Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Workplace for scientific activity}} [1] => [[File:Schuster Laboratory.jpg|thumb|The [[Schuster Laboratory]], [[University of Manchester]] (a physics laboratory)]] [2] => [3] => A '''laboratory''' ({{IPAc-en|UK|l|ə|ˈ|b|ɒr|ə|t|ər|i|}}; {{IPAc-en|US|ˈ|l|æ|b|r|ə|t|ɔr|i}}; colloquially '''lab''') is a facility that provides controlled conditions in which [[science|scientific]] or technological research, [[experiment]]s, and [[measurement]] may be performed. Laboratories are found in a variety of settings such as schools, universities, privately owned research institutions, corporate research and testing facilities, government regulatory and forensic investigation centers, physicians' offices, clinics, hospitals, regional and national referral centers, and even occasionally personal residences.{{Cite web |url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4899-7794-6_1 |title=Laboratory Structure and Function |access-date=2019-07-24 |archive-date=2021-04-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210429010835/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4899-7794-6_1 |url-status=live }} [4] => [5] => ==Overview== [6] => The organisation and contents of laboratories are determined by the differing requirements of the specialists working within. A [[physics]] laboratory might contain a [[particle accelerator]] or [[vacuum chamber]], while a [[metallurgy]] laboratory could have apparatus for [[Casting (metalworking)|casting]] or [[refining]] metals or for testing their [[strength of materials|strength]]. A [[chemist]] or [[biologist]] might use a [[wet laboratory]], while a [[psychology|psychologist's]] laboratory might be a room with one-way mirrors and hidden cameras in which to observe behavior. In some laboratories, such as those commonly used by [[computer scientist]]s, [[computer]]s (sometimes [[supercomputer]]s) are used for either [[computer simulation|simulations]] or the [[data analysis|analysis]] of [[data]]. Scientists in other fields will still use other types of laboratories. [[Engineers]] use laboratories as well to design, build, and test technological devices. [7] => [8] => Scientific laboratories can be found as research room and [[learning space]]s in [[school]]s and [[university|universities]], [[Private industry|industry]], [[government]], or [[military]] facilities, and even aboard [[ship]]s and [[spacecraft]]. [9] => [10] => [[File:GIRLS' COUMTY SCHOOL LAB.jpg|thumb|Laboratory, Brecon County School for Girls]] [11] => [12] => Despite the underlying notion of the lab as a confined space for experts,{{cite book|last1=Latour|first1=Bruno|title=Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society|publisher=Cambridge: Harvard University Press|date=1987}} the term "laboratory" is also increasingly applied to workshop spaces such as [[Living lab|Living Labs]], [[Fab lab|Fab Labs]], or [[Hackerspace]]s, in which people meet to work on societal problems or make [[prototype]]s, working collaboratively or sharing resources.{{cite news|last1=Flaherty|first1=Joe|title=Ford + TechShop: Getting Employees to Tinker|url=https://www.wired.com/2012/05/ford-techshop/|magazine=Wired|date=May 14, 2012|access-date=October 5, 2017|archive-date=June 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180612150707/https://www.wired.com/2012/05/ford-techshop/|url-status=live}}{{cite news|last1=Burress|first1=Charles|title=A Tinkerer's Paradise in Berkeley / Young, old inventors are offered tools, techniques and inspiration|url=http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/A-Tinkerer-s-Paradise-in-Berkeley-Young-old-2788368.php|work=SF Chronicle|date=December 22, 1997|access-date=October 5, 2017|archive-date=October 6, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006013039/http://www.sfgate.com/news/article/A-Tinkerer-s-Paradise-in-Berkeley-Young-old-2788368.php|url-status=live}}{{cite news|last1=Carlson|first1=Adam|title=Top 8 Tools for Building a Personal Prototyping Laboratory|url=https://www.eetimes.com/author.asp?doc_id=1319407|work=EE Times|date=September 5, 2013|access-date=October 5, 2017|archive-date=October 6, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171006011955/https://www.eetimes.com/author.asp?doc_id=1319407|url-status=live}} This development is inspired by new, [[Participatory science|participatory approaches]] to science and innovation and relies on user-centred design methodsISO 13407:(1999), titled Human-centred design processes for interactive systems, is an ISO Standard providing Guidance on human-centred design activities throughout the life cycle of interactive computer-based systems. and concepts like [[Open innovation]] or [[User innovation]],.Von Hippel, E. (1986). Lead users: a source of novel product concepts. Management Science 32, 791–805.Chesbrough, H.W. (2003). Open Innovation: The new imperative for creating and profiting from technology. Boston: Harvard Business School Press. One distinctive feature of work in Open Labs is the phenomenon of [[Translational research|translation]], driven by the different backgrounds and levels of expertise of the people involved.