Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Final tirthankara of Jainism}} [1] => {{hatnote|This article is about the 24th tirthankara of Jainism. For other topics, see [[Mahavira (disambiguation)]]}}{{Use dmy dates|date=December 2015}} [2] => {{Use Indian English|date=December 2015}} [3] => {{Infobox deity [4] => | type = Jain [5] => | deity_of = 24th [[Tirthankara]] [6] => | image = File:Mahavir.jpg [7] => | caption = The idol of Tirthankara Mahavira at
[[Shri Mahaveer Ji temple]] [8] => | venerated_in = [[Jainism]] [9] => | other_names = ''Vira'', ''Ativira'', ''Vardhamana'', ''Sanmatinatha''{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=25}}{{Sfn|Davidson|Gitlitz|2002|p=267}}{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|p=38}}{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=9}}{{sfn|Hubbard|1807|p=310}} [10] => | symbol = [[Lion]]{{sfn|Tandon|2002|p=45}} [11] => | complexion = [[Gold (color)|Golden]] [12] => | father = [[Siddhartha of Kundagrama|Siddhartha]] [13] => | mother = [[Trishala]] [14] => | siblings = [[Nandivardhana of Kundagrama|Nandivardhana]]
Sudarśanā [15] => | age = 72 [16] => | tree = [[Shorea robusta|Shala]] [17] => | predecessor = [[Parshvanatha]] [18] => | birth_date = {{circa|599 BCE}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=24}} [19] => | birth_place = [[Lachhuar Jain temple|Kshatriyakund]] ([[Śvetāmbara|Shvetambara]]){{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=25}}{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=682}}
[20] => [[Kundalpur, Bihar|Kundalpur]], [[Nāya]], [[Vajjika League|Vajji]] (present-day [[Nalanda district]], Bihar, India) ([[Digambara]]) [21] => | death_date = {{circa|527 BCE}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=24}}
[[Pawapuri]], [[Magadha]] (present-day [[Nalanda district]], Bihar, India) [22] => | moksha_place = [[Pawapuri]], [[Magadha]] (present-day [[Nalanda district]], Bihar, India) [23] => | festivals = [[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak]], [[Diwali (Jainism)|Diwali]] [24] => | mantra = {{IAST|Śrī Mahāvīrāya Namaḥ}} [25] => | birthname = Vardhamāna [26] => | dynasty = [[Solar dynasty|Ikshvaku dynasty]] [27] => | successor = [[Bimbisara #Traditional accounts|Mahāpadma/Padmanābha]] (first [[Tirthankara]] of the ascending next half of [[Jain cosmology#Time cycle|time-cycle]]) {{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=276}} [28] => }} [29] => {{Jainism}} [30] => '''Mahavira''' ([[Devanagari]]: महावीर, {{IAST|Mahāvīra}}), also known as '''Vardhamana''' (Devanagari: वर्धमान, {{IAST|Vardhamāna}}), was the 24th ''[[Tirthankara]]'' (supreme preacher) of [[Jainism]]. He was the spiritual successor of the 23rd ''Tirthankara'' [[Parshvanatha]].{{sfn|Heehs|2002|p=90}} Mahavira was born in the early 6th century BCE to a royal [[Jain]] family of [[ancient India]]. His mother's name was [[Trishala]] and his father's name was [[Siddhartha of Kundagrama|Siddhartha]]. They were lay devotees of Parshvanatha. Mahavira abandoned all worldly possessions at the age of about 30 and left home in pursuit of spiritual awakening, becoming an [[asceticism|ascetic]]. Mahavira practiced intense meditation and severe austerities for twelve and a half years, after which he attained ''[[Kevala Jnana]]'' (omniscience). He preached for 30 years and attained ''[[Moksha (Jainism)|moksha]]'' (liberation) in the 6th century BCE, although the year varies by [[Jain schools and branches|sect]]. [31] => [32] => Mahavira taught that observance of the vows of ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|ahimsa]]'' (non-violence), ''[[satya]]'' (truth), ''[[asteya]]'' (non-stealing), ''[[brahmacharya]]'' (chastity), and ''[[aparigraha]]'' (non-attachment) are necessary for spiritual liberation. He taught the principles of ''[[Anekantavada]]'' (many-sided reality): ''[[Anekantavada#Syādvāda|syadvada]]'' and ''[[Anekantavada#Nayavāda|nayavada]]''. Mahavira's teachings were compiled by [[Indrabhuti Gautama]] (his chief disciple) as the [[Jain Agamas]]. The texts, transmitted [[oral tradition|orally]] by Jain monks, are believed to have been largely lost by about the 1st century CE. [33] => [34] => Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting or standing meditative posture, with the symbol of a lion beneath him. His earliest iconography is from archaeological sites in the [[North India]]n city of [[Mathura]], and is dated from between the 1st century BCE and the 2nd century CE. His birth is celebrated as [[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak]] and his ''[[nirvana]]'' (salvation) and also his first ''shishya'' of [[Gautama Swami]] is observed by Jains as [[Diwali (Jainism)|Diwali]]. [35] => [36] => Historically, Mahavira, who revived and preached Jainism in ancient India, was an older contemporary of [[The Buddha|Gautama Buddha]]. Jains celebrate ''Mahavir Janma Kalyanak'' every year on the 13th day of the [[Indian national calendar|Indian Calendar]] month of [[Chaitra]].{{Cite web |date=2021-04-17 |title=Mahavir Jayanti {{!}} What, When, Why & How To Celebrate Mahavir Swami Jayanti |url=https://www.allindianfestivals.in/mahavir-jayanti/ |access-date=2022-04-02 |language=en-US}} [37] => [38] => == Names and epithets == [39] => Surviving early Jain and Buddhist literature uses several names (or [[epithet]]s) for Mahavira, including ''Nayaputta'', ''Muni'', ''Samana'', ''Nigantha'', ''Brahman'', and ''Bhagavan''.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=25}} In early Buddhist ''[[Sutra|sutras]]'', he is referred to as ''Araha'' ("worthy") and ''Veyavi'' (derived from "Vedas", but meaning "wise").{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=25–26}} He is known as ''[[Sramana]]'' in the ''[[Kalpa Sūtra]]'', "devoid of love and hate".{{sfn|Heehs|2002|p=93}} [40] => [41] => According to later Jain texts, Mahavira's childhood name was ''Vardhamāna'' ("the one who grows") because of the kingdom's prosperity at the time of his birth.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|p=32}} According to the ''Kalpasutras'', he was called Mahavira ("the great hero") by the gods in the ''Kalpa Sūtra'' because he remained steadfast in the midst of dangers, fears, hardships and calamities.{{sfn|Heehs|2002|p=93}} He is also known as a ''[[tirthankara]]''.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=223}} [42] => [43] => ==Historical Mahavira== [44] => [[File:Mahajanapadas (c. 500 BCE).png|alt=Map of India during the 6th century BCE|thumb|upright=1.15|Ancient kingdoms and cities of India at the time of Mahavira]] [45] => It is universally accepted by scholars of Jainism that Mahavira lived in ancient India.{{sfn|Potter|2007|pp=35–36}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=24–25}} According to the [[Digambara]] ''[[Uttarapurana]]'' text, Mahavira was born in [[Kundalpur, Bihar|Kundalpur]] in the [[Kingdom of the Videhas]];{{sfn|Pannalal Jain|2015|p=460}} the [[Śvētāmbara]] ''Kalpa Sūtra'' uses the name "Kundagrama",{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=25}}{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=682}} said to be located in present-day Bihar, India. Although it is thought to be the town of Basu Kund, about {{convert|60|km|mi|abbr=off}} north of [[Patna]] (the capital of Bihar),{{sfn|Taliaferro|Marty|2010|p=126}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=29}} his birthplace remains a subject of dispute.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=25}}{{sfn|Potter|2007|pp=35–36}}{{Cite web |last=Chaudhary |first=Pranava K. |title=Row over Mahavira's birthplace |date=14 October 2003 |url=http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Row-over-Mahaviras-birthplace/articleshow/232215.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |df=dmy-all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171103113728/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/patna/Row-over-Mahaviras-birthplace/articleshow/232215.cms |place=[[Patna]] |access-date=3 November 2017 |archive-date=3 November 2017 |url-status=live}} Mahavira renounced his material wealth and left home when he was twenty-eight, by some accounts{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=549}} (thirty by others),{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=3}} lived an ascetic life for twelve and a half years in which he did not even sit for a time, attained Kevalgyana and then preached Dharma for thirty years.