Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Institution that holds items of significance}} [1] => {{hatgrp| [2] => {{other uses}} [3] => {{redirect|Historical museum|specific museums|Historical Museum (disambiguation)}} [4] => }} [5] => {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2021}} [6] => {{Infobox building [7] => | image = {{multiple image [8] => |border = infobox [9] => |total_width = 300 [10] => |image_style = border:1; [11] => |caption_align = center [12] => |perrow = 1/2/2/2 [13] => |image1 = Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino - 2020 - 10.jpg [14] => |caption1 = The {{lang|es|[[Museo Chileno de Arte Precolombino]]}} in [[Santiago]], [[Chile]] [15] => |image2 = Facade of the Egyptian Museum, Tahrir Square, Cairo, Egypt2.jpg [16] => |caption2 = The [[Egyptian Museum]] in [[Cairo]], [[Egypt]] [17] => |image3 = Canada Science and Technology Museum.jpg [18] => |caption3 = The [[Canada Science and Technology Museum]] in [[Ottawa]], [[Canada]] [19] => |image4 = HK TST 尖沙咀 Tsim Sha Tsui 梳士巴利道 Salisbury Road 花園 Garden Hong Kong Museum of Art HKMoA October 2020 SS2 02.jpg [20] => |caption4 = The [[Hong Kong Museum of Art]] in [[Tsim Sha Tsui]], [[Hong Kong]] [21] => |image5 = La maison des esclaves.jpg [22] => |caption5 = The [[House of Slaves]] in [[Gorée]], [[Senegal]] [23] => |image6 = Diorama - Mangrove - Zoological Gallery - Indian Museum - Kolkata 2014-04-04 4386.JPG [24] => |caption6 = Diorama at the [[Indian Museum]] in [[Kolkata]], [[India]] [25] => |image7 = Gallery of 19th-Century Polish Art in the Sukiennice, 2022, 06.jpg [26] => |caption7 = Gallery at the [[Sukiennice Museum]] in [[Kraków]], [[Poland]]}} [27] => | image_upright = [28] => | alt = [29] => | caption = [30] => }} [31] => [32] => A '''museum''' ({{IPAc-en|m|juː|ˈ|z|iː|əm}} {{respell|mew|ZEE|əm}}) is an institution dedicated to displaying and/or [[Preservation (library and archive)|preserving]] culturally significant objects. Many museums have exhibitions of these objects on public display, and some have private collections that are used by [[research]]ers and specialists. Compared to a [[library]], a museum hosts a much wider range of objects and usually focus around a specific theme such as the [[art museums|arts]], [[science museums|science]], [[natural history museums|natural history]], [[Local museum|local history]], and other topics. Public museums that host exhibitions and interactive demonstrations are often considered to be [[tourist attraction]]s, and many museums attract large numbers of visitors from outside their host country, with the [[List of most-visited museums|most visited museums]] in the world regularly attracting millions of visitors annually. [33] => [34] => Since the establishment of [[Ennigaldi-Nanna's museum|the earliest known museum]] in [[ancient history|ancient times]], museums have been associated with [[academia]] and the preservation of rare items. Museums originated as private collections of interesting items, and not until much later did the emphasis on educating the public take root. [35] => [36] => ==Etymology== [37] => The English word ''museum'' comes from [[Latin]], and is pluralized as ''museums'' (or rarely, ''musea''). It is originally from the [[Ancient Greek]] Μουσεῖον (''[[Musaeum|mouseion]]''), which denotes a place or temple dedicated to the [[muse]]s (the patron divinities in [[Greek mythology]] of the arts), and hence was a building set apart for study and the arts,{{cite journal |last=Findlen |first=Paula |year=1989 |title=The Museum: its classical etymology and renaissance genealogy |journal=Journal of the History of Collections |volume=1 |issue= 1|pages=59–78 |doi=10.1093/jhc/1.1.59}} especially the [[Musaeum]] (institute) for [[philosophy]] and research at [[Alexandria]], built under [[Ptolemy I Soter]] about 280 BC.{{cite web|last1=Dunn|first1=Jimmy|url=http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ptolemy1.htm|title=Ptolemy I Soter, The First King of Ancient Egypt's Ptolemaic Dynasty|access-date=5 April 2008|work=Tour Egypt|archive-date=4 October 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191004052309/http://www.touregypt.net/featurestories/ptolemy1.htm|url-status=live}} [38] => [39] => ==Purpose== [40] => [[File:Lower Paleolithic fossils from Darband Cave, Paleolithic hall, National Museum of Iran.jpg|thumb|left|Visitors examining fossils displayed at the [[National Museum of Iran]] in [[Tehran]], Iran]]The purpose of modern museums is to collect, preserve, interpret, and display objects of artistic, cultural, or scientific significance for the study and [[education]] of the public. To city leaders, an active museum community can be seen as a gauge of the cultural or economic health of a city, and a way to increase the sophistication of its inhabitants. To museum professionals, a museum might be seen as a way to educate the public about the museum's mission, such as [[Civil and political rights|civil rights]] or [[environmentalism]]. Museums are, above all, storehouses of knowledge. {{citation needed|date=October 2021}} In 1829, James Smithson's bequest funding the [[Smithsonian Institution]] stated that he wanted to establish an institution "for the increase and diffusion of knowledge".