{{cite journal|last1=Fritzsche|first1=A|title=Corporate Foresight in Open Laboratories - A Translational Approach|journal=Technology Analysis & Strategic Management|volume=30|issue=6|pages=646–657| date=2018 | doi=10.1080/09537325.2017.1380180|s2cid=46887116}} [13] => [14] => ==History== [15] => [16] => Early instances of "laboratories" recorded in English involved [[alchemy]] and the preparation of [[Pharmaceutical drug|medicine]]s. [17] => {{OED | laboratory}}: "Originally: a room or building for the practice of alchemy and the preparation of medicines. Later: one equipped for carrying out scientific experiments or procedures, esp. for the purposes of research, teaching, or analysis; (also) one in which chemicals or drugs are manufactured." [18] => [19] => [20] => The emergence of [[Big Science]] during [[World War II]] increased the size of laboratories and scientific equipment, introducing [[particle accelerator]]s and similar devices. [21] => [22] => === The early laboratories === [23] => [24] => The earliest laboratory according to the present evidence is a home laboratory of [[Pythagoras]] of Samos, the well-known Greek philosopher and scientist. This laboratory was created when [[Pythagoras]] conducted an experiment about tones of sound and vibration of string.{{cite journal|title=World's Oldest Laboratory|journal=Analytical Chemistry|date=30 May 2012|volume=62|issue=13|pages=701A|doi=10.1021/ac00212a716}} [25] => [26] => In the painting of [[Louis Pasteur]] by [[Albert Edelfelt]] in 1885, [[Louis Pasteur]] is shown comparing a note in his left hand with a bottle filled with a solid in his right hand, and not wearing any [[personal protective equipment]].{{cite journal|last1=Schummer|first1=Joachim|last2=Spector|first2=Tami I|title=The Visual Image of Chemistry: Perspectives from the History of Art and Science|journal=Hyle: International Journal for Philosophy of Chemistry|date=July 2007|issue=1|pages=3–41|url=http://www.hyle.org/journal/issues/13-1/schummer-spector.htm|access-date=2017-10-24|archive-date=2017-11-22|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171122224720/http://www.hyle.org/journal/issues/13-1/schummer-spector.htm|url-status=live}} [27] => [28] => Researching in teams started in the 19th century, and many new kinds of equipment were developed in the 20th century.{{cite journal|last1=Lowe|first1=Derek|title=Laboratory history: The chemistry chronicles|journal=Nature|date=27 May 2015|volume=521|issue=7553|pages=422|doi=10.1038/521422a|bibcode=2015Natur.521..422L|doi-access=free}} [29] => [30] => A 16th century underground alchemical laboratory was accidentally discovered in the year 2002. [[Rudolf II, Holy Roman Emperor]] was believed to be the owner. The laboratory is called Speculum Alchemiae and is preserved as a museum in [[Prague]].{{cite web|title=Museum of Alchemy|url=http://www.alchemiae.cz/en|website=Speculum Alchemiae|language=en|access-date=2017-10-24|archive-date=2020-05-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200508083004/http://www.alchemiae.cz/en|url-status=live}} [31] => [32] => [33] => File:Chemielabor des 18. Jahrhunderts, Naturhistorisches Museum Wien.jpg|[[Chemistry]] laboratory of the 18th century, of the sort used by [[Antoine Lavoisier]] and his contemporaries [34] => File:Edison in his NJ laboratory 1901.jpg|[[Thomas Edison]] in his laboratory, 1901 [35] => File:Lab in Medical Building.jpg|Classroom and Lab in Medical Building 1927 [36] => File:Lab in Medical Building, 1948.jpg|Labs in Chemistry Department in Medical Building 1948 [37] => File:Kulutusosuuskuntien Keskusliiton kokoelma D1974 11365A (30257239153).jpg|A laboratory of the Chemistry Department of the [[University of Helsinki]] on September 23, 1960 [38] => File:Fotothek df n-09 0000024.jpg|A laboratory in the 1970s [39] => File:MUIC chem lab.jpg|Chemical laboratory in [[Mahidol University International College]] since 2009 [40] => File:Muic counter in lab chem.jpg|Early 2000s style of counter in Chemical Laboratory, [[Mahidol University International College]], [[Thailand]] [41] => File:Chemisches Labor.jpg|Laboratory for organic Chemistry at the [[FH Aachen|University of Applied Science Aachen, Campus Jülich]], [[Germany]] [42] => [43] => [44] => ==Techniques== [45] => Laboratory techniques are the set of procedures used on [[natural sciences]] such as [[chemistry]], [[biology]], [[physics]] to conduct an experiment; while some of them involve the use of complex laboratory equipment from [[laboratory glassware]] to electrical devices, and others require more specific or expensive supplies. [46] => [47] => {{anchor|Laboratory equipment}} [48] => [49] => ==Equipment