{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=549}} Where he preached has been a subject of disagreement between the two major traditions of Jainism: Śvētāmbara and Digambara traditions.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=25}} [46] => [47] => It is uncertain when Mahavira was born and when he died. One view is that Mahavira was born in 540{{nbsp}}BCE and died in 443{{nbsp}}BCE.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=24}}{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=549}} The [[Barli Inscription]] in [[Prakrit]] language which was inscribed in 443 BCE (year 84 of the [[Vira Nirvana Samvat]]), contains the line ''Viraya Bhagavate chaturasiti vase'', which can be interpreted as "dedicated to Lord Vira in his 84th year", 84 years after the [[Nirvana]] of the Mahavira.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1972|p=152}}{{sfn|Goyala|2006}} However, palaeographic analysis dates the inscription to the 2nd-1st century BCE.{{Sfn|Swarajya Prakash Gupta|K. S. Ramachandran|1979|p=106|ps=:"The Barli inscription, which was placed by Ojha in fifth century B.C., can really be assigned to the first century B.C., on paleographic grounds."}} According to Buddhist and Jain texts, Buddha and Mahavira are believed to have been contemporaries which is supported by much ancient Buddhist literature.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=24}}{{sfn|Taliaferro|Marty|2010|p=126}} [48] => [49] => A firmly-established part of the Jain tradition is that the ''[[Vira Nirvana Samvat]]'' era began in 527{{nbsp}}BCE (with Mahavira's nirvana).{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=24}} The 12th-century Jain scholar [[Hemachandracharya]] placed Mahavira in the 6th{{nbsp}}century BCE.{{sfn|Rapson|1955|pp=155–156}}{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=69–70, 587–588}} According to Jain tradition, the traditional date of 527{{nbsp}}BCE is accurate; the Buddha was younger than Mahavira and "might have attained nirvana a few years later".{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|pp=84–88}} The place of his nirvana, [[Pawapuri|Pavapuri]] in present-day Bihar, is a pilgrimage site for Jains.{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=549}} [50] => [51] => ==Jain tradition == [52] => {{see also|Panch Kalyanaka}} [53] => According to [[Jain cosmology]], 24 ''Tirthankaras'' have appeared on earth; Mahavira is the last ''tirthankara'' of ''[[Avasarpiṇī]]'' (the present [[Jain cosmology#Time cycle|time cycle]]).{{refn|group=note|Heinrich Zimmer: "The cycle of time continually revolves, according to the Jainas. The present "descending" (''avasarpini'') period was preceded and will be followed by an "ascending" (''utsarpini''). Sarpini suggests the creeping movement of a "serpent" (''sarpin''); ava- means "down" and ut- means up."{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=224}}}}{{sfn|Jain|Upadhye|2000|p=54}} A ''tirthankara'' ([[Ford (crossing)|ford]]-maker, saviour or spiritual teacher) signifies the founding of a ''[[Tirtha (Jainism)|tirtha]]'', a passage across the sea of [[Saṃsāra (Jainism)|birth-and-death cycles]].{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=181}}{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|pp=312–313}}{{Cite encyclopedia |title= Tirthankara {{!}} Definition, Names, & Facts |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/596895/Tirthankar |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131015033744/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/596895/Tirthankara |archive-date=October 15, 2013 |access-date=October 15, 2013 |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopaedia Britannica]]|url-status=live}} [54] => [55] => ===Birth=== [56] => [[File:Detail of a leaf with the birth of mahavira.jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Painting of Mahavira's birth|The birth of Mahavira, from the ''[[Kalpa Sūtra]]'' (c.{{nbsp}}1375–1400 CE)]] [57] => Tirthankara Mahavira was born into a royal [[Kshatriya]] family of King [[Siddhartha of Kundagrama|Siddhartha]] of the [[Ikshvaku|Ikshvaku Dynasty]] and Queen [[Trishala]] of the [[Licchavi (tribe)|Licchavi republic]].{{sfn|Sunavala|1934|p=52}}{{refn|group=note|Trishala was the sister of [[King Chetaka]] of [[Vaishali (ancient city)|Vaishali]] in ancient India.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=29}}}} The Ikshvaku Dynasty was founded by the First [[tirthankara]] [[Rishabhanatha]].{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|p=5}}{{refn|group=note|The Adipurana By Acharya Jinasena mentions that [[Ikshvaku Dynasty]] was founded by [[Lord]] [[Rishabhadeva]]{{Cite book |last=Jinasena |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EwP0Wev3M4QC |title=Adipurana |date=2003 |publisher=Bhāratīya Jñānapītha |isbn=978-81-263-0922-1 |language=hi}}}} [58] => [59] => According to Jains, Mahavira was born in 599{{nbsp}}BCE. His birth date falls on the thirteenth day of the rising moon in the month of [[Chaitra]] in the ''[[Vira Nirvana Samvat]]'' [[calendar era]].{{sfn|Doniger|1999|p=549}}{{sfn|Dowling|Scarlett|2006|p=225}}{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=313}} It falls in March or April of the [[Gregorian calendar]], and is celebrated by Jains as [[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak]].{{sfn|Gupta|Gupta|2006|p=1001}} [60] => [61] => [[File:Bhagwan Mahaveer.jpg|''[[Murti]]'' of Mahavira at his birthplace, Kshatriyakund ([[Śvetāmbara|Shvetambara]] tradition), in [[Bihar]]|thumb|250px|right]] [62] => [63] => Kshatriyakund (the place of Mahavira's birth) is traditionally believed to be near Vaishali, an ancient town on the [[Indo-Gangetic Plain]]. Its location in present-day Bihar is unclear, partly because of migrations from ancient Bihar for economic and political reasons.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=25}} According to the "Universal History" in Jain texts, Mahavira underwent many rebirths (total 27 births) before his 6th-century birth. They included a denizen of hell, a lion, and a god (''[[Deva (Jainism)|deva]]'') in a heavenly realm just before his last birth as the 24th ''tirthankara''.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=21}} Svetambara texts state that his embryo first formed in a Brahman woman before it was transferred by Hari-Naigamesin (the divine commander of Indra's army) to the womb of Trishala, Siddhartha's wife.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=21, 26}}{{sfn|Mills|Claus|Diamond|2003|pp=320, note: Indra is referred to as Sakra in some Indian texts.}}{{refn|group=note|This mythology has similarities with those found in the mythical texts of the [[Vaishnavism]] tradition of Hinduism.{{sfn|Olivelle|2006|pp=397 footnote 4}}}} The embryo-transfer legend is not believed by adherents of the Digambara tradition.{{sfn|Mills|Claus|Diamond|2003|p=320}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=22}}{{sfn|Vyas|1995|p=19}} [64] => [65] => Jain texts state that after Mahavira was born, the god [[Indra]] came from the heavens along with 56 ''digkumaries'', anointed him, and performed his ''[[abhisheka]]'' (consecration) on [[Mount Meru]].{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=21}} These events, illustrated in a number of Jain temples, play a part in modern Jain temple rituals.{{sfn|Jain|Fischer|1978|pp=5–9}} Although the ''Kalpa Sūtra'' accounts of Mahavira's birth legends are recited by Svetambara Jains during the annual ''[[Paryushana]]'' festival, the same festival is observed by the Digambaras without the recitation.{{sfn|Dalal|2010|p=284}} [66] => [67] => ===Early life=== [68] => Mahavira grew up as a prince. According to the second chapter of the Śvētāmbara [[Acharanga Sutra]], his parents were lay devotees of [[Parshvanatha]].