more often than Muhammad{{cite web|url=http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1196|title=Jesus, Son of Mary|publisher=Oxford Islamic Studies Online|access-date=3 July 2013|archive-date=2 July 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140702042354/http://www.oxfordislamicstudies.com/article/opr/t125/e1196|url-status=dead}}{{cite book|last=Aboul-Enein|first=Youssef H.|title=Militant Islamist Ideology: Understanding the Global Threat|year=2010|publisher=Naval Institute Press|isbn=978-1-61251-015-6|page=20|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tX3suVDTJz0C&pg=PA20|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=14 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150914213353/https://books.google.com/books?id=tX3suVDTJz0C&pg=PA20|url-status=live}}—and emphasizes that Jesus was a mortal human who, like all other prophets, had been divinely chosen to spread God's message. While the Quran affirms the Virgin birth of Jesus, he is considered to be neither an incarnation nor a [[Son of God (Christianity)|son of God]].{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Kahf – 4 |url=https://quran.com/al-kahf?locale=en&font=v1&reading=false&translations=20%2C131 |access-date=24 June 2021 |website=quran.com}}{{Cite web |title=Surah Al-Kahf – 5 |url=https://quran.com/al-kahf?locale=en&font=v1&reading=false&translations=20%2C131 |access-date=24 June 2021 |website=quran.com}} Islamic texts emphasize a strict notion of [[monotheism]] ({{transliteration|ar|ISO|[[tawḥīd]]}}) and forbid the association of partners with God, which would be [[Shirk (Islam)|idolatry]].{{cite book|last=George|first=Timothy|title=Is the Father of Jesus the God of Muhammad?: Understanding the Differences Between Christianity and Islam|year=2002|publisher=Zondervan|isbn=978-0-310-24748-7|pages=150–51|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A5uVfN5xT3YC&pg=PA150|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907174156/https://books.google.com/books?id=A5uVfN5xT3YC&pg=PA150|url-status=live}} [461] => [462] => The Quran describes the annunciation to Mary ([[Mary in Islam|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|Maryam}}]]) by the Holy Spirit that she is to give birth to Jesus while remaining a virgin. It calls the virgin birth a miracle that occurred by the will of God. The Quran ({{qref|21|91}} and {{qref|66|12}}) states that God breathed [[Holy Spirit (Islam)|his spirit]] into Mary while she was chaste.{{cite book|title=Islam: A Guide for Jews and Christians |first=F. E. |last=Peters |year=2003 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-0-691-11553-5 |page=[https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/23 23] |url=https://archive.org/details/islamguideforjew00fepe/page/23 }} Jesus is called a "spirit from God" because he was born through the action of the Spirit,{{cite book|title= Christianity, Islam, and the West|first= Robert A.|last= Burns|year= 2011|isbn= 978-0-7618-5560-6|page= 32|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=akWUGyN7fwEC&pg=PA32|publisher= University Press of America|access-date= 14 August 2015|archive-date= 10 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910174421/https://books.google.com/books?id=akWUGyN7fwEC&pg=PA32|url-status= live}} but that belief does not imply [[Pre-existence of Christ|his pre-existence]].{{cite book|last1=Cooper|first1=Anne|first2=Elsie A.|last2=Maxwell|title=Ishmael My Brother: A Christian Introduction To Islam|year=2003|publisher=Monarch Books|isbn=978-0-8254-6223-8|page=59|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=X4J-p1E1OkwC&pg=PA59|access-date=14 August 2015|archive-date=7 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907085409/https://books.google.com/books?id=X4J-p1E1OkwC&pg=PA59|url-status=live}} [463] => [464] => To aid in his ministry to the Jewish people, Jesus was given the ability to perform [[miracle]]s, by permission of God rather than by his own power.{{cite book|last=Morgan|first=Diane|title=Essential Islam: A Comprehensive Guide to Belief and Practice|year=2010|publisher=ABC-CLIO|isbn=978-0-313-36025-1|pages=[https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg/page/45 45]–46|url=https://archive.org/details/essentialislamco0000morg|url-access=registration}} Through his ministry, Jesus is seen as a [[precursor (religion)|precursor]] to Muhammad.{{cite book |last1=Fasching |first1=Darrell J. |url=https://archive.org/details/comparativerelig0000fasc/page/241 |title=Comparative Religious Ethics: A Narrative Approach |last2=deChant |first2=Dell |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-631-20125-0 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/comparativerelig0000fasc/page/241 241, 274–275] |language=en}} In the Quran ({{qref|4|157–159}}) it is said that Jesus was not killed but was merely made to appear that way to unbelievers,{{cite web |url=http://corpus.quran.com/translation.jsp?chapter=3&verse=54 |title=The Quranic Arabic Corpus – Translation |publisher=Corpus.quran.com |access-date=20 May 2016 |archive-date=18 April 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160418170132/http://corpus.quran.com/translation.jsp?chapter=3&verse=54 |url-status=live }} and that he was raised into the heavens while still alive by God.{{qref|4|157|b=y}}: "''and for boasting, "We killed the Messiah, Jesus, son of Mary, the messenger of Allah." But they neither killed nor crucified him—it was only made to appear so. Even those who argue for this ˹crucifixion˺ are in doubt. They have no knowledge whatsoever—only making assumptions. They certainly did not kill him.''" According to most classic [[Sunni]] and [[Twelver Shi'ite]] interpretations of these verses, the likeness of Jesus was cast upon a [[Substitution hypothesis|substitute]] (most often one of the apostles), who was crucified in Jesus' stead.{{harvnb|Robinson|2005}}; {{harvnb|Lawson|2009}}. The substitution theory was criticized and rejected by the Sunni Quran commentator [[Fakhr al-Din al-Razi]] (1150–1210); see {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|pp=156–162}}. According to [[Abu Mansur al-Baghdadi]] (d. 1037), the substitution theory was also applied to the death of [[Ali ibn Abi Talib]] by the semi-legendary 7th-century figure [[Abdullah ibn Saba'|Abdallah ibn Saba']]; see {{harvnb|De Smet|2016|pp=98–99}}. However, some medieval Muslims (among others, the [[ghulat|{{transliteration|ar|ISO|ghulāt}}]] writing under the name of [[al-Mufaddal ibn Umar al-Ju'fi]], the [[Brethren of Purity]], various [[Isma'ili]] philosophers, and the Sunni mystic [[al-Ghazali]]) affirmed the historicity of Jesus' crucifixion. These thinkers held the [[docetic]] view that, although Jesus' human form (his body) had died on the cross, his true divine nature (his spirit) had survived and ascended into heaven, so that his death was only an appearance.On the writings attributed to al‐Mufaddal ibn Umar al‐Ju'fi, see {{harvnb|De Smet|2016|p=93}}. On the Brethren of Purity, see {{harvnb|Robinson|1991|pp=55–57}}, {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|pp=129–133}} and especially {{harvnb|De Smet|2016|pp=100–101}}. On the Isma'ili philosophers (who include [[Abu Hatim Ahmad ibn Hamdan al-Razi|Abu Hatim al-Razi]], Abu Tammam, [[Ja'far ibn Mansur al-Yaman]], [[Abu Yaqub al-Sijistani]] and [[Ibrahim ibn al-Husayn al-Hamidi|Ibrahim al-Hamidi]]), see {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|pp=123–129}} and especially {{harvnb|De Smet|2016|pp=101–107}}. On al-Ghazali, see {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|pp=117–118}}. This type of interpretation of Quran 4:157–159 was specifically rejected by the Sunni Quran commentator al-[[Qadi Baydawi|Baydawi]] (d. 1319); see {{harvnb|Lawson|2009|p=155}}. Nevertheless, to Muslims it is the ''[[Ascension of Jesus|ascension]]'' rather than the ''[[Crucifixion of Jesus|crucifixion]]'' that constitutes a major event in the life of Jesus.{{Cite book| publisher = Harvard University Press| isbn = 978-0-674-00477-1| last = Khalidi| first = Tarif| title = The Muslim Jesus: Sayings and Stories in Islamic Literature| year = 2001| page = [https://archive.org/details/muslimjesussayin00/page/12 12]|url=https://archive.org/details/muslimjesussayin00/page/12}} There is no mention of his resurrection on the third day, and his death plays no special role in [[Soteriology#Islam|Islamic theories of salvation]].{{harvnb|Robinson|2005}}. However, Jesus is a central figure in [[Islamic eschatology]]: Muslims believe that [[Second Coming#Islam|he will return to Earth]] at the [[Eschatology|end of time]] and defeat the [[Antichrist]] (''[[Masih ad-Dajjal|ad-Dajjal]]'') by killing him.{{cite book |last=Glassé |first=Cyril |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7tu12gt4JYC&pg=PA270 |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Islam |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |year=2008 |isbn=978-0-7425-6296-7 |pages=270–271 |language=en |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907070905/https://books.google.com/books?id=D7tu12gt4JYC&pg=PA270 |archive-date=7 September 2015 |url-status=live}}{{cite book |last=Garrett |first=James L. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WZEhBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA766 |title=Systematic Theology, Volume 2, Second Edition: Biblical, Historical, and Evangelical |publisher=Wipf and Stock Publishers |year=2014 |isbn=978-1-62564-852-5 |page=766 |access-date=5 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200125164743/https://books.google.com/books?id=WZEhBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA766 |archive-date=25 January 2020 |url-status=live}}{{sfn|Grudem|1994|pp=568–603}}{{Cite encyclopedia |title=The Nicene Creed |encyclopedia=The Catholic Encyclopedia |publisher=Robert Appleton Company |url=http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11049a.htm |access-date=11 April 2016 |last=Wilhelm |first=Joseph |date=1911 |volume=11 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160417055109/http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/11049a.htm |archive-date=17 April 2016 |url-status=live}} [465] => [466] => According to the Quran, the coming of [[Muhammad]] (also called "Ahmad") was predicted by Jesus: [467] => {{blockquote|And ˹remember˺ when Jesus, son of Mary, said, "O children of Israel! I am truly Allah's messenger to you, confirming the Torah which came before me, and giving good news of a messenger after me whose name will be Aḥmad." Yet when the Prophet came to them with clear proofs, they said, "This is pure magic."|{{qref|61|6|c=y}}}} [468] => Through this verse, early Arab Muslims claimed legitimacy for their new faith in the existing religious traditions and the alleged predictions of Jesus.{{Cite journal|last=Virani|first=Shafique N.|title=Taqiyya and Identity in a South Asian Community|url=https://www.academia.edu/36996009|journal=The Journal of Asian Studies|year=2011|volume=70|issue=1|pages=99–139|doi=10.1017/S0021911810002974|s2cid=143431047|issn=0021-9118}} p. 128. [469] => [470] => ====Ahmadiyya Islam==== [471] => {{Main|Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam}} [472] => The [[Ahmadiyya]] Muslim Community has several [[Jesus in Ahmadiyya Islam|distinct teachings]] about Jesus.