and supplies== [50] => [[File:Lab glassware.jpg|thumb|250px|Three [[beaker (glassware)|beakers]], an [[Erlenmeyer flask]], a [[graduated cylinder]] and a [[volumetric flask]]]] [51] => Laboratory equipment refers to the various tools and equipment used by scientists working in a laboratory. Laboratory equipment is generally used to either perform an [[experiment]] or to take [[measurement]]s and gather [[data]]. Larger or more sophisticated equipment is generally called a [[scientific instrument]]. [52] => [53] => The classical equipment includes tools such as [[Bunsen burner]]s and [[microscope]]s as well as specialty equipment such as [[operant conditioning chamber]]s, [[spectrophotometer]]s and [[calorimeter]]s. [54] => [55] => ===Chemical laboratories=== [56] => * [[laboratory glassware]] such as the [[Beaker (glassware)|beaker]] or [[reagent bottle]] [57] => * Analytical devices as [[High-performance liquid chromatography|HPLC]] or [[Spectrophotometry|spectrophotometers]] [58] => [59] => ===Molecular biology laboratories/Life science laboratories=== [60] => [61] => * [[Autoclave]] [62] => * [[Microscope]] [63] => * [[Laboratory centrifuge|Centrifuges]] [64] => * [[Shaker (laboratory)|Shakers]] & mixers [65] => * [[Pipette]] [66] => * [[Thermal cyclers]] ([[Polymerase chain reaction|PCR]]) [67] => * [[Photometer]] [68] => * [[Refrigerator|Refrigerators and Freezers]] [69] => * [[Universal testing machine]] [70] => * [[ULT freezer|ULT Freezers]] [71] => * [[Incubator (culture)|Incubators]] [72] => * [[Bioreactor]] [73] => * [[Biosafety cabinet|Biological safety cabinets]] [74] => * [[Sequencing machine|Sequencing]] instruments [75] => * [[Fume hoods]] [76] => * [[Environmental chamber]] [77] => * [[Humidifier]] [78] => * [[Weighing scale]] [79] => * [[Reagents]] (supply) [80] => * Pipettes tips (supply) [81] => * [[Polymer]] (supply) consumables for small volumes (µL and mL scale), mainly sterile [82] => [83] => ==Specialized types== [84] => The title of ''laboratory'' is also used for certain other facilities where the processes or equipment used are similar to those in scientific laboratories. These notably include: [85] => [86] => * [[Film laboratory]] or [[Darkroom]] [87] => * [[Clandestine chemistry|Clandestine lab]] for the production of [[illegal drug]]s [88] => * [[Computer lab]] [89] => * [[Crime lab]] used to process [[crime scene]] evidence [90] => * [[Language laboratory]] [91] => * [[Medical laboratory]] (involves handling of chemical compounds) [92] => * [[Public health laboratory]] [93] => * [[Industrial laboratory]] [94] => *[[Cleanroom]] [95] => [96] => {{anchor|Safety}} [97] => [98] => ==Safety== [99] => {{main|Laboratory safety}} [100] => [[Image:2008-07-02 Eye wash station.jpg|thumb|An [[eyewash]] station in a laboratory]] [101] => [[File:Geneetik Riin Tamm.jpg|thumb|Geneticist [[Riin Tamm]] wearing protective lab coat|246x246px]] [102] => [103] => In many laboratories, hazards are present. Laboratory hazards might include [[poison]]s; [[infectious agent]]s; [[flammable]], [[explosive]], or [[radioactive]] materials; moving [[machinery]]; extreme [[temperature]]s; [[laser]]s, strong [[magnetic field]]s or [[high voltage]]. Therefore, [[safety]] precautions are vitally important.{{Cite journal|last=Otto|first=Thomas|year=2021|title=Safety for Particle Accelerators|journal=Particle Acceleration and Detection|language=en-gb|doi=10.1007/978-3-030-57031-6|isbn=978-3-030-57030-9|issn=1611-1052|doi-access=free}}{{Cite book|last1=Cossairt|first1=J. Donald|url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/9780429958496|title=Accelerator Radiation Physics for Personnel and Environmental Protection|last2=Quinn|first2=Matthew|publisher=CRC Press|year=2019|isbn=978-0-429-49163-4|edition=1|location=Boca Raton, FL : CRC Press, Taylor & Francis Group, [2019]|language=en|doi=10.1201/9780429491634|s2cid=189160205}} Rules exist to minimize the individual's risk, and [[safety equipment]] is used to protect the lab users from injury or to assist in responding to an [[emergency]]. [104] => [105] => The [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration]] (OSHA) in the United States, recognizing the unique characteristics of the laboratory workplace, has tailored a standard for occupational exposure to hazardous chemicals in laboratories. This standard is often referred to as the "Laboratory Standard". Under this standard, a laboratory is required to produce a '''Chemical Hygiene Plan''' (CHP) which addresses the specific hazards found in its location, and its approach to them. [106] => [107] => In determining the proper Chemical Hygiene Plan for a particular business or laboratory, it is necessary to understand the requirements of the standard, evaluation of the current safety, health and environmental practices and assessment of the hazards. The CHP must be reviewed annually. Many schools and businesses employ safety, health, and environmental specialists, such as a '''Chemical Hygiene Officer''' (CHO) to develop, manage, and evaluate their CHP. Additionally, third party review is also used to provide an objective "outside view" which provides a fresh look at areas and problems that may be taken for granted or overlooked due to habit. [108] => [109] => Inspections and audits like also be conducted on a regular basis to assess hazards due to chemical handling and storage, electrical equipment, [[biohazards]], [[hazardous waste management]], [[Chemical waste#Laboratory waste containment|chemical waste]], housekeeping and emergency preparedness, [[radiation safety]], ventilation as well as respiratory testing and [[indoor air quality]]. An important element of such audits is the review of regulatory compliance and the training of individuals who have access to or work in the laboratory. Training is critical to the ongoing safe operation of the laboratory facility. Educators, staff and management must be engaged in working to reduce the likelihood of accidents, injuries and potential litigation. Efforts are made to ensure laboratory safety videos are both relevant and engaging.{{cite journal |author1=Michael L. Matson |author2=Jeffrey P. Fitzgerald |author3=Shirley Lin |date=October 1, 2007 |title=Creating Customized, Relevant, and Engaging Laboratory Safety Videos |journal=[[Journal of Chemical Education]] |volume=84 |issue=10 |pages=1727 |bibcode = 2007JChEd..84.1727M |doi = 10.1021/ed084p1727 }} [110] => [111] => == Sustainability == [112] => The effects of [[climate change]] are becoming more of a concern for organizations, and [[Climate change mitigation|mitigation strategies]] are being sought by the research community. While many laboratories are used to perform research to find innovative solutions to this global challenge, sustainable working practices in the labs are also contributing factors towards a greener environment. Many labs are already trying to minimize their [[environmental impact]] by reducing energy consumption, recycling, and implementing waste sorting processes to ensure correct disposal. [113] => [114] => === Best practice === [115] => Research labs featuring energy-intensive equipment, use up to three to five times more energy per square meter than office areas.{{Cite web|title=Adding efficiency to general lab equipment|url=https://www.science.org/content/article/adding-efficiency-general-lab-equipment|access-date=2021-09-07|website=www.science.org|language=en|archive-date=2021-09-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907145955/https://www.science.org/content/article/adding-efficiency-general-lab-equipment|url-status=live}} [116] => [117] => ==== Fume hoods ==== [118] => [119] => Presumably the major contributor to this high energy consumption are fume hoods. Significant impact can be achieved by keeping the opening height as low as possible when working and keeping them closed when not in use. One possibility to help with this, could be to install automatic systems, which close the hoods after an inactivity period of a certain length and turn off the lights as well. So the flow can be regulated better and is not unnecessarily kept at a very high level. [120] => [121] => ==== Freezers ==== [122] => [123] => Normally, [[ULT freezer|ULT freezers]] are kept at −80 °C. One such device can consume up to the same amount of energy as a single-family household (25 kWh/day).{{Cite web|title=Cold Storage|url=https://ehs.mit.edu/cold-storage/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-07|archive-date=2021-09-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907170211/https://ehs.mit.edu/cold-storage/}} Increasing the temperature to −70 °C makes it possible to use 40% less energy and still keep most samples safely stored.{{Cite web|title=-70 is the new -80|url=https://www.mygreenlab.org/-70-is-the-new--80.html|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-07|archive-date=2021-09-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907170206/https://www.mygreenlab.org/-70-is-the-new--80.html}} [124] => [125] => ==== Air condensers ==== [126] => [127] => Minimizing the consumption of water can be achieved by changing from water-cooled condensers ([[Condenser (laboratory)|''Dimroth'' condenser]]) to air-cooled condensers ([[Condenser (laboratory)|''Vigreux'' column]]), which take advantage of the large surface area to cool. [128] => [129] => ==== Laboratory electronics ==== [130] => [131] => The use of ovens is very helpful to dry glassware, but those installations can consume a lot of energy. Employing timers to regulate their use during nights and weekends, can reduce their impact on energy consumption enormously.