{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|p=32}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=30}} Jain traditions differ about whether Mahavira married.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=22}}{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|pp=99, Quote: "According to the Digambara sect, Mahavira did not marry, while the Svetambaras hold a contrary belief."}} The Digambara tradition believes that his parents wanted him to marry Yashoda, but he refused to marry.{{sfn|Shanti Lal Jain|1998|p=51}}{{refn|group=note|On this [[Champat Rai Jain]] wrote: ""Of the two versions of Mahavira's life — the Swetambara and the Digambara— it is obvious that only one can be true: either Mahavira married, or he did not marry. If Mahavira married, why should the Digambaras deny it? There is absolutely no reason for such a denial. The Digambaras acknowledge that nineteen out of the twenty-four ''tirthamkaras'' married and had children. If Mahavira also married it would make no difference. There is thus no reason whatsoever for the Digambaras to deny a simple incident like this. But there may be a reason for the Swetambaras making the assertion; the desire to ante-date their own origin. As a matter of fact their own books contain clear refutation of the statement that Mahavira had married. In the Samavayanga Sutra (Hyderabad edition) it is definitely stated that nineteen ''tirthankaras'' lived as householders, that is, all the twenty-four excepting Shri Mahavira, Parashva, Nemi, Mallinath and Vaspujya."{{sfn|Champat Rai Jain|1939|p=97}}}} The Śvētāmbara tradition believes that he was married to Yashoda at a young age and had one daughter, Priyadarshana,{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=29}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=21}} also called Anojja.{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=188}} [69] => [70] => Jain texts portray Mahavira as tall; his height was given as four [[cubit]]s (6 [[Foot (unit)|feet]]) in the ''Aupapatika Sutra''.{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=95}} According to Jain texts, he was the shortest of the twenty-four ''tirthankaras''; earlier ''arihants'' were believed to have been taller, with [[Neminatha]] or Aristanemi —the 22nd ''tirthankara'', who lived for 1,000 years—said to have been sixty-five cubits (98{{nbsp}}feet) in height.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=16}} [71] => [72] => ===Renunciation=== [73] => {{see also|Jain monasticism}} [74] => [[File:Mahavir Swami giving alms to a brahmin.jpg|thumb|Tirthankar Mahavir giving his half garment to a brahmin as alms]] [75] => At age thirty, Mahavira abandoned royal life and left his home and family to live an ascetic life in the pursuit of spiritual awakening.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=224}}{{sfn|George|2008|p=319}}{{sfn|Jacobi|1964|p=269}} He undertook severe fasts and bodily mortifications,{{Sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=5–7}} meditated under the [[Ashoka tree]], and discarded his clothes.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=224}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=30}} The ''Acharanga Sutra'' has a graphic description of his hardships and self-mortification.{{sfn|Sen|1999|p=74}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=27}} According to the ''[[Kalpa Sūtra]]'', Mahavira spent the first forty-two monsoons of his life in Astikagrama, [[Champapuri]], Prstichampa, Vaishali, Vanijagrama, [[Nalanda district|Nalanda]], [[Mithila (ancient)|Mithila]], Bhadrika, Alabhika, Panitabhumi, [[Shravasti]], and [[Pawapuri]].{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=327}} He is said to have lived in [[Rajagriha]] during the rainy season of the forty-first year of his ascetic life, which is traditionally dated to 491{{nbsp}}BCE.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|p=79}} [76] => [77] => ===Omniscience=== [78] => [[File:Rujuwalika Kalyanak Bhumi Jain Temple.jpg|thumb|Rujuwalika Jain Temple near Bandarkupi, Jharkhand representing the place of omniscience of Mahavira|left]] [79] => [[File:Jain Universal History Diorama in Jain Museum Madhuban - 5.jpg|A diorama representing omniscience of Mahavira, Jain Museum, [[Madhuban, Giridih]]|thumb]] [80] => {{see also|Samavasarana}} [81] => According to traditional accounts, Mahavira achieved [[Kevala Jnana]] (omniscience, or infinite knowledge) under a [[Shorea robusta|Sāla tree]] on the bank of the River Rijubalika near Jrimbhikagrama at age 43 after twelve years of rigorous penance.{{sfn|George|2008|p=319}}{{sfn|Jain|Upadhye|2000|p=30}}{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=30, 327}} The details of the event are described in the Jain ''Uttar-purāņa'' and ''Harivamśa-purāņa'' texts.{{sfn|Jain|Upadhye|2000|p=31}} The ''Acharanga Sutra'' describes Mahavira as all-seeing. The ''[[Sutrakritanga]]'' expands it to all-knowing, and describes his other qualities.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=25}} Jains believe that Mahavira had a most auspicious body (''paramaudārika śarīra'') and was free from eighteen imperfections when he attained omniscience.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2016b|p=5}} According to the Śvētāmbara, he traveled throughout India to teach his philosophy for thirty years after attaining omniscience.{{sfn|George|2008|p=319}} However, the Digambara believe that he remained in his [[Samavasarana]] and delivered sermons to his followers.{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=314}} [82] => [83] => ===Disciples=== [84] => Jain texts document eleven Brahmanas as Mahavira's first disciples, traditionally known as the eleven ''Ganadharas''.{{Sfn|Wiley|2009|p=6}} [[Indrabhuti Gautama]] is believed to have been their leader,{{sfn|Upinder Singh|2016|p=314}} and the others included Agnibhuti, Vayubhuti, Akampita, Arya Vyakta, [[Sudharman]], Manditaputra, Mauryaputra, Acalabhraataa, Metraya, and Prabhasa. The ''Ganadharas'' are believed to have remembered and to have verbally transmitted Mahavira's teachings after his death. His teachings became known as ''Gani-Pidaga'', or the Jain ''Agamas''.{{Sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=6–8, 26}} According to ''Kalpa Sutra'', Mahavira had 14,000 ''[[Muni (Jainism)|sadhus]]'' (male ascetic devotees), 36,000 ''[[sadhvis]]'' (female ascetics), 159,000 ''[[Śrāvaka (Jainism)|sravakas]]'' (male lay followers), and 318,000 ''sravikas'' (female lay followers).{{sfn|Heehs|2002|p=90}}{{sfn|George|2008|p=326}}{{sfn|Cort|2001|p=47}} Jain tradition mentions Srenika and Kunika of [[Haryanka dynasty]] (popularly known as [[Bimbisara]] and [[Ajatashatru]]) and [[Chetaka]] of [[Videha]] as his royal followers.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=327}}{{sfn|Caillat|Balbir|2008|p=88}} Mahavira initiated his [[mendicant]]s with the ''[[Ethics of Jainism|mahavratas]]'' (Five Vows).{{Sfn|Wiley|2009|p=6}} He delivered fifty-five ''[[pravachan]]a'' (recitations) and a set of lectures (''[[Uttaraadhyayana-sutra]]'').{{sfn|George|2008|p=319}} Chandana is believed to be the leader of female monastic order.{{sfn|Natubhai Shah|2004|p=44}} [85] => [86] => === Nirvana and moksha === [87] => [[File:Pawapuri - 001 Temple marking Mahavira's Passing (9243092471).jpg|thumb|alt=Large, white temple on the water|Lord Mahavira's [[Jal Mandir]] (water temple) in [[Pawapuri]], [[Bihar]], India]] [88] => [[File:MahaviraSwamiPawapuri.jpg|thumb|The "Charan Paduka" or foot impression of Mahavira at [[Jal Mandir]] ]] [89] => [90] => According to Jain texts, Mahavira's [[nirvana]] (death){{refn|group=note|Not to be confused with ''kevalajnana'' (omniscience).{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=29–31, 205–206: "At the end of almost thirty years of preaching, he died in the chancellory of King Hastipala of Pavapuri and attained Nirvana."}}}} occurred in the town of [[Pawapuri]] in present-day [[Bihar]].