{{harvnb|Friedmann|1989|pp=111–118}}. Ahmadis believe that he was a mortal man who survived his crucifixion and died a natural death at the age of 120 in [[Kashmir]], India, and is buried at [[Roza Bal]].{{harvnb|Friedmann|1989|p=114}}; {{harvnb|Melton|2010|p=55}}. [473] => [474] => ===Druze Faith=== [475] => {{Main|Jesus in Druze faith}} [476] => In the [[Druze|Druze Faith]], Jesus is considered and revered as one of the seven spokesmen or prophets (''natiq''), defined as messengers or intermediaries between God and mankind, along with [[Adam]], [[Noah]], [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Muhammad]] and [[Muhammad ibn Isma'il]], each of them sent in a different period of history to preach the message of God.{{cite book|title=The Druze in the Middle East: Their Faith, Leadership, Identity and Status| first= Nissim |last= Dana|year= 2008| isbn= 978-1-903900-36-9| page =47 |publisher=Michigan University press}}{{cite book|title=The Druse, a Religious Community in Transition| first= Nissim |last= Dana|year= 1980| isbn=978-965-200-028-6| page =11|publisher=Turtledove}}{{cite book |last=Betts |first=Robert Brenton |title=The Druze |publisher=Yale University Press |year=1988 |isbn=978-0-300-04810-0 |location=New Haven, Connecticut, USA |page=21 |language=en-us}}{{cite book|title=The A to Z of the Druzes| first= Samy |last=Swayd|year= 2019| isbn=978-0-8108-7002-4| page =xxxviii |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield}} [477] => [478] => ===Baháʼí Faith=== [479] => In the [[Baháʼí Faith]], Jesus is considered one of the [[Manifestation of God (Baháʼí Faith)|Manifestations of God]],{{cite web |date=13 June 2014 |title=Who is Christ to Baha'is? |url=https://bahaiteachings.org/who-is-christ-to-bahais/}} defined as divine messengers or prophets sent by God to guide humanity, along with other religious figures such as [[Abraham]], [[Moses]], [[Krishna]], [[Zarathushtra]], [[Buddha]], [[Muhammad]] and [[Baháʼu'lláh]]. Baháʼís believe that these religious founders or leaders have contributed to the [[Progressive revelation (Baháʼí)|progressive revelation]] by bringing spiritual and moral values to humanity in their own time and place.{{Cite book |title=Baha'i Faith |last=Hartz |first=Paula |publisher=Chelsea House Publishers |year=2009 |isbn=978-1-60413-104-8 |location=New York |pages=14–15 |url=https://archive.org/details/bahaifaith0000hart/page/14}}{{Cite book |last=Miller |first=William McElwee |url=https://archive.org/details/bahaifaithitshis0000mill/page/355 |title=The Baha'i faith: its history and teachings |publisher=William Carey Library |year=1974 |isbn=978-0-87808-137-0 |location=South Pasadena, California, USA |pages=355 |language=en-us}}{{cite journal | title = Jesus Christ in the Baháʼí Writings | first = Robert | last = Stockman | journal = [[Baháʼí Studies Review]] | volume = 2 | issue = 1 | year = 1992 |url=http://bahai-library.com/stockman_jesus_bahai_writings | access-date = 4 July 2010 | archive-date = 7 June 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190607061448/http://bahai-library.com/stockman_jesus_bahai_writings | url-status = live }}{{cite journal | first = Juan | last = Cole | title = The Concept of Manifestation in the Bahaʼi Writings | year = 1982 | journal = [[Baháʼí studies#Journals|Études Baháʼí Studies]] | volume = 9 | pages = 1–38 |url=http://bahai-library.com/cole_concept_manifestation | access-date = 4 July 2012 | archive-date = 17 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517105145/http://bahai-library.com/cole_concept_manifestation | url-status = live }}{{cite book |last = Smith |first = Peter |year = 2008 |title = An Introduction to the Baha'i Faith |publisher = Cambridge University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z7zdDFTzNr0C&pg=PA107|isbn = 978-0-521-86251-6 |page = 107}} As a Manifestation of God, Jesus is believed to reflect God's qualities and attributes, but is not considered the only saviour of humanity nor the incarnation of God.{{Cite book |last=Adamson |first=Hugh C. |url=https://archive.org/details/atozofbahaifaith0000adam/page/188 |title=The A to Z of the Baháʼí Faith |publisher=Scarecrow Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-8108-6853-3 |location=Lanham, Maryland, USA |pages=188 |language=en-us}}{{Cite book |last=Beckwith |first=Francis |url=https://archive.org/details/bahai0000beck/page/14 |title=Bahaʼi |publisher=Bethany House |year=1985 |isbn=978-0-87123-848-1 |location=Minneapolis, Minnesota |pages=13–15 |language=en-us}}{{Cite book |last=Garlington |first=William |url=https://archive.org/details/bahaifaithinamer0000garl_r5j0/page/175 |title=The Baha'i Faith in America |publisher=Praeger Publishers |year=2005 |isbn=978-0-7425-6234-9 |location=Westport, Connecticut, USA |page=175 |language=en-us}} Baháʼís believe in the virgin birth,{{cite book | title = In the Glory of the Father: The Baháʼí Faith and Christianity | first = Brian D. | last = Lepard | year = 2008 | publisher = Baháʼí Publishing Trust | isbn = 978-1-931847-34-6 | page = 118 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v2ob2Tw2k3MC&pg=PA118 | access-date = 14 August 2015 | archive-date = 10 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910050221/https://books.google.com/books?id=v2ob2Tw2k3MC&pg=PA118 | url-status = live }}{{cite journal|last=Cole|first=Juan R. I.|title=Behold the Man: Baha'u'llah on the Life of Jesus|journal=Journal of the American Academy of Religion |year=1997|volume=65|issue=1|pages=51, 56, 60}} but see the resurrection and the miracles of Jesus as symbolic.