{{Cite web|date=2021-06-08|title=Glassware Ovens Don't Need to be on 24/7/365|url=https://towardsgreenresearch.wordpress.com/2021/06/08/glassware-ovens-dont-need-to-be-on-24-7-365/|access-date=2021-09-07|website=Towards Greener Research|language=en|archive-date=2021-09-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907145955/https://towardsgreenresearch.wordpress.com/2021/06/08/glassware-ovens-dont-need-to-be-on-24-7-365/|url-status=live}} [132] => [133] => ==== Waste sorting and disposal ==== [134] => [135] => The disposal of chemically/biologically contaminated waste requires a lot of energy. Regular waste however requires much less energy or can even be recycled to some degree. Not every object in a lab is contaminated, but often ends up in the contaminated waste, driving up energy costs for waste disposal. A good sorting and recycling system for non contaminated lab waste will allow lab users to act sustainably and correctly dispose of waste. [136] => [137] => === Networks === [138] => [139] => [140] => As of 2021, there are numerous laboratories currently dedicating time and resources to move towards more sustainable lab practices at their facilities, e.g.  MIT{{Cite web|title=MIT green lab|url=https://greenlab.mit.edu/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-07|archive-date=2021-04-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210405200855/https://greenlab.mit.edu/}} and the university of Edingburgh.{{Cite web|title=University of Edingburgh|url=https://www.ed.ac.uk/sustainability/what-we-do/laboratories|url-status=live|access-date=2021-09-07|archive-date=2021-09-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210907144832/https://www.ed.ac.uk/sustainability/what-we-do/laboratories}} Furthermore, several networks have emerged such as [https://greenyourlab.org Green Your Lab],{{Cite web|title=Green Your Lab Network|url=https://network.greenyourlab.org/|url-status=live|access-date=2022-02-27|archive-date=2022-02-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220227200814/https://network.greenyourlab.org/}} [https://towardsgreenresearch.wordpress.com/ Towards greener research], the [https://www.bristol.ac.uk/green/get-involved/green-labs/lean/ UK-based network LEAN], the [https://www.nachhaltigkeitsnetzwerk.mpg.de/ Max-Planck-Sustainability network], and national platforms such as [https://greenlabsaustria.at/ green labs austria] and [https://www.greenlabs-nl.eu/ green labs NL]. More university independent efforts and resources include the [https://www.ucl.ac.uk/sustainable/staff/labs/take-part-leaf Laboratory Efficiency Assessment Framework], the think-tank [https://labos1point5.org/ labos1point5] and the [https://www.mygreenlab.org/ non-profit organisation my green lab]. [141] => [142] => ==Organization== [143] => Organization of laboratories is an area of focus in sociology. Scientists consider how their work should be organized, which could be based on themes, teams, projects or fields of expertise. Work is divided, not only between different jobs of the laboratory such as the researchers, engineers and [[Laboratory technician|technicians]], but also in terms of autonomy (should the work be individual or in groups).{{Cite book|title=The sociology of scientific work|last=Vinck|first=Dominique|publisher=Edward Elgar Publishing Limited|year=2010|location=The Lypiatts|pages=83, 97–100}} For example, one research group has a schedule where they conduct research on their own topic of interest for one day of the week, but for the rest they work on a given group project.{{Cite book|title=Looking at Ourselves: An Examination of the Social Organisation of Two Research Laboratories|last=Harper|first=Richard H.R|publisher=Reprinted as Rank Xerox Technical Report EPC–92–108|year=1992|location=Cambridge|pages=330–337}} Finance management is yet another organizational issue. [144] => [145] => The laboratory itself is a historically dated organizational model. It came about due to the observation that the quality of work of researchers who collaborate is overall greater than a researcher working in isolation. From the 1950s, the laboratory has evolved from being an educational tool used by teachers to attract the top students into research, into an organizational model allowing a high level of scientific productivity. [146] => [147] => Some forms of organization in laboratories include: [148] => [149] => *'''Their size''': Varies from a handful of researches to several hundred. [150] => *'''The division of labor''': "Occurs between designers and operatives; researchers, engineers, and technicians; theoreticians and experimenters; senior researchers, junior researchers and students; those who publish, those who sign the publications and the others; and between specialities." The sociology of scientific work p98 [151] => *'''The coordination mechanisms''': Which includes the formalization of objectives and tasks; the standardization of procedures (protocols, project management, quality management, knowledge management), the validation of publications and cross-cutting activities (number and type of seminars). [152] => [153] => There