{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=222}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=22–24}}{{sfn|Melton|Baumann|2010|p=897}} His life as a spiritual light and the night of his nirvana are commemorated by Jains as [[Diwali (Jainism)|Diwali]] at the same time that Hindus celebrate it.{{sfn|Melton|Baumann|2010|p=897}}{{sfn|Doniger|1999|pp=549–550}} His chief disciple, Gautama, is said to have attained omniscience the night that Mahavira achieved nirvana from Pawapuri.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=39}} [91] => [92] => Accounts of Mahavira's nirvana vary among Jain texts, with some describing a simple nirvana and others recounting grandiose celebrations attended by gods and kings. According to the [[Jinasena]]'s ''[[Mahapurana (Jainism)|Mahapurana]]'', [[Deva (Jainism)|heavenly beings]] arrived to perform his funeral rites. The ''[[Pravachanasara]]'' of Digambara tradition says that only the nails and hair of ''tirthankaras'' are left behind; the rest of the body dissolves in the air like [[camphor]].{{sfn|Pramansagar|2008|pp=38–39}} In some texts Mahavira is described, at age 72, as delivering his final preaching over a six-day period to a large group of people. The crowd falls asleep, awakening to find that he has disappeared (leaving only his nails and hair, which his followers cremate).{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=328}} [93] => [94] => The Jain Śvētāmbara tradition believes that Mahavira's nirvana occurred in 527 BCE, and the Digambara tradition holds that date of 468 BCE. In both traditions, his [[jiva]] (soul) is believed to abide in ''[[Siddhashila]]'' (the home of liberated souls).{{sfn|Doniger|1999|pp=549–550}} Mahavira's [[Jal Mandir]] stands at the place where he is said to have attained nirvana (''[[Moksha (Jainism)|moksha]]'').{{Cite web |title=Destinations : Pawapuri |url=http://bstdc.bih.nic.in/Pawapuri.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150722042619/http://bstdc.bih.nic.in/Pawapuri.htm |archive-date=22 July 2015 |access-date=23 July 2015 |publisher=[[Bihar State Tourism Development Corporation]] |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all}} Artworks in Jain temples and texts depict his final liberation and cremation, sometimes shown symbolically as a small pyre of sandalwood and a piece of burning camphor.{{sfn|Jain|Fischer|1978|pp=14, 29–30}} [95] => [96] => ===Previous births=== [97] => Mahavira's previous births are recounted in Jain texts such as the ''Mahapurana'' and ''Tri-shashti-shalaka-purusha-charitra''. Although a soul undergoes countless reincarnations in the transmigratory cycle of ''[[Saṃsāra (Jainism)|saṃsāra]]'', the birth of a ''tirthankara'' is reckoned from the time he determines the [[Causes of karma in Jainism|causes of karma]] and pursues [[ratnatraya]]. Jain texts describe Mahavira's 26 births before his incarnation as a ''tirthankara''.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|p=327}} According to the texts, he was born as [[Marichi]] (the son of [[Bharata Chakravartin]]) in a previous life.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=21}} [98] => [99] => === Texts === [100] => [[File:Kalpasutra Mahavira Nirvana.jpg|thumb|alt=Old illustrated manuscript|[[Folio]] from the ''[[Kalpa Sūtra]]'', 15th century]] [101] => [[Yativṛṣabha]]'s ''[[Tiloya Panatti|Tiloya-paṇṇatti]]'' recounts nearly all the events of Mahavira's life in a form convenient for memorisation.{{sfn|Jain|Upadhye|2000|p=45}} Jinasena's ''Mahapurana'' (which includes the ''[[Ādi purāṇa]]'' and ''[[Uttarapurana|Uttara-purāṇa]]'') was completed by his disciple, [[Gunabhadra (Jain monk)|Gunabhadra]], in the 8th{{nbsp}}century. In the ''Uttara-purāṇa'', Mahavira's life is described in three ''parvans'', or sections, (74–76) and 1,818 verses.{{sfn|Jain|Upadhye|2000|p=46}} [102] => [103] => ''Vardhamacharitra'' is a [[Sanskrit]] [[kāvya]] poem, written by [[Asaga]] in 853 CE , which narrates the life of Mahavira.{{sfn|Kailash Chand Jain|1991|p=59}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=19}}{{sfn|Jain|Upadhye|2000|p=47}} [104] => The ''[[Kalpa Sūtra]]'' is a collection of biographies of ''tirthankaras'', notably Parshvanatha and Mahavira. ''[[Samavayanga Sutra]]'' is a collection of Mahavira's teachings, and the ''[[Acharanga Sutra]]'' recounts his asceticism. [105] => [106] => ==Teachings== [107] => {{Main|Jain philosophy}} [108] => Colonial-era Indologists considered Jainism (and Mahavira's followers) a sect of [[Buddhism]] because of superficial similarities in iconography and meditative and ascetic practices.{{sfn|Winternitz|1993|p=408}} As scholarship progressed, differences between the teachings of Mahavira and the Buddha were found so divergent that the religions were acknowledged as separate.{{sfn|Winternitz|1993|pp=408–409}} Mahavira, says Moriz Winternitz, taught a "very elaborate belief in the soul" (unlike the Buddhists, who denied such elaboration). His ascetic teachings have a higher order of magnitude than those of Buddhism or Hinduism, and his emphasis on [[ahimsa]] (non-violence) is greater than that in other Indian religions.{{sfn|Winternitz|1993|pp=408–409}} [109] => [110] => === Agamas === [111] => {{Main|Jain Agamas}} [112] => {{see also|Jain councils}} [113] => Mahavira's teachings were compiled by [[Indrabhuti Gautama|Gautama Swami]], his ''[[Ganadhara]]'' (chief disciple).{{sfn|Cort|2010|p=225}} The canonical scriptures are in twelve parts.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=xi}} Mahavira's teachings were gradually lost after about 300{{nbsp}}BCE, according to Jain tradition, when a severe famine in the [[Magadha]] kingdom dispersed the Jain monks. Attempts were made by later monks to gather, recite the canon, and re-establish it.{{Sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=6–8}} These efforts identified differences in recitations of Mahavira's teachings, and an attempt was made in the 5th{{nbsp}}century CE to reconcile the differences.{{Sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=6–8}} The reconciliation efforts failed, with Svetambara and Digambara Jain traditions holding their own incomplete, somewhat-different versions of Mahavira's teachings. In the early centuries of the common era, Jain texts containing Mahavira's teachings were written in [[palm-leaf manuscript]]s.{{Sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=6–8, 26}} According to the Digambaras, ''[[Acharya (Jainism)|Āchārya]]'' [[Bhutabali]] was the last ascetic with partial knowledge of the original canon. Later, some learned ''achāryas'' restored, compiled, and wrote down the teachings of Mahavira which were the subjects of the ''Agamas''.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=xii}} ''Āchārya'' Dharasena, in the 1st{{nbsp}}century CE, guided the ''Āchāryas'' [[Pushpadanta (Jain monk)|Pushpadant]] and Bhutabali as they wrote down the teachings. The two ''Āchāryas'' wrote ''[[Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama]]'', among the oldest-known Digambara texts, on palm leaves. [114] => [115] => ===Five Vows=== [116] => {{Main|Ethics of Jainism}} [117] => [[File:Five Vows.jpg|thumbnail|alt=Tan stone relief of the Jain swastika and its five vows|The [[Jain symbols#Swastika|swastika]] and five vows]] [118] => The Jain Agamas enumerate five [[vrata]]s (vows) which ascetics and householders must observe.{{sfn|Sangave|2006|p=67}} These ethical principles were preached by Mahavira:{{sfn|George|2008|p=319}}{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Shah |first=Umakant Premanand |title=Mahavira {{!