{{cite encyclopedia |last= Smith |first= Peter |encyclopedia= A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith |title= peace |year= 2000 |publisher= Oneworld Publications |isbn= 978-1-85168-184-6 |page= [https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/214 214] |url=https://archive.org/details/conciseencyclope0000smit/page/214 }} [480] => [481] => ===Other=== [482] => {{See also|Criticism of Jesus}} [483] => [[File:The_Liberator_masthead,_1861_Jan_11.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Jesus depicted as the liberator of Black slaves, on the masthead of the [[abolitionism in the United States|abolitionist]] paper ''[[The Liberator (newspaper)|The Liberator]]'']] [484] => [[File:Jesus Image on a Manichaean Temple Banner.jpg|thumb|Enthroned Jesus image on a [[Manichaeism|Manichaean]] temple banner from {{circa|10th-century}} [[Qocho]]]] [485] => In [[Gnosticism|Christian Gnosticism]] (now a largely extinct religious movement),{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhpKxQT8n74C&pg=PA27 | title=The Oxford Illustrated History of Christianity | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2001 | page=27 | isbn=978-0-19-285439-1 | first=John | last=McManners | access-date=14 August 2015 | archive-date=7 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907102122/https://books.google.com/books?id=DhpKxQT8n74C&pg=PA27 | url-status=live }} Jesus was sent from the divine realm and provided the secret knowledge ([[gnosis]]) necessary for salvation. Most Gnostics believed that Jesus was a human who became possessed by the spirit of "the Christ" at his baptism. This spirit left Jesus' body during the crucifixion but was rejoined to him when he was raised from the dead. Some Gnostics, however, were [[docetism|docetics]], believing that Jesus did not have a physical body, but only appeared to possess one.{{cite book |last=Ehrman |first=Bart D. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&pg=PA124 |title=Lost Christianities: The Battles For Scripture And The Faiths We Never Knew |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-19-518249-1 |pages=124–125 |language=en |access-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222010/https://books.google.com/books?id=URdACxKubDIC&pg=PA124 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |url-status=live}} [486] => [487] => Some [[Hinduism|Hindus]] consider Jesus to be an [[avatar]] or a [[sadhu]].{{cite web |url=http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/beliefs/jesus_1.shtml | title=Jesus in Hinduism | publisher=BBC | date=24 March 2009 | first=Shaunaka | last=Rishi Das | access-date=4 June 2013 | archive-date=25 November 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181125233747/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/hinduism/beliefs/jesus_1.shtml | url-status=live }} [[Paramahansa Yogananda]], an Indian [[guru]], taught that Jesus was the reincarnation of [[Elisha]] and a student of [[John the Baptist]], the reincarnation of [[Elijah]].{{cite book |first=Paramahansa |last=Yogananda |title=Autobiography of a Yogi |publisher=Diamond Pocket Books |year=2008 |isbn=978-81-902562-0-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xsIi4ePN4hYC&pg=PA319 |access-date=14 August 2015 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910173606/https://books.google.com/books?id=xsIi4ePN4hYC&pg=PA319 |url-status=live }} Some [[Buddhist]]s, including [[Tenzin Gyatso, 14th Dalai Lama|Tenzin Gyatso, the 14th Dalai Lama]], regard Jesus as a [[bodhisattva]] who dedicated his life to the welfare of people.{{cite web|last=Beverley|first=James A.|url=http://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/june11/15.64.html?paging=off|title=Hollywood's Idol|publisher=Christianity Today|date=11 June 2011|access-date=15 May 2013|archive-date=29 March 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190329222548/https://www.christianitytoday.com/ct/2001/june11/15.64.html?paging=off|url-status=live}} The [[New Age]] movement entertains a wide variety of views on Jesus.{{cite book | last =Hutson | first =Steven | title =What They Never Taught You in Sunday School: A Fresh Look at Following Jesus | publisher =City Boy Enterprises | year =2006 | page =57 | isbn =978-1-59886-300-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sVnT_hSpSBAC&pg=PA57 | access-date =14 August 2015 | archive-date =7 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907100719/https://books.google.com/books?id=sVnT_hSpSBAC&pg=PA57 | url-status =live }} [[Theosophy (Blavatskian)|Theosophists]], from whom many New Age teachings originated,{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/newageneopaganre00pike/page/56 | title=New Age and neopagan religions in America | publisher=Columbia University Press | year=2004 | page=[https://archive.org/details/newageneopaganre00pike/page/56 56] | isbn=978-0-231-12402-7 | first=Sarah M. | last=Pike }} refer to Jesus as the [[Master Jesus]], a spiritual reformer, and they believe that Christ, after [[reincarnation|various incarnations]], occupied the body of Jesus.{{cite book|title=A Treatise on Cosmic Fire|first1=Alice|last1=Bailey|first2=Djwhal|last2=Khul|isbn=978-0-85330-117-2|publisher=Lucis Publishing Company|pages=678, 1150, 1193|year=2005|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3FAZi674omIC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222027/https://books.google.com/books?id=3FAZi674omIC|url-status=live}} ''[[The Urantia Book]]'' teaches Jesus is one of more than 700,000 heavenly sons of God.