are three main factors that contribute to the organizational form of a laboratory : [154] => [155] => * The educational background of the researchers and their socialization process. [156] => * The intellectual process involved in their work, including the type of investigation and equipment they use. [157] => * The laboratory's history. [158] => [159] => Other forms of organization include social organization. [160] => [161] => === Social organization === [162] => A study by Richard H.R. Harper, involving two laboratories, will help elucidate the concept of social organization in laboratories. The main subject of the study revolved around the relationship between the staff of a laboratory (researchers, administrators, receptionists, technicians, etc.) and their Locator. A Locator is an employee of a Laboratory who is in charge of knowing where each member of the laboratory currently is, based on a unique signal emitted from the badge of each staff member. The study describes social relationships among different classes of jobs, such as the relationship between researchers and the Locator. It does not describe the social relationship between employees within a class, such as the relationship between researchers. [163] => [164] => Through [[Ethnography|ethnographic]] studies, one finding is that, among the personnel, each class (researchers, administrators...) has a different degree of entitlement, which varies per laboratory. Entitlement can be both formal or informal (meaning it is not enforced), but each class is aware and conforms to its existence. The degree of entitlement, which is also referred to as a staff's [[rights]], affects social interaction between staff. By looking at the various interactions among staff members, we can determine their social position in the organization. As an example, administrators, in one lab of the study, do not have the right to ask the Locator where the researchers currently are, as they are not entitled to such information. On the other hand, researchers do have access to this type of information. So a consequence of this social hierarchy is that the Locator discloses various degrees of information, based on the staff member and their rights. The Locator does not want to disclose information that could jeopardize his relationship with the members of staff. The Locator adheres to the rights of each class. [165] => [166] => Social hierarchy is also related to attitudes towards technologies. This was inferred based on the attitude of various jobs towards their lab badge. Their attitude depended on how that job viewed their badge from a standpoint of utility, (how is the badge useful for my job) morality (what are my morals on privacy, as it relates to being tracked by this badge) and relations (how will I be seen by others if I refuse to wear this badge). For example, a receptionist would view the badge as useful, as it would help them locate members of staff during the day. Illustrating relations, researchers would also wear their badge due to informal pressures, such as not wanting to look like a spoil-sport, or not wanting to draw attention to themselves. [167] => [168] => Another finding is the resistance to change in a social organization. Staff members feel ill at ease when changing patterns of entitlement, obligation, respect, informal and formal hierarchy, and more. [169] => [170] => In summary, differences in attitude among members of the laboratory are explained by social organization: A person's attitudes are intimately related to the role they have in an organization. This hierarchy helps understand information distribution, control, and attitudes towards technologies in the laboratory. [171] => [172] => ==See also== [173] => {{div col|colwidth=30em}} [174] => * [[Cargo cult science]] [175] => * [[Chemical accident]] [176] => * [[Contamination control]] [177] => * [[Controlled lab reactor]] [178] => * [[Environmental health]] [179] => * [[Fume hood]] [180] => * [[Hackspace]] [181] => * [[ISO/IEC 17025]] [182] => * [[Lab website]] [183] => * [[Laboratory automation]] [184] => * [[Laboratory information system]] (LIS) [185] => * [[Laboratory safety]] [186] => * [[Science tourism]] [187] => * [[Standard conditions for temperature and pressure]] [188] => * [[Workshop]] [189] => {{div col end}} [190] => [191] => ==References== [192] => [193] => {{reflist}} [194] => [195] => ==External links== [196] => {{NIE Poster}} [197] => * {{Wiktionary inline}} [198] => * {{Commons category-inline|Laboratories}} [199] => * [http://mediatheque.lindau-nobel.org/nobellabs Nobel Laureates Interactive 360° Laboratories] [200] => * [http://www.qaexplore.com QA Explore] [201] => [202] => {{Laboratory equipment}} [203] => [204] => {{Authority control}} [205] => [206] => [[Category:Laboratories| ]] [207] => [[Category:Experiments]] [] => )
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Laboratory