}} Jaina teacher |url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahavira-Jaina-teacher |df=dmy-all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150905163709/https://www.britannica.com/biography/Mahavira-Jaina-teacher |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |archive-date=5 September 2015 |access-date=5 September 2015 |author-link=Umakant Premanand Shah |url-status=live}} [119] => # ''[[Ahimsa in Jainism|Ahimsa]]'' (Non-violence or non-injury): Mahavira taught that every living being has sanctity and dignity which should be respected as one expects one's own sanctity and dignity to be respected. ''Ahimsa'', Jainism's first and most important vow, applies to actions, speech, and thought. [120] => # ''[[Satya#Jainism|Satya]]'' (truthfulness): Applies to oneself and others. [121] => # ''[[Asteya]]'' (non-stealing): Not "taking anything that has not been given"{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2012|p=68}} [122] => # ''[[Brahmacharya#Brahmacharya in Jainism|Brahmacharya]]'' (chastity): Abstinence from sex and sensual pleasures for monks, and faithfulness to one's partner for householders{{Cite web |last=Shah |first=Pravin K. |title=Five Great Vows (Maha-vratas) of Jainism |url=http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/jainedu/5greatvows.htm |df=dmy-all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141231033127/http://www.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/jainedu/5greatvows.htm |publisher=[[Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences]], [[Harvard University]]|archive-date=31 December 2014 |access-date=31 December 2014 |url-status=live}}{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=101–102}} [123] => # ''[[Aparigraha]]'' (non-attachment): For lay people, an attitude of non-attachment to property or worldly possessions; for mendicants, not owning anything{{sfn|Long|2009|p=109}} [124] => [125] => The goal of these principles is to achieve spiritual peace, a better rebirth, or (ultimately) liberation.{{sfn|Cort|2001|pp=26–27}}{{sfn|Appleton|2014|pp=20–45}}{{sfn|Adams|2011|p=22}} According to Chakravarthi, these teachings help improve a person's quality of life.{{sfn|Chakravarthi|2003|pp=3–22}} However, Dundas writes that Mahavira's emphasis on non-violence and restraint has been interpreted by some Jain scholars to "not be driven by merit from giving or compassion to other creatures, nor a duty to rescue all creatures" but by "continual self discipline": a cleansing of the soul which leads to spiritual development and release.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=88–89, 257–258}} [126] => [127] => Mahavira is best remembered in the Indian traditions for his teaching that ''ahimsa'' is the supreme moral virtue.{{sfn|George|2008|p=319}}{{sfn|Jain|Jain|2002|p=13}} He taught that ''ahimsa'' covers all living beings,{{sfn|Titze|1998|p=4}} and injuring any being in any form creates bad [[Karma in Jainism|karma]] (which affects one's rebirth, future well-being, and suffering).{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=892–894}} According to [[Mahatma Gandhi]], Mahavira was the greatest authority on ''ahimsa''.{{sfn|Pandey|1998|p=50}}{{sfn|Nanda|1997|p=44}}{{Cite web |title=Great Men's view on Jainism |url=https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/quote/greatmen.htm |publisher=[[Harvard Faculty of Arts and Sciences]], [[Harvard University]] |df=dmy-all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180516085244/https://sites.fas.harvard.edu/~pluralsm/affiliates/jainism/quote/greatmen.htm |quote=Jainism Literature Center |archive-date=16 May 2018 |access-date=16 May 2018 |url-status=live}} [128] => [129] => ===Soul=== [130] => {{main|Jīva (Jainism)}} [131] => Mahavira taught that the soul exists, a premise shared with Hinduism but not Buddhism. There is no soul (or self) in Buddhism, and its teachings are based on the concept of [[anatta]] (non-self).{{Cite encyclopedia |title=Anatta {{!}} Buddhism |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] |df=dmy-all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151210185046/https://www.britannica.com/topic/anatta |quote=Anatta .. in Buddhism, the doctrine that there is in humans no permanent, underlying .. soul. The concept of anatta, or anatman, is a departure from the Hindu belief in atman (“the self”). |archive-date=10 December 2015 |access-date=10 December 2015 |url-status=live}}{{sfn|Collins|1994|p=64}}{{sfn|Nagel|2000|p=33}} Mahavira taught that the soul is [[dravya]] (substantial), eternal, and yet temporary.{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–76}} [132] => [133] => To Mahavira, the metaphysical nature of the universe consists of ''dravya'', ''jiva'', and ''[[ajiva]]'' (inanimate objects).{{sfn|Caillat|Balbir|2008|p=88}} The ''jiva'' is bound to ''[[Saṃsāra (Jainism)|saṃsāra]]'' (transmigration) because of [[Karma in Jainism|karma]] (the effects of one's actions).{{sfn|Caillat|Balbir|2008|p=88}} Karma, in Jainism, includes actions and intent; it colors the soul (''[[lesya]]''), affecting how, where, and as what a soul is reborn after death.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=99–103}} [134] => [135] => According to Mahavira, there is no [[creator deity]] and existence has neither beginning nor end. Deities and demons however exist in Jainism , whose ''jivas'' are a part of the same cycle of birth and death.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=90–99}} The goal of spiritual practice is to liberate the ''jiva'' from its karmic accumulation and enter the realm of the [[siddha]]s, souls who are liberated from rebirth.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=91–92, 104–105}} Enlightenment, to Mahavira, is the consequence of self awareness, self-cultivation and restraint from materialism.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=88–89, 257–258}} [136] => [137] => ===''Anekantavada''=== [138] => {{Main|Anekantavada}} [139] => Mahavira taught the doctrine of ''anekantavada'' (many-sided reality).{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=229–231}}{{sfn|Sharma|Khanna|2013|p=18}} Although the word does not appear in the earliest Jain literature or the Agamas, the doctrine is illustrated in Mahavira's answers to questions posed by his followers.{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}} Truth and reality are complex, and have a number of aspects. Reality can be experienced, but it is impossible to express it fully with language alone; human attempts to communicate are ''nayas'' ("partial expression[s] of the truth").{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}} Language itself is not truth, but a means of expressing it. From truth, according to Mahavira, language returns—not the other way around.{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}}{{Cite encyclopedia |last=Webb |first=Mark Owen |title=Jain Philosophy |date=14 November 2003 |url=https://iep.utm.edu/jain/ |encyclopedia=[[Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |df=dmy-all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100528030933/https://iep.utm.edu/jain/ |access-date=3 November 2017 |archive-date=28 May 2010 |url-status=live}} One can experience the "truth" of a taste, but cannot fully express that taste through language. Any attempt to express the experience is ''syāt'': valid "in some respect", but still a "perhaps, just one perspective, incomplete". Spiritual truths are also complex, with multiple aspects, and language cannot express their plurality; however, they can be experienced through effort and appropriate karma.{{sfn|Charitrapragya|2004|pp=75–79}} [140] => [141] => Mahavira's ''anekantavada'' doctrine is also summarized in Buddhist texts such as the ''[[Samaññaphala Sutta]]'' (in which he is called Nigantha Nātaputta),{{refn|group=note|''Samaññaphala Sutta'', D i.47: "Nigantha Nātaputta answered with fourfold restraint. Just as if a person, when asked about a mango, were to answer with a breadfruit; or, when asked about a breadfruit, were to answer with a mango: In the same way, when asked about a fruit of the contemplative life, visible here and now, Nigantha Nātaputta answered with fourfold restraint. The thought occurred to me: 'How can anyone like me think of disparaging a [[brahmin|brahman]] or contemplative living in his realm?' Yet I [Buddha] neither delighted in Nigantha Nātaputta's words nor did I protest against them. Neither delighting nor protesting, I was dissatisfied. Without expressing dissatisfaction, without accepting his teaching, without adopting it, I got up from my seat and left."}}{{cite news|url=https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.02.0.than.