{{cite book |last=House |first=Wayne |title=Charts of Cults, Sects and Religious Movements |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rRbKQwAACAAJ |publisher=[[Zondervan]] |year=2000 |page=262 |isbn=978-0-310-38551-6 |access-date=12 May 2020 |archive-date=8 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222014/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Charts_of_Cults_Sects_Religious_Movement/rRbKQwAACAAJ?hl=en |url-status=live }} [[Antony Theodore]] in the book ''Jesus Christ in Love'' writes that there is an underlying oneness of Jesus' teachings with the messages contained in [[Quran]], [[Vedas]], [[Upanishads]], [[Talmud]] and [[Avesta]].{{cite book |last=Theodore |first=Antony |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-cwcEAAAQBAJ&q=jesus+christ+in+love+antony |title=Jesus Christ in Love |publisher=Kohinoor Books |year=2019 |isbn=978-8-194-28353-9 |location=New Delhi, India |translator-last=Pradhan |translator-first=Tapan Kumar |access-date=13 June 2021}} [[Atheist]]s reject Jesus' divinity, but have different views about him – from challenging [[Mental health of Jesus|his mental health]]{{cite book |last=Schweitzer |first=Albert |url=https://archive.org/details/psychiatricstudy00schw |title=The Psychiatric Study of Jesus: Exposition and Criticism |publisher=Beacon Press |year=1948 |location=Boston, Massachusetts |language=en-us |translator-last=Joy |translator-first=Charles R. |lccn=48006488 |oclc=614572512 |ol=6030284M |url-access=registration}}{{cite book |last=Bundy |first=Walter E. |title=The Psychic Health of Jesus |publisher=The Macmillan Company |location=New York |year=1922 |lccn=22005555 |oclc = 644667928 |ol=OL25583375M |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/psychichealthofj00bund }} to emphasizing his "moral superiority" ([[Richard Dawkins]]).{{cite book |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |author-link=Richard Dawkins |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yq1xDpicghkC&pg=PA284 |title=The God Delusion |page=284 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |access-date=13 December 2014 |isbn=978-0-547-34866-7 |date=2008 |archive-date=27 March 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150327215018/http://books.google.com/books?id=yq1xDpicghkC |url-status=live }} [488] => [489] => ==Artistic depictions== [490] => {{Main|Depiction of Jesus}} [491] => [[File:Christ Healing the Paralytic - Dura-Europos circa 232.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|Jesus healing a paralytic in one of the first known images of Jesus from [[Dura-Europos church|Dura Europos]] in the 3rd century{{cite web|title=Dura-Europos: Excavating Antiquity {{!}} Yale University Art Gallery|url=http://media.artgallery.yale.edu/duraeuropos/dura.html|website=media.artgallery.yale.edu|access-date=3 March 2017|archive-date=5 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170505112511/http://media.artgallery.yale.edu/duraeuropos/dura.html|url-status=dead}}|alt=An ancient wall painting depicting Jesus|left]] [492] => [496] => [497] => Some of the earliest depictions of Jesus at the [[Dura-Europos church]] are firmly dated to before 256.{{cite encyclopedia |year=1992 |title=Early Christian and Jewish Art |encyclopedia=Eusebius, Christianity, and Judaism |publisher=Wayne State University Press |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jVyzbHAJ_hAC&pg=PA283 |access-date=14 August 2015 |last=Gutmann |first=Joseph |editor-last1=Attridge |editor-first=Harold W. |pages=283–284 |language=en-us |isbn=978-0-8143-2361-8 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910060007/https://books.google.com/books?id=jVyzbHAJ_hAC&pg=PA283 |archive-date=10 September 2015 |editor-first2=Gohei |editor-last2=Hata |url-status=live}} Thereafter, despite the lack of biblical references or historical records, a wide range of depictions of Jesus appeared during the last two millennia, often influenced by cultural settings, political circumstances and theological contexts.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}}{{cite book|title=Teaching Christianity: a world religions approach|first= Clive|last= Erricker|year= 1987 |isbn= 978-0-7188-2634-5 |page= 44 |publisher=James Clarke & Co}} As in other [[Early Christian art]], the earliest depictions date to the late 2nd or early 3rd century, and surviving images are found especially in the [[Catacombs of Rome]].{{cite book|title=The New Westminster Dictionary of Church History|first= Robert |last=Benedetto|year= 2006| isbn= 978-0-664-22416-5 |pages= 51–53 |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press}} [498] => [499] => The depiction of Christ in pictorial form was highly [[Aniconism in Christianity|controversial]] in the early Church.{{cite book | last= Schaff | first= Phillip | title= History of the Christian Church,8 volumes, 3rd edition | publisher= Hendrickson Publishers | location= Massachusetts | date= 1 July 2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NV8sAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA381 | isbn= 978-1-56563-196-0 | access-date= 14 August 2015 | archive-date= 10 September 2015 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150910074209/https://books.google.com/books?id=NV8sAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA381 | url-status= live }}{{efn|Philip Schaff commenting on Irenaeus, wrote, 'This censure of images as a Gnostic peculiarity, and as a heathenish corruption, should be noted'. Footnote 300 on Contr. Her. .I.XXV.6. ANF}}[[Synod of Elvira]], 'Pictures are not to be placed in churches, so that they do not become objects of worship and adoration', AD 306, Canon 36. From the 5th century onward, flat painted [[icon]]s became popular in the Eastern Church.