{{cite web |publisher=Smithsonian Institution |title=James Smithson Society |url=https://www.si.edu/giving/membership/james-smithson-society |access-date=14 March 2018 |archive-date=20 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020051258/https://www.si.edu/giving/membership/james-smithson-society/ |url-status=live }} [41] => [42] => Museums of natural history in the late 19th century exemplified the scientific desire for the classification of life and for interpretations of the world. Gathering all examples for each field of knowledge for research and display was the purpose. As American colleges grew in the 19th century, they developed their own natural history collections for the use of their students. By the last quarter of the 19th century, scientific research in universities was shifting toward biological research on a cellular level, and cutting-edge research moved from museums to university laboratories.Steven Conn, "Museums and American Intellectual Life, 1876–1926", 1998, The University of Chicago Press, 65. While many large museums, such as the Smithsonian Institution, are still respected as research centers, research is no longer a main purpose of most museums. While there is an ongoing debate about the purposes of interpretation of a museum's collection, there has been a consistent mission to protect and preserve [[cultural artifact]]s for future generations. Much care, expertise, and expense is invested in preservation efforts to retard [[decomposition]] in aging documents, artifacts, artworks, and buildings. All museums display objects that are important to a culture. As historian Steven Conn writes, "To see the thing itself, with one's own eyes and in a public place, surrounded by other people having some version of the same experience, can be enchanting."Steven Conn, "Museums and American Intellectual Life, 1876–1926", 1998, The University of Chicago Press, 262. [43] => [44] => Museum purposes vary from institution to institution. Some favor education over conservation, or vice versa. For example, in the 1970s, the [[Canada Science and Technology Museum]] favored education over the preservation of their objects. They displayed objects as well as their functions. One exhibit featured a historical printing press that a staff member used for visitors to create museum memorabilia.Babian, Sharon, ''CSTM: A History of the Canada Science and Technology Museum'', pp. 42–45 Some museums seek to reach a wide audience, such as a national or state museum, while others have specific audiences, like the LDS [[Church History Museum]] or local history organizations. Generally speaking, museums collect objects of significance that comply with their mission statement for conservation and display. Apart from questions of provenance and conservation, museums take into consideration the former use and status of an object. Religious or holy objects, for instance, are handled according to cultural rules. [[Judaism|Jewish]] objects that contain the [[Names of God in Judaism|name of God]] may not be discarded, but need to be buried.{{Cite web |title=Holy Museology |url=https://www.juedisches-museum.ch/en/holy-museology/ |website=Jewish Museum of Switzerland |date=31 May 2022 |access-date=13 December 2022 |archive-date=13 December 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221213112641/https://www.juedisches-museum.ch/en/holy-museology/ |url-status=live }} [45] => [46] => Although most museums do not allow physical contact with the associated artifacts, there are some that are interactive and encourage a more hands-on approach. In 2009, [[Hampton Court Palace]], a palace of [[Henry VIII of England|Henry VIII]], in England opened the council room to the general public to create an interactive environment for visitors. Rather than allowing visitors to handle 500-year-old objects, however, the museum created replicas, as well as replica costumes. The daily activities, historic clothing, and even temperature changes immerse the visitor in an impression of what [[Tudor period|Tudor]] life may have been.Lipschomb, Suzannah, "Historical Authenticity and Interpretive Strategy at Hampton Court Palace", ''The Public Historian'' 32, no.3, August 2010, pp. 98–119. [47] => [48] => === Definitions === [49] => [[File:Segundo Editatón Soumaya Abierto 01.JPG|thumb|right|A guided tour group at the [[Soumaya Museum]] in [[Mexico City]], Mexico]]Major professional organizations from around the world offer some definitions as to what constitutes a museum, and their purpose. Common themes in all the definitions are public good and the care, preservation, and interpretation of collections. [50] => [51] => The [[International Council of Museums]]' current definition of a museum (adopted in 2022): "A museum is a not-for-profit, permanent institution in the service of society that researches, collects, conserves, interprets and exhibits tangible and intangible heritage. Open to the public, accessible and inclusive, museums foster diversity and sustainability. They operate and communicate ethically, professionally and with the participation of communities, offering varied experiences for education, enjoyment, reflection and knowledge sharing."