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060616034749/https://www.accesstoinsight.org/tipitaka/dn/dn.02.0.than.html|title=Samaññaphala Sutta: The Fruits of the Contemplative Life|publisher=[[Access to Insight]]|archive-date=June 16, 2006|access-date=November 26, 2012|quote=Translated from the Pali by [[Ṭhānissaro Bhikkhu]] 1997|url-status=live}} and is a key difference between the teachings of Mahavira and those of the Buddha. The Buddha taught the [[Middle Way]], rejecting the extremes of "it is" or "it is not"; Mahavira accepted both "it is" and "it is not", with reconciliation and the qualification of "perhaps".{{sfn|Matilal|1998|pp=128–135}} [142] => [143] => The Jain Agamas suggest that Mahavira's approach to answering [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]], philosophical questions was a "qualified yes" (''syāt''). A version of this doctrine is also found in the [[Ajivika]] school of ancient Indian philosophy.{{sfn|Matilal|1990|pp=301–305}}{{sfn|Balcerowicz|2015|pp=205–218}} [144] => [145] => According to Dundas, the ''anekantavada'' doctrine has been interpreted by many Jains as "promot[ing] a universal [[religious tolerance]] ... plurality ... [and a] ... benign attitude to other [ethical, religious] positions"; however, this misreads Jain historical texts and Mahavira's teachings.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=232–234}} Mahavira's "many pointedness, multiple perspective" teachings are a doctrine about the nature of reality and human existence, not about tolerating religious positions such as sacrificing animals (or killing them for food) or violence against nonbelievers (or any other living being) as "perhaps right".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=232–234}} The five vows for Jain monks and nuns are strict requirements, with no "perhaps".{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=98–106}} Mahavira's Jainism co-existed with Buddhism and Hinduism beyond the renunciant Jain communities, but each religion was "highly critical of the knowledge systems and ideologies of their rivals".{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=233}} [146] => [147] => ===Gender=== [148] => A historically contentious view in Jainism is partially attributed to Mahavira and his ascetic life; he did not wear clothing, as a sign of renunciation (the fifth vow, ''aparigraha''). It was disputed whether a female mendicant (''sadhvi'') could achieve the spiritual liberation like a male mendicant (''sadhu'') through asceticism.{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=36–37}}{{sfn|Harvey|2014|pp=182–183}} [149] => [150] => The digambar sect (the sky-clad, naked mendicant order) believed that a woman is unable to fully practice asceticism and cannot achieve spiritual liberation because of her gender; she can, at best, live an ethical life so she is reborn as a man.{{refn|group=note|According to Melton and Baumann, the Digambaras state that "women's physical and emotional character makes it impossible for them to genuinely engage in the intense [ascetic] path necessary for spiritual purification. (...) Only by being reborn as a man can a woman engage in the ascetic path. Later Digambara secondary arguments appealed to human physiology in order to exclude women from the path: by their very biological basis, women constantly generate and destroy (and therefore harm) life forms within their sexual organs. Svetambara oppose this view by appealing to scriptures."{{sfn|Melton|Baumann|2010|p=1396}}}} According to this view, women are seen as a threat to a monk's chastity.{{sfn|Arvind Sharma|1994|pp=135–138}} [151] => [152] => Mahavira had preached about men and women equality. The Svetambaras have interpreted Mahavira's teaching as encouraging both sexes to pursue a mendicant, ascetic life with the possibility of ''moksha'' (''kaivalya'', spiritual liberation).{{sfn|Arvind Sharma|1994|pp=135–138}}{{sfn|Harvey|2014|pp=182–183}}{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=55–59}} [153] => [154] => ===Rebirth and realms of existence=== [155] => {{main|Saṃsāra (Jainism)}} [156] => Rebirth and realms of existence are fundamental teachings of Mahavira. According to the [[Acaranga Sutra]], Mahavira believed that life existed in myriad forms which included animals, plants, insects, bodies of water, fire, and wind.{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=892–894}}{{sfn|Chapelle|2011|pp=263–270}} He taught that a monk should avoid touching or disturbing any of them (including plants) and never swim, light (or extinguish) a fire, or wave their arms in the air; such actions might injure other beings living in those states of matter.{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=892–894}} [157] => [158] => Mahavira preached that the nature of existence is cyclic, and the soul is reborn after death in one of the ''[[Trilok (Jainism)|trilok]]''{{snd}}the heavenly, hellish, or earthly realms of existence and suffering.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=41–42, 90–93}} Humans are reborn, depending on one's [[karma]] (actions) as a human, animal, element, microbe, or other form, on earth or in a heavenly (or hellish) realm.{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=892–894}}{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=179–181}}{{sfn|Gorski|2008|pp=125–128}} Nothing is permanent; everyone (including gods, demons and earthly beings) dies and is reborn, based on their actions in their previous life. ''[[Arihant (Jainism)|Jinas]]'' who have reached [[Kevala Jnana]] ([[omniscience]]) are not reborn;{{sfn|Taylor|2008|pp=892–894}} they enter the ''siddhaloka'', the "realm of the perfected ones".{{sfn|Long|2009|pp=179–181}} [159] => [160] => ==Legacy== [161] => [162] => === Lineage === [163] => Mahavira is erroneously called the founder of Jainism, but Jains believe that the 23 previous ''tirthankaras'' also espoused it.{{Sfn|Wiley|2009|pp=5–7}} Mahavira is placed in Parshvanatha's lineage as his spiritual successor and ultimate leader of shraman sangha.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–33}} [164] => [165] => Parshvanatha was born 273 years before Mahavira. [[Parshvanatha]], a [[tirthankara]] whom modern Western historians consider a historical figure, lived in about the 8th century BCE.{{Cite book |last=Chatterjee |first=Asim Kumar |title=A comprehensive history of Jainism, 1 (2nd rev. ed.) |publisher=Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers |year=2000 |isbn=81-215-0931-9 |location=New Delhi |pages=15}}{{Cite book |last=Tähtinen |first=Unto |title=Ahimsa. Non-Violence in Indian Tradition |year=1976 |location=London |pages=132}}{{Cite book |last=Dundas |first=Paul |title=The Jains (Second ed.) |publisher=[[Routledge]] |year=2002 |isbn=0-415-26605-X |location=London and New York City |pages=14, 19, 30 |orig-year=1992 |ref={{SfnRef|NIL|2999}} }} Jain texts suggest that Mahavira's parents were lay devotees of Parshvanatha. When Mahavira revived the Jain community in the 6th century BCE, ''ahimsa'' was already an established, strictly observed rule. The followers of [[Parshvanatha]] vowed to observe ''ahimsa''; this obligation was part of their ''caujjama dhamma'' (Fourfold Restraint).{{Cite book |last=Goyal |first=Śrīrāma |title=A history of Indian Buddhism |publisher=Kusumanjali Prakashan |year=1987 |location=Meerut |pages=83, 84, 85, 103}} [166] => [167] => According to Dundas, Jains believe that the lineage of Parshvanatha influenced Mahavira. Parshvanatha, as the one who "removes obstacles and has the capacity to save", is a popular icon; his image is the focus of Jain temple devotion.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–33}} Of the 24 ''tirthankaras'', Jain iconography has celebrated Mahavira and Parshvanatha the most; sculptures discovered at the [[Mathura]] archaeological site have been dated to the 1st{{nbsp}}century BCE.