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Icons}} The [[Byzantine Iconoclasm]] acted as a barrier to developments in the East, but by the 9th century, art was permitted again.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}} The [[Protestant Reformation]] brought renewed [[aniconism in Christianity|resistance to imagery]], but total prohibition was atypical, and Protestant objections to images have tended to reduce since the 16th century. Although large images are generally avoided, few Protestants now object to book illustrations depicting Jesus.{{cite book|title=Reformation and the Visual Arts|first= Sergiusz|last= Michalski |year= 1993| isbn= 978-1-134-92102-7 |publisher=Routledge |page= 195}}{{cite book |last=Payton |first=James R. |title=Light from the Christian East: An Introduction to the Orthodox Tradition |publisher=InterVarsity Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-0-8308-2594-3 |pages=178–179 |language=en-us}} The use of depictions of Jesus is advocated by the leaders of denominations such as [[Anglicans]] and [[Catholics]]{{cite book|title=The Dwelling of the Light: Praying with Icons of Christ |last=Williams|first=Rowan|year= 2003 |isbn= 978-0-8028-2778-4|publisher=Wm. B. Eerdmans Publishing| page= 83}}{{cite web|first=Karol J.|last=Wojtyła|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1997/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_29101997_en.html|publisher=Vatican Publishing House|title=General audience 29 October 1997|access-date=20 April 2013|archive-date=3 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303020028/http://www.vatican.va/holy_father/john_paul_ii/audiences/1997/documents/hf_jp-ii_aud_29101997_en.html|url-status=live}}{{cite web|url=https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20090506_en.html|publisher= Vatican Publishing House|title= General audience 6 May 2009|access-date= 20 April 2013|first= Joseph A.|last= Ratzinger|archive-date= 3 March 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130303064734/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/audiences/2009/documents/hf_ben-xvi_aud_20090506_en.html|url-status= live}} and is a key element of the [[Eastern Orthodox]] tradition.{{sfn|Doninger|1999|p=231}}{{cite book|title=The Orthodox Christian World|first= Augustine|last= Casiday|year= 2012 |isbn= 978-0-415-45516-9| page= 447 |publisher=Routledge}} [500] => [501] => In Eastern Christian art, the [[Transfiguration of Jesus in Christian art|Transfiguration]] was a major theme, and every Eastern Orthodox monk who had trained in [[icon]] painting had to prove his craft by painting an icon depicting it.{{cite book |last=Bigham |first=Steven |title=The image of God the Father in Orthodox theology and iconography |publisher=St Vladimir's Seminary Press |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-879038-15-8 |pages=226–227}} Icons receive the external marks of veneration, such as kisses and prostration, and they are thought to be powerful channels of divine grace.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005|loc=Icons}} [502] => [503] => In Western Europe, the [[Renaissance]] brought forth a number of artists who focused on depictions of Jesus; [[Fra Angelico]] and others followed [[Giotto]] in the systematic development of uncluttered images.{{sfn|Houlden|2006|pp=63–99}} Before the Protestant Reformation, the [[crucifix]] was common in Western Christianity. It is a model of the cross with Jesus crucified on it. The crucifix became the central ornament of the altar in the 13th century, a use that has been nearly universal in Roman Catholic churches since then.{{sfn|Cross|Livingstone|2005 |loc=Crucifix}} [504] => [505] => ==Associated relics== [506] => {{Main|Relics associated with Jesus}} [507] => [[File:Shroud of Turin 001.jpg|thumb|The [[Shroud of Turin]], Italy, is the best-known claimed relic of Jesus and one of the most studied artefacts in human history{{cite journal |last=Ball |first=P. |title=Material witness: Shrouded in mystery |doi=10.1038/nmat2170 |journal=Nature Materials |volume=7 |issue=5 |page=349 |year=2008 |pmid=18432204 |bibcode=2008NatMa...7..349B |doi-access=free }}]] [508] => The total destruction that ensued with the [[Siege of Jerusalem (70)|siege of Jerusalem]] by the Romans in AD 70 made the survival of items from 1st-century Judea very rare and almost no direct records survive about the history of Judaism from the last part of the 1st century through the 2nd century.{{sfn|Levine|2006|pp=24–25}}[[Helmut Koester]] ''Introduction to the New Testament'', Vol. 1: History, Culture, and Religion of the Hellenistic Age. Berlin, Germany: [[de Gruyter Press]], 1995, p. 382.{{efn|[[Flavius Josephus]] writing (about 5 years later, c. AD 75) in ''[[The Jewish War]]'' (Book VII 1.1) stated that Jerusalem had been flattened to the point that "there was left nothing to make those that came thither believe it had ever been inhabited".Flavius Josephus, ''The Jewish War'' Book VII, section 1.1" And once what was left of the ruins of Jerusalem had been turned into the Roman settlement of [[Aelia Capitolina]], no Jews were allowed to set foot in it.}} [[Margaret M. Mitchell]] writes that although [[Eusebius]] reports (''[[Church History (Eusebius)|Ecclesiastical History]]'' III 5.3) that the early Christians left Jerusalem for [[Pella, Jordan|Pella]] just before Jerusalem was subjected to the final lockdown, we must accept that no first-hand Christian items from the early Jerusalem Church have reached us.