A laboratory is a controlled environment used by scientists, researchers, and technicians to conduct experiments, carry out scientific investigations, and analyze samples. It provides a space equipped with specialized instruments, equipment, and materials necessary for conducting various scientific and technological research.

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It provides a space equipped with specialized instruments, equipment, and materials necessary for conducting various scientific and technological research. Laboratories are found in a variety of settings, including educational institutions, government agencies, medical facilities, and industrial companies. They may specialize in different fields such as chemistry, biology, physics, medicine, engineering, and more. The Wikipedia page on laboratories provides an overview of their key features, types, functions, and historical developments, highlighting their importance in advancing knowledge and innovation in various scientific disciplines.

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Biology is a natural science that studies life and living organisms, including their structure, function, growth, evolution, distribution, and taxonomy.

Chemist

A chemist (from Greek chēm(ía) alchemy; replacing chymist from Medieval Latin alchemist) is a graduated scientist trained in the study of chemistry, or an officially enrolled student in the relevant field.

Chemistry

Chemistry is a branch of science that studies matter and the changes it undergoes.

Computer

A computer is an electronic device that can perform various tasks based on programmed instructions.

Engineers

Ethnography

Ethnography is a research method used in anthropology and other social sciences to study and document human cultures.

Laser

Laser, short for Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, is a device that emits a concentrated beam of light through the process of optical amplification.

Metallurgy

Metallurgy is a branch of science and engineering that deals with the study of metals and the extraction, refining, and processing of metals to create useful materials.

Physics

Physics is the natural science that studies matter, energy, and their interactions.

Polymer

Polymers are large molecules made up of repeating subunits known as monomers.

Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and behavior.

Pythagoras

Pythagoras was an ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician, known for his contributions to the fields of mathematics, music, and philosophy.

Refrigerator

A refrigerator, also known as a fridge, is a household appliance that is designed to keep food and other perishable items at a low temperature to slow down the growth of bacteria and extend their shelf life.

Safety

Safety is a fundamental concept that encompasses a wide range of practices and measures designed to protect individuals or entities from harm or danger.

School

A school is an educational institution designed to provide learning and instruction for students of various ages, typically ranging from preschool to high school.

Science

Science is a systematic and empirical approach to acquiring knowledge through observation, experimentation, and explanation of natural phenomena.

Ship

A ship is a large watercraft that is designed to navigate through the water, typically larger than a boat and capable of carrying cargo, passengers, or both.

Spacecraft

A spacecraft is a vehicle designed to travel in outer space.

Supercomputer

A supercomputer is a type of computer that is the most powerful and fastest in terms of speed and processing capabilities.

University

A university is an institution of higher education and research, providing academic degrees and professional qualifications across various disciplines.