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|pp=30–33}}{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|pp=9–11}}{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=25–32, 120–122, 166–171, 189–192}} According to [[Moriz Winternitz]], Mahavira may be considered a reformer of an existing Jain sect known as ''[[Jainism#Political history|Niganthas]]'' (fetter-less) which was mentioned in early Buddhist texts.{{sfn|Winternitz|1993|p=408}} The [[Barli Inscription]] dating back to 443 BCE contains the line ''Viraya Bhagavate chaturasiti vase'', which can be interpreted as "dedicated to Lord Vira in his 84th year".{{sfn|S. R. Goyal|2005|p=22}} [168] => [169] => ===Festivals=== [170] => Two major annual Jain festivals associated with Mahavira are [[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak]] and [[Diwali (Jainism)|Diwali]]. During [[Mahavir Janma Kalyanak]], Jains celebrate Mahavira's birth as the 24th and last ''tirthankara'' of ''[[avasarpiṇī]]'' (the current time cycle).{{sfn|Gupta|Gupta|2006|p=1001}} During Mahavir JanmaKalyanak, the five auspicious events of Mahavira's life are re-enacted.{{sfn|George|2008|p=394}} Diwali commemorates the anniversary of Mahavira's ''[[Nirvana (Jainism)|nirvana]]'', and is celebrated at the same time as the [[Diwali|Hindu festival]]. Diwali marks the New Year for Jains.{{sfn|Bhalla|2005|p=13}} [171] => [172] => === Worship === [173] => [[File:Adoration of the Jaina Tirthankara, Mahavira (6124596033).jpg|thumb|alt=See caption|Mahavira worship in a manuscript c.{{nbsp}}1825]] [174] => [[Samantabhadra (Jain monk)|Samantabhadra's]] ''Svayambhustotra'' praises the twenty-four ''tirthankaras'', and its eight [[shloka]]s (songs) adore Mahavira.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2015|pp=164–169}} One such ''shloka'' reads:{{blockquote|O Lord Jina! Your doctrine that expounds essential attributes required of a potential aspirant to cross over the ocean of worldly existence (''[[Saṃsāra (Jainism)|Saṃsāra]]'') reigns supreme even in this strife-ridden spoke of time (''Pancham Kaal''). Accomplished sages who have invalidated the so-called deities that are famous in the world, and have made ineffective the whip of all blemishes, adore your doctrine.{{sfn|Vijay K. Jain|2015|p=165}}}} Samantabhadra's ''Yuktyanusasana'' is a 64-verse poem which also praises Mahavira.{{sfn|Gokulchandra Jain|2015|p=84}} [175] => [176] => ===Influence=== [177] => Mahavira's teachings were influential. According to [[Rabindranath Tagore]], [178] => {{blockquote|Mahavira proclaimed in India that religion is a reality and not a mere social convention. It is really true that salvation can not be had by merely observing external ceremonies. Religion cannot make any difference between man and man.|Rabindranath Tagore{{sfn|Nanda|1997|p=44}}}} [179] => [180] => An event associated with the 2,500th anniversary of Mahavira's ''nirvana'' was held in 1974:{{sfn|Jaini|2000|p=31}} [181] => {{blockquote|Probably few people in the West are aware that during this Anniversary year for the first time in their long history, the [[Jain monasticism|mendicants]] of the ''Śvētāmbara'', ''Digambara'' and ''[[Sthānakavāsī]]'' sects assembled on the same platform, agreed upon a common flag ([[Jain flag|Jaina ''dhvaja'']]) and emblem (''pratīka''); and resolved to bring about the unity of the community. For the duration of the year four ''dharma cakras'', a wheel mounted on a chariot as an ancient symbol of the ''samavasaraṇa'' (Holy Assembly) of ''tīrthaṅkara'' Mahavira traversed to all the major cities of India, winning legal sanctions from various state governments against the slaughter of animals for sacrifice or other religious purposes, a campaign which has been a major preoccupation of the Jainas throughout their history.|[[Padmanabh Jaini]]}} [182] => [183] => === Iconography === [184] => [[File:24th Tirthankara Mahavira Bhagwan Vardhamana Nigantha Jainism.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|alt=Statue of Mahavira in a meditative pose|Mahavira iconography is distinguished by a lion stamped (or carved) beneath his feet; a [[Shrivatsa#In Jainism|Shrivatsa]] is on his chest.]] [185] => [186] => Mahavira is usually depicted in a sitting (or standing) meditative pose, with a lion symbol beneath him;{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=192}} each ''tīrthankara'' has a distinct emblem, which allows worshippers to distinguish similar idols.{{sfn|Zimmer|1953|p=225}} Mahavira's lion emblem is usually carved below his legs. Like all ''tirthankaras'', he is depicted with a ''[[Shrivatsa|Shrivatsa in Shetamber tradition]]''.{{refn|group=note|A special symbol that marks the chest of a ''tirthankara''.}} The yoga pose is very common in Buddhism, Hinduism, and Jainism. Each tradition has had a distinctive auspicious chest mark that allows devotees to identify a meditating statue to symbolic icon for their theology. There are several ''srivasta'' found in ancient and medieval Jain art works, and these are not found on Buddhist or Hindu art works.{{sfn|von Glasenapp|1925|pp=426–428}}{{cite news|url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/j/jainism-jinas-and-other-deities/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170526074318/http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/articles/j/jainism-jinas-and-other-deities/|title=Jainism: Jinas and Other Deities|publisher=[[Victoria and Albert Museum]]|archive-date=May 26, 2017|access-date=November 26, 2012|url-status=live}} and downcast eyes in digamber tradition while in Shetamber tradition it is wide open. [187] => [188] => Mahavira's earliest iconography is from archaeological sites in the [[north India]]n city of [[Mathura]], dated from the 1st{{nbsp}}century BCE to the 2nd{{nbsp}}century CE.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|pp=15–17}}{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=273–275}} The ''srivatsa'' mark on his chest and his ''dhyana-mudra'' posture appears in [[Kushana Empire]]-era artwork. Differences in Mahavira's depiction between the Digambara and Svetambara traditions appear in the late 5th{{nbsp}}century CE.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|pp=15–17}} According to John Cort, the earliest archaeological evidence of Jina iconography with inscriptions precedes its datable texts by over 250 years.{{sfn|Cort|2010|pp=48–49}} [189] => [190] => Many images of Mahavira have been dated to the 12th century and earlier;{{sfn|Umakant P. Shah|1987|p=193}} an ancient sculpture was found in a cave in Sundarajapuram, [[Theni district]], [[Tamil Nadu]]. K. Ajithadoss, a Jain scholar in Chennai, dated it to the 9th century.{{Cite web |last=Saju |first=M. T. |title=Ancient Mahavira sculpture found in cave near Theni |date=3 October 2015 |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Ancient-Mahavira-sculpture-found-in-cave-near-Theni/articleshow/49200451.cms |work=[[The Times of India]] |df=dmy-all |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160722211043/http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/chennai/Ancient-Mahavira-sculpture-found-in-cave-near-Theni/articleshow/49200451.cms |place=Chennai|archive-date=22 July 2016 |access-date=17 May 2017 |url-status=live}} [191] => [192] => [[Jivantasvami]] represents Mahavira as a princely state. The Jina is represented as standing in the [[kayotsarga]] pose wearing crown and ornaments.{{sfn|Vyas|1995|p=15}} [193] => [194] => [195] => File:Osian_17-67.jpg|[[Jivantasvami]] image of a [[Tirthankara]] carved on ''Torana'' in [[Mahavira Jain temple, Osian]] [196] => File:Vardhaman Keezhakuyilkudi.jpg|alt=See caption|Rock-cut sculpture of Mahavira in [[Samanar Hills]], [[Madurai]], [[Tamil Nadu]] [197] => File:Solitary Jina Kalugumalai.jpg|Rock-cut sculpture of Mahavira in [[Kalugumalai Jain Beds]], 8th century [198] => File:Mahavira Pratimaji.jpg|alt=See caption|Tallest known image of the seated Mahavira, Patnaganj [199] => File:Mahaveer.jpg|alt=See caption|Four-sided sculpture of Mahavira in [[Kankali Tila]], [[Mathura]] [200] => File:Tirthankaras.jpg|alt=Two nude statues|''Tirthankaras'' [[Rishabhanatha]] ''(left)'' and Mahavira, 11th century ([[British Museum]]) [201] => File:Mahavira Seattle 01.JPG|alt=Mahavira, seated|Temple relief of Mahavira, 14th century ([[Seattle Asian Art Museum]]) [202] => File:Thirakoil-mahaaveerar.JPG|alt=See caption|Relief of Mahavira in [[Thirakoil]], [[Tamil Nadu]] [203] => File:Ahinsa_Sthal.jpg|16-foot, 2-inch stone statue of Mahavira in [[Ahinsa Sthal]], [[Mehrauli]], [[New Delhi]]{{sfn|Titze|1998|p=266}}|alt=Large outdoor statue of Mahavira, with a seated worshipper for scale [204] => File:Ellora Cave 32 si0339.jpg|alt=See caption|Mahavira statue in Cave 32 of the [[Ellora Caves]] [205] => File:Jain temple at Ambapuram.jpg|Mahavira inside [[Ambapuram cave temple]], 7th century [206] => [207] => [208] => ===Temples=== [209] => Along with [[Rishabhanath]], [[Parshvanath]], [[Neminath]], and [[Shantinath]]; '''Mahavira''' is one of the five ''tirthankaras'' that attract the most devotional worship among the Jains.