[[Margaret M. Mitchell]] "The Cambridge History of Christianity, Volume 1: Origins to Constantine" Cambridge University Press 2006, p. 298. [[Joe Nickell]] writes, "as investigation after investigation has shown, not a single, reliably authenticated relic of Jesus exists".{{cite book|last=Nickell|first=Joe|title=Relics of the Christ|year=2007|publisher=University Press of Kentucky|isbn=978-0-8131-3731-5|page=[https://archive.org/details/relicsofchrist00joen/page/191 191]|url=https://archive.org/details/relicsofchrist00joen|url-access=registration}}{{efn|Polarized conclusions regarding the Shroud of Turin remain.Habermas, Gary R. "Shroud of Turin". ''The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization'' (2011). {{doi|10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc1257}} According to former ''[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]'' editor [[Philip Ball]], "it's fair to say that, despite the seemingly definitive tests in 1988, the status of the Shroud of Turin is murkier than ever. Not least, the nature of the image and how it was fixed on the cloth remain deeply puzzling".{{Cite journal | last1 = Ball | first1 = P. | title = Material witness: Shrouded in mystery | doi = 10.1038/nmat2170 | journal = Nature Materials | volume = 7 | issue = 5 | page = 349 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18432204 | bibcode = 2008NatMa...7..349B | doi-access = free }}}} [509] => [510] => However, throughout the history of Christianity, a number of [[relic]]s attributed to Jesus have been claimed, although doubt has been cast on them. The 16th-century Catholic theologian [[Erasmus]] wrote sarcastically about the proliferation of relics and the number of buildings that could have been constructed from the wood claimed to be from the [[True Cross|cross used in the Crucifixion]].{{sfn|Dillenberger|1999|p=5}} Similarly, while experts debate whether Jesus was crucified with three nails or with four, at least thirty [[holy nail]]s continue to be venerated as relics across Europe.{{CathEncy|wstitle =Holy Nails|title=Holy Nails|first= Herbert|last=Thurston}} [511] => [512] => Some relics, such as purported remnants of the [[crown of thorns]] placed on the head of Jesus, receive only a modest number of [[Christian pilgrimage|pilgrims]], while the [[Shroud of Turin]] (which is associated with an approved [[Catholic devotion]] to the [[Holy Face of Jesus]]), has received millions,{{cite news|last=Delaney|first=Sarah|title=Shroud exposition closes with more than 2 million visits|url=http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/1002157.htm|archive-url=http://webarchive.loc.gov/all/20100608223917/http://www.catholicnews.com/data/stories/cns/1002157.htm|url-status=dead|archive-date=8 June 2010|agency=Catholic News Service |date=24 May 2010}} including popes [[John Paul II]] and [[Pope Benedict XVI|Benedict XVI]].{{cite web|last=Wojtyła|first=Karol J.|title=Pope John Paul II's address in Turin Cathedral|url=https://w2.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/travels/1998/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone.html|publisher=Vatican Publishing House|date=24 May 1998|access-date=18 February 2017|archive-date=19 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170219114758/https://w2.vatican.va/content/john-paul-ii/en/travels/1998/documents/hf_jp-ii_spe_24051998_sindone.html|url-status=live}}{{cite news|last=Squires|first=Nick|title=Pope Benedict says Shroud of Turin authentic burial robe of Jesus|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0503/Pope-Benedict-says-Shroud-of-Turin-authentic-burial-robe-of-Jesus|newspaper=Christian Science Monitor|date=3 May 2010|access-date=19 June 2013|archive-date=1 April 2013|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130401072455/http://www.csmonitor.com/World/Europe/2010/0503/Pope-Benedict-says-Shroud-of-Turin-authentic-burial-robe-of-Jesus|url-status=live}} [513] => [514] => ==See also== [515] => {{div col|colwidth=25em}} [516] => * [[Outline of Jesus]] [517] => * [[Jesuism]] [518] => * [[Jesus in comparative mythology]] [519] => * [[Jesus in the Talmud]] [520] => * [[Language of Jesus]] [521] => * [[Last Adam]] – title of Jesus [522] => * [[Liminal deity]] – deity who is a crosser of boundaries [523] => * [[List of books about Jesus]] [524] => * [[List of founders of religious traditions]] [525] => * [[List of messiah claimants]] [526] => * [[List of people claimed to be Jesus]] [527] => * [[List of people who have been considered deities]] [528] => * [[List of statues of Jesus]] [529] => * [[Sexuality of Jesus]] [530] => * [[Tiberius Julius Abdes Pantera]] – Roman soldier, hypothesized to be connected to Jesus [531] => {{div col end}} [532] => [533] => ==Notes== [534] => {{notelist}} [535] => {{notelist|30em}} [536] => [537] => ==References== [538] => [539] => ===Citations=== [540] => {{reflist|30em}} [541] => [542] => ===Sources=== [543] => {{refbegin|30em}} [544] => * {{cite book [545] => |first=Douglas [546] => |last=Hare [547] => |title=Matthew [548] => |publisher=Westminster John Knox Press [549] => |year=1993 [550] => |isbn=978-0-664-23433-1 [551] => }} [552] => * {{cite book|first=Craig L.|last=Blomberg|author-link=Craig Blomberg|title=Jesus and the Gospels: An Introduction and Survey|year=2009|isbn=978-0-8054-4482-7|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=U5rIPC1UgsgC|publisher=B&H Publishing Group|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222031/https://books.google.com/books?id=U5rIPC1UgsgC|url-status=live}} [553] => * {{cite book|title=The People's New Testament Commentary|first1=M. 