{{Cite web |title=ICOM approves a new museum definition |url=https://icom.museum/en/news/icom-approves-a-new-museum-definition/ |access-date=2022-08-29 |website=International Council of Museums |language=en-US |archive-date=25 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220825131435/https://icom.museum/en/news/icom-approves-a-new-museum-definition/ |url-status=live }} [52] => [53] => The [[Canadian Museums Association]]'s definition: "A museum is a non-profit, permanent establishment, that does not exist primarily for the purpose of conducting temporary exhibitions and that is open to the public during regular hours and administered in the public interest for the purpose of conserving, preserving, studying, interpreting, assembling and exhibiting to the public for the instruction and enjoyment of the public, objects and specimens or educational and cultural value including artistic, scientific, historical and technological material."{{Cite web|title=About Museums - Association of Manitoba Museums|url=https://www.museumsmanitoba.com/en/about-museums|access-date=2021-12-12|website=www.museumsmanitoba.com|archive-date=12 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212033155/https://www.museumsmanitoba.com/en/about-museums|url-status=live}} [54] => [55] => The United Kingdom's [[Museums Association]]'s definition: "Museums enable people to explore collections for inspiration, learning and enjoyment. They are institutions that collect, safeguard and make accessible artifacts and specimens, which they hold in trust for society." [56] => [57] => While the [[American Alliance of Museums]] does not have such a definition, their list of accreditation criteria to participate in their Accreditation Program states a museum must: "Be a legally organized nonprofit institution or part of a nonprofit organization or government entity; Be essentially educational in nature; Have a formally stated and approved mission; Use and interpret objects or a site for the public presentation of regularly scheduled programs and exhibits; Have a formal and appropriate program of documentation, care, and use of collections or objects; Carry out the above functions primarily at a physical facility or site; Have been open to the public for at least two years; Be open to the public at least 1,000 hours a year; Have accessioned 80 percent of its permanent collection; Have at least one paid professional staff with museum knowledge and experience; Have a full-time director to whom authority is delegated for day-to-day operations; Have the financial resources sufficient to operate effectively; Demonstrate that it meets the Core Standards for Museums; Successfully complete the Core Documents Verification Program".{{Cite web|date=2018-01-25|title=Eligibility|url=https://www.aam-us.org/programs/accreditation-excellence-programs/eligibility-to-participate-in-the-accreditation-program/|access-date=2021-12-12|website=American Alliance of Museums|language=en-US|archive-date=12 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212033155/https://www.aam-us.org/programs/accreditation-excellence-programs/eligibility-to-participate-in-the-accreditation-program/|url-status=live}} [58] => [59] => Additionally, there is a legal definition of museum in United States legislation authorizing the establishment of the [[Institute of Museum and Library Services]]: "Museum means a public, tribal, or private nonprofit institution which is organized on a permanent basis for essentially educational, cultural heritage, or aesthetic purposes and which, using a professional staff: Owns or uses tangible objects, either animate or inanimate; Cares for these objects; and Exhibits them to the general public on a regular basis" (Museum Services Act 1976).{{Cite web|title=2 CFR § 3187.3 - Definition of a museum.|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/2/3187.3|access-date=2021-12-12|website=LII / Legal Information Institute|language=en|archive-date=12 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212033154/https://www.law.cornell.edu/cfr/text/2/3187.3|url-status=live}} [60] => [61] => ==History== [62] => ===Ancient=== [63] => One of the oldest museums known is [[Ennigaldi-Nanna's museum]], built by Princess [[Ennigaldi]] in modern [[Iraq]] at the end of the [[Neo-Babylonian Empire]]. The site dates from {{Circa|530 BC}}, and contained artifacts from earlier [[Mesopotamia|Mesopotamian civilizations]]. Notably, a clay drum label—written in three languages—was found at the site, referencing the history and discovery of a museum item.