{{sfn|Dundas|2002|p=40}} Various Jain temple complexes across India feature him, and these are important pilgrimage sites in Jainism. [[Pawapuri]], for example, is a hilly part of southern Bihar, which is believed to have been a place where 23 out of 24 ''tirthankaras'' preached, along with Rishabha.{{sfn|Cort|2010|p=133}}{{sfn|Titze|1998|p=207}} According to [[John E. Cort|John Cort]], the [[Mahavira Jain temple, Osian|Mahavira temple]] in [[Osian, Jodhpur]], Rajasthan is the oldest surviving Jain temple in western India; it was built in the late 8th{{nbsp}}century.{{sfn|Cort|1998|p=112}} Important Mahavira temple complexes include [[Jal Mandir]] in Pawapuri, [[Trilokyanatha Temple]], [[Aihole#Meguti hill|Meguti Jain Temple]], [[Kumbharia Mahavira Temple]], [[Sankighatta]], [[Muchhal Mahavir Temple]], [[Bhandavapur Jain Tirth]], [[Dimapur Jain Temple]], and [[Jain temple, Kundalpur (Bihar)|Jain temple, Kundalpur]] [210] => [211] => [212] => File:Dharmachakra, lord mahaviras temple.jpg|alt=Dharmachakra temple|Dharmachakra temple in [[Gajpanth]] [213] => File:Shri Mahaveerji temple.jpg|[[Shri Mahavirji]] [214] => File:Jain Temple -02 by Jain Center of Greater Phoenix (JCGP).jpg|[[Jain Center of Greater Phoenix]] [215] => File:Jain Temple Oshwal Centre Pottersbar Hertfordshire UK ground.jpg|Jain temple, [[Potters Bar]] [216] => File:Tirumalai jaintemple 4.jpg|Jain temple in Tirumalai [217] => File:HBPA N 930 Meguti Jain temple Aihole (cropped).jpg|Meguti Jain temple, 5th—6th century [218] => [219] => [220] => ==See also== [221] => {{commons category}} [222] => {{Portal|Religion}} [223] => {{div col|colwidth=30em}} [224] => * [[Jivantasvami]] [225] => * [[Arihant (Jainism)]] [226] => * [[God in Jainism]] [227] => * [[History of Jainism]] [228] => * ''[[Mahavira: The Hero of Nonviolence]]'' [229] => * [[Timeline of Jainism]] [230] => * [[Bardhaman]] (city named after Mahaviraswami) [231] => {{div col end}} [232] => [233] => ==Notes== [234] => {{Reflist|group=note}} [235] => [236] => ==References== [237] => ===Citations=== [238] => {{Reflist|20em}} [239] => [240] => ===Sources=== [241] => {{Refbegin|30em}} [242] => [243] => * {{Citation |last=Adams |first=Simon |title=The Story of World Religions |date=2011 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=RKppXAHJuA8C |publisher=[[The Rosen Publishing Group]] |isbn=978-1-4488-4791-4}} [244] => * {{Citation |last=Appleton |first=Naomi |title=Narrating Karma and Rebirth: Buddhist and Jain Multi-Life Stories |date=2014 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tFytAgAAQBAJ |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |isbn=978-1-107-03393-1}} [245] => * {{Citation |last=Balcerowicz |first=Piotr |title=Early Asceticism in India: Ājīvikism and Jainism |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nfOPCgAAQBAJ |year=2015 |publisher=[[Routledge]] |isbn=978-1-317-53853-0}} [246] => * {{Citation |last=Bhalla |first=Kartar Sing |title=Let's Know Festivals of India |date=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WORYY5Vl0ygC |publisher=Star Publications |isbn=9788176501651}} [247] => * {{Citation |last1=Caillat |first1=Colette |title=Jaina Studies |date=1 January 2008 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ecKCrO6nLiAC |series=(in [[Prakrit]]) |publisher=[[Motilal Banarsidass]] Publishing House |isbn=978-81-208-3247-3 |last2=Balbir |first2=Nalini |author-link=Colette Caillat |author-link2=Nalini Balbir}} [248] => * {{Citation |last=Charitrapragya |first=Samani |title=Ahimsā, Anekānta, and Jaininsm |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYdlKv8wBiYC |year=2004 |editor-last=Sethia |editor-first=Tara |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass Publishing House |isbn=978-81-208-2036-4}} [249] => * {{Citation |last=Chakravarthi |first=Ram-Prasad |title=Non-violence and the other A composite theory of multiplism, heterology and heteronomy drawn from Jainism and Gandhi |journal=Angelaki |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=3–22 |year=2003 |doi=10.1080/0969725032000154359 |s2cid=143842799}} [250] => * {{Citation |last=Chapelle |first=Christopher |title=The Blackwell Companion to Religion and Violence |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MF2Oxz3a0XwC |year=2011 |editor-last=Murphy |editor-first=Andrew R. |publisher=[[John Wiley & Sons]] |isbn=978-1-4443-9573-0}} [251] => * {{Citation |last=Collins |first=Steven |title=Religion and Practical Reason |url=https://archive.org/details/holtscienceserie00abru |year=1994 |editor-last=Reynolds |editor-first=Frank |publisher=[[State University of New York Press]] |isbn=978-0-7914-2217-5 |editor-first2=David |editor-last2=Tracy |url-access=registration}} [252] => * {{Citation |title=Open Boundaries: Jain Communities and Cultures in Indian History |date=1998 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yoHfm7BgqTgC |editor-last=Cort |editor-first=John E. |publisher=SUNY Press|isbn=978-0-7914-3785-8 |editor-link=John E. 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Goyal |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pD9mAAAAMAAJ |title=Ancient Indian Inscriptions: Recent Finds and New Interpretations |publisher=Kusumanjali Book World |year=2005}} [312] => {{Refend}} [313] => [314] => ==External links== [315] => {{Sister project links}} [316] => [317] => {{Jain Gods}} [318] => {{Jainism topics}} [319] => {{Indian philosophy}} [320] => {{Authority control}} [321] => [322] => [[Category:Mahavira| ]] [323] => [[Category:Ascetics]] [324] => [[Category:Indian Jain religious leaders]] [325] => [[Category:Nonviolence advocates]] [326] => [[Category:Tirthankaras]] [327] => [[Category:Solar dynasty]] [328] => [[Category:Indian Jain monks]] [329] => [[Category:6th-century BC religious leaders]] [330] => [[Category:5th-century BC religious leaders]] [331] => [[Category:6th-century BC Indian Jains]] [332] => [[Category:6th-century BC Jain monks]] [333] => [[Category:6th-century BC Indian monks]] [334] => [[Category:6th-century BC Indian philosophers]] [335] => [[Category:5th-century BC Indian Jains]] [336] => [[Category:5th-century BC Jain monks]] [337] => [[Category:5th-century BC Indian monks]] [338] => [[Category:5th-century BC Indian philosophers]] [339] => [[Category:People from Bihar]] [340] => [[Category:6th-century BC Indian people]] [341] => [[Category:People from the Vajjika League]] [] => )
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Mahavira

Mahavira, also known as Vardhamana, is the twenty-fourth and last Tirthankara (teacher) of Jainism. He lived in the 5th century BCE in present-day Bihar, India.

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He lived in the 5th century BCE in present-day Bihar, India. Considered an enlightened being, Mahavira taught non-violence, truthfulness, chastity, and non-possession as fundamental principles of Jainism. He advocated for the liberation of the soul from the cycle of birth and death through self-control and ascetic practices. Mahavira's teachings, compiled in sacred texts called Agamas, form the basis of Jain philosophy. He is revered as a divine figure and a spiritual guide by the Jain community. Mahavira's life and teachings have had a profound impact on Indian culture and religious thought.

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