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Revell Company|isbn= 978-0-916441-31-9}} [619] => * {{cite book|title= Jesus the Jew: A Historian's Reading of the Gospels|last= Vermes|first= Geza|author-link1= Geza Vermes|year= 1981|publisher= First Fortress|location= Philadelphia|isbn= 978-0-8006-1443-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC|access-date= 8 October 2020|archive-date= 8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=RvSEK2HALnwC|url-status= live}} [620] => * {{cite book|title=The Bible Knowledge Commentary: New Testament|first1=John F.|last1=Walvoord|author-link1=John Walvoord|first2=Roy B.|last2=Zuck|year=1983|isbn=978-0-88207-812-0|publisher=David C. Cook|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222037/https://books.google.com/books?id=DP4UiA4gQNMC|url-status=live}} [621] => * {{cite book|title=The Jesus Quest: The Third Search for the Jew of Nazareth|first=Ben|last=Witherington|author-link=Ben Witherington III|year=1997|isbn=978-0-8308-1544-9|publisher=InterVarsity Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC|access-date=8 October 2020|archive-date=8 October 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201008222039/https://books.google.com/books?id=IE_T3Xh2fyUC|url-status=live}} [622] => {{refend}} [623] => [624] => ==External links== [625] => {{Spoken Wikipedia|Jesus Spoken Version.ogg|date=28 October 2013}} [626] => [627] => *''LatinVulgate.com'', [http://www.latinvulgate.com/christverse.aspx The Complete Sayings of Jesus Christ] in parallel Latin and English, provided by Mental Systems, Incorporated [628] => [629] => {{Jesus footer |state=expanded}} [630] => {{Navboxes|list= [631] => {{Christmas}} [632] => {{Nativity of Jesus}} [633] => {{Virgin Mary}} [634] => {{Apostles}} [635] => {{New Testament people}} [636] => {{Sermon on the Mount}} [637] => {{Parables of Jesus}} [638] => {{Miracles of Jesus}} [639] => {{Christianity footer}} [640] => {{Gospel of Matthew}} [641] => {{Gospel of Mark}} [642] => {{Gospel of Luke}} [643] => {{Gospel of John}} [644] => {{Acts of the Apostles}} [645] => {{Titles of Jesus}} [646] => {{Life of Jesus in Christian art}} [647] => }} [648] => {{Subject bar [649] => |book1 = Jesus [650] => |portal1 = Christianity [651] => |portal2 = Islam [652] => |portal3 = Religion [653] => |commons = y [654] => |commons-search = ישוע [655] => |wikt = y [656] => |wikt-search = Jesus [657] => |b = y [658] => |b-search = Biblical Studies/Christianity/Jesus [659] => |q = y [660] => |s = y [661] => |s-search = Author:Jesus of Nazareth [662] => |v = y [663] => |d = y [664] => |v-search = Jesus [665] => |d-search = Q302 [666] => |portal4=Bible [667] => |portal5=Biography}} [668] => {{Authority control}} [669] => [670] => [[Category:0s BC births]] [671] => [[Category:30s deaths]] [672] => [[Category:1st-century apocalypticists]] [673] => [[Category:1st-century BCE Jews]] [674] => [[Category:1st-century executions]] [675] => [[Category:1st-century Jews]] [676] => [[Category:1st-century rabbis]] [677] => [[Category:Angelic visionaries]] [678] => [[Category:Carpenters]] [679] => [[Category:Creator gods]] [680] => [[Category:Deified men]] [681] => [[Category:Exorcists]] [682] => [[Category:Faith healers]] [683] => [[Category:Founders of religions]] [684] => [[Category:God in Christianity]] [685] => [[Category:Jesus| ]] [686] => [[Category:Jewish messiah claimants]] [687] => [[Category:Judean people]] [688] => [[Category:Life-death-rebirth gods]] [689] => [[Category:Names of God]] [690] => [[Category:People considered avatars by their followers]] [691] => [[Category:People executed by crucifixion]] [692] => [[Category:People executed by the Roman Empire]] [693] => [[Category:People from Bethlehem]] [694] => [[Category:People from Nazareth]] [695] => [[Category:Prophets of the New Testament]] [696] => [[Category:Prophets in the Druze faith]] [697] => [[Category:Publicly executed people]] [698] => [[Category:Rabbis of the Land of Israel]] [699] => [[Category:Savior gods]] [700] => [[Category:Ascetics]] [701] => [[Category:Homeless people]] [702] => [[Category:Torture victims]] [703] => [[Category:Miracle workers]] [704] => [[Category:Killed deities]] [705] => [[Category:Year of birth uncertain]] [706] => [[Category:Year of death uncertain]] [707] => [[Category:Nonviolence advocates]] [] => )
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Jesus

Jesus is a central figure in Christianity, believed by its adherents to be the Son of God and the awaited Messiah prophesied in the Old Testament. As described in the New Testament of the Bible, Jesus was born in Bethlehem to the Virgin Mary through a divine conception and led a humble life as a carpenter's son.

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As described in the New Testament of the Bible, Jesus was born in Bethlehem to the Virgin Mary through a divine conception and led a humble life as a carpenter's son. He began preaching the word of God, performing miracles, and gathering disciples, eventually gaining a significant following. However, Jesus' teachings challenged the religious and political authorities of the time, culminating in his crucifixion by the Romans. According to Christian belief, Jesus' death served as atonement for humanity's sins, and his resurrection three days later reaffirmed his divine nature and victory over death. Jesus' teachings on love, forgiveness, and self-sacrifice have had a profound influence on Western civilization, and Christianity has become one of the world's major religions. This Wikipedia page provides a comprehensive overview of Jesus' life and teachings, examining various aspects of his historical and religious significance.

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