{{Cite web|url=https://io9.gizmodo.com/5805358/the-story-behind-the-worlds-oldest-museum-built-by-a-babylonian-princess-2500-years-ago|title=The story behind the world's oldest museum, built by a Babylonian princess 2,500 years ago|last=Wilkens|first=Alasdair|date=25 May 2011|website=io9|access-date=31 March 2018|archive-date=1 April 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180401004752/https://io9.gizmodo.com/5805358/the-story-behind-the-worlds-oldest-museum-built-by-a-babylonian-princess-2500-years-ago|url-status=live}}{{Cite conference |last1=Manssour|first1=Y. M.|last2=El-Daly|first2=H. M.|last3=Morsi|first3=N. K.|title=The Historical Evolution of Museum Architecture |conference=Al-Azhar Engineering Thirteenth International Conference |url=http://www.cpas-egypt.com/pdf/Nouran-Khaled/Research/THE%20HISTORICAL%20EVOLUTION%20OF%20MUSEUM%20ARCHITECTURE.pdf|page=2|journal=|access-date=12 January 2022|archive-date=21 January 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121071817/http://www.cpas-egypt.com/pdf/Nouran-Khaled/Research/THE%20HISTORICAL%20EVOLUTION%20OF%20MUSEUM%20ARCHITECTURE.pdf}} [64] => [65] => Ancient Greeks and Romans collected and displayed art and objects but perceived museums differently from modern day views. In the classical period the museums were the temples and their precincts which housed collections of votive offerings. Paintings and sculptures were displayed in gardens, forums, theaters, and bathhouses.{{Cite journal |last=van Buren |first=E. Douglas |date=1922 |title=Museums and Raree Shows in Antiquity |journal=Folklore |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=337–53 |doi=10.1080/0015587X.1922.9720240 |jstor=1256361|url=https://zenodo.org/record/2307860 }} In the ancient past there was little differentiation between libraries and museums with both occupying the building and were frequently connected to a temple or royal palace. The [[Musaeum|Museum of Alexandria]] is believed to be one of the earliest museums in the world. While it connected to the [[Library of Alexandria]] it is not clear if the museum was in a different building from the library or was part of the library complex. While little was known about the museum it was an inspiration for museums during the early Renaissance period.{{Cite book|title=Museum Origins: Readings in early museum history and philosophy|publisher=Left Coast Press|year=2008|isbn=978-1-59874-197-1|editor-last=Genoways|editor-first=Hugh|location=Walnut Creek, California|pages=13–15|language=English|editor-last2=Andrei|editor-first2=Mary Anne}} The royal palaces also functioned as a kind of museum outfitted with art and objects from conquered territories and gifts from ambassadors from other kingdoms allowing the ruler to display the amassed collections to guests and to visiting dignitaries.{{Cite web|title=Museums in the Ancient Mediterranean|url=https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1530/museums-in-the-ancient-mediterranean/|access-date=2021-11-05|website=World History Encyclopedia|language=en|archive-date=5 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211105155315/https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1530/museums-in-the-ancient-mediterranean/|url-status=live}} [66] => [67] => Also in Alexandria from the time of [[Ptolemy II Philadelphus]] (r. 285-246 BCE), was the first zoological park. At first used by Philadelphus in an attempt to domesticate [[African elephants]] for use in war, the elephants were also used for show along with a menagerie of other animals specimens including [[hartebeest]]s, [[ostrich]]es, [[zebra]]s, [[leopard]]s, [[giraffe]]s, [[rhinoceros]], and [[Pythonidae|pythons]].{{Cite journal |last=Hubbell |first=H. M. |date=1935 |title=Ptolemy's Zoo |journal=The Classical Journal |volume=31 |issue=2 |pages=68–76 |jstor=3290815}} [68] => [69] => ===Early === [70] => {{See also|List of museums from the 18th century}} [71] => [[File:Ashmolean Museum (BM 1954,1103.1).jpg|thumb|left|upright|The old [[Ashmolean Museum]] building in [[Oxford]], England]] [72] => Early museums began as the private collections of wealthy individuals, families or institutions of art and rare or curious natural objects and [[artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]]. These were often displayed in so-called "wonder rooms" or [[cabinet of curiosities|cabinets of curiosities]]. These contemporary museums first emerged in western Europe, then spread into other parts of the world.Chang Wan-Chen, ''A cross-cultural perspective on musealization: the museum's reception by China and Japan in the second half of the nineteenth century'' in ''Museum and Society'', vol 10, 2012. [73] => [74] => Public access to these museums was often possible for the "respectable", especially to private art collections, but at the whim of the owner and his staff. One way that elite men during this time period gained a higher social status in the world of elites was by becoming a collector of these curious objects and displaying them. Many of the items in these collections were new discoveries and these collectors or naturalists, since many of these people held interest in natural sciences, were eager to obtain them. By putting their collections in a museum and on display, they not only got to show their fantastic finds but also used the museum as a way to sort and "manage the empirical explosion of materials that wider dissemination of ancient texts, increased travel, voyages of discovery, and more systematic forms of communication and exchange had produced".Paula Findlen, Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy (Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1994),3. [75] => [76] => One of these naturalists and collectors was [[Ulisse Aldrovandi]], whose collection policy of gathering as many objects and facts about them was "encyclopedic" in nature, reminiscent of that of Pliny, the Roman philosopher and naturalist.Paula Findlen, Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy (Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1994),62. The idea was to consume and collect as much knowledge as possible, to put everything they collected and everything they knew in these displays. In time, however, museum philosophy would change and the encyclopedic nature of information that was so enjoyed by Aldrovandi and his cohorts would be dismissed as well as "the museums that contained this knowledge". The 18th-century scholars of the [[Age of Enlightenment]] saw their ideas of the museum as superior and based their natural history museums on "organization and taxonomy" rather than displaying everything in any order after the style of Aldrovandi.Paula Findlen, Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy (Berkeley, California: University of California Press, 1994),393–397. [77] => [78] => The first "public" museums were often accessible only by the middle and upper classes. It could be difficult to gain entrance. When the [[British Museum]] opened to the public in 1759, it was a concern that large crowds could damage the artifacts. Prospective visitors to the British Museum had to apply in writing for admission, and small groups were allowed into the galleries each day.The British Museum, " Admission Ticket to the British Museum" https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/archives/a/admission_ticket_to_the_britis.aspx {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140413155944/https://www.britishmuseum.org/explore/highlights/highlight_objects/archives/a/admission_ticket_to_the_britis.aspx |date=13 April 2014 }}, accessed 4/3/14. The British Museum became increasingly popular during the 19th century, amongst all age groups and social classes who visited the British Museum, especially on public holidays.{{cite web |url=https://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/history/general_history.aspx |title=History of the British Museum |publisher=British Museum |access-date=15 June 2017 |archive-date=12 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120412162528/http://www.britishmuseum.org/the_museum/history/general_history.aspx |url-status=live }} [79] => [80] => The [[Ashmolean Museum]], however, founded in 1677 from the personal collection of [[Elias Ashmole]], was set up in the [[University of Oxford]] to be open to the public and is considered by some to be the first modern public museum.Swann, Marjorie (2001), Curiosities and Texts: The Culture of Collecting in Early Modern England, Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press The collection included that of [[Elias Ashmole]] which he had collected himself, including objects he had acquired from the gardeners, travellers and collectors [[John Tradescant the elder]] and [[John Tradescant the Younger|his son of the same name]]. The collection included antique coins, books, engravings, geological specimens, and zoological specimens—one of which was the stuffed body of the last [[dodo]] ever seen in Europe; but by 1755 the stuffed dodo was so moth-eaten that it was destroyed, except for its head and one claw. The museum opened on 24 May 1683, with [[natural history|naturalist]] [[Robert Plot]] as the first keeper. The first building, which became known as the [[Museum of the History of Science, Oxford|Old Ashmolean]], is sometimes attributed to [[Christopher Wren|Sir Christopher Wren]] or Thomas Wood.H. E. Salter and Mary D. Lobel (editors) [[Victoria County History]] [http://www.british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=63866 ''A History of the County of Oxford: Volume 3'' 1954 Pages 47–49] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130208052143/http://british-history.ac.uk/report.aspx?compid=63866 |date=8 February 2013 }} [81] => [82] => [[File:Réunion des Tuileries au Louvre 1852–1857 Getty Museum vol1 05 View of the Cour Napoléon toward the Tuileries.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|left|The Louvre in 1853]] [83] => In France, the first public museum was the [[Louvre]] in [[Paris]],{{cite web|title=History of Louvre |url=http://www.louvre.fr/en/history-louvre |publisher=History of Louvre |access-date=14 November 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131024093225/http://www.louvre.fr/en/history-louvre |archive-date=24 October 2013}} opened in 1793 during the [[French Revolution]], which enabled for the first time free access to the former French royal collections for people of all stations and status. The fabulous art treasures collected by the French [[monarchy]] over centuries were accessible to the public three days each "''décade''" (the 10-day unit which had replaced the week in the [[French Republican Calendar]]). The ''Conservatoire du muséum national des Arts'' (National Museum of Arts's Conservatory) was charged with organizing the Louvre as a national public museum and the centerpiece of a planned national museum system. As [[Napoleon|Napoléon I]] conquered the great cities of Europe, confiscating art objects as he went, the collections grew and the organizational task became more and more complicated. After Napoleon was defeated in 1815, many of the treasures he had amassed were gradually [[Repatriation (cultural heritage)|returned to their owners]] (and many were not). His plan was never fully realized, but his concept of a museum as an agent of nationalistic fervor had a profound influence throughout Europe. [84] => [85] => [[File:The South Building of Nantong Museum 01 2013-01.JPG|thumbnail|The [[Nantong Museum]], the first Chinese-sponsored museum]] [86] => [[Chinese people|Chinese]] and [[Japanese people|Japanese]] visitors to Europe were fascinated by the museums they saw there, but had cultural difficulties in grasping their purpose and finding an equivalent Chinese or Japanese term for them. Chinese visitors in the early 19th century named these museums based on what they contained, so defined them as "bone amassing buildings" or "courtyards of treasures" or "painting pavilions" or "curio stores" or "halls of military feats" or "gardens of everything". Japan first encountered Western museum institutions when it participated in Europe's World's Fairs in the 1860s. The British Museum was described by one of their delegates as a 'hakubutsukan', a 'house of extensive things' – this would eventually become accepted as the equivalent word for 'museum' in Japan and China.Chang Wan-Chen, ''A cross-cultural perspective on musealization: the museum's reception by China and Japan in the second half of the nineteenth century'' in ''Museum and Society'', vol. 10, 2012. [87] => [88] => ===Modern === [89] => American museums eventually joined European museums as the world's leading centers for the production of new knowledge in their fields of interest. A period of intense museum building, in both an intellectual and physical sense was realized in the late 19th and early 20th centuries (this is often called "The Museum Period" or "The Museum Age"). While many American museums, both natural history museums and art museums alike, were founded with the intention of focusing on the scientific discoveries and artistic developments in North America, many moved to emulate their European counterparts in certain ways (including the development of Classical collections from ancient [[ancient Egypt|Egypt]], [[ancient Greece|Greece]], [[Mesopotamia]], and [[ancient Rome|Rome]]). Drawing on [[Michel Foucault]]'s concept of liberal government, [[Tony Bennett (sociologist)|Tony Bennett]] has suggested the development of more modern 19th-century museums was part of new strategies by Western governments to produce a citizenry that, rather than be directed by coercive or external forces, monitored and regulated its own conduct. To incorporate the masses in this strategy, the private space of museums that previously had been restricted and socially exclusive were made public. As such, objects and artifacts, particularly those related to high culture, became instruments for these "new tasks of social management".{{cite book|first =Tony |last =Bennett|title =The Birth of the Museum |location=New York|publisher = Routledge Press|date= 1995|pages = 6, 8, 24|isbn=0-415-05388-9}} [[University|Universities]] became the primary centers for innovative research in the United States well before the start of [[World War II]]. Nevertheless, museums to this day contribute new knowledge to their fields and continue to build collections that are useful for both research and display.{{Cite web|url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/museum-cultural-institution/The-precursors-of-museums|title=Museum|publisher=Encyclopedica Britannica|access-date=23 June 2022|archive-date=23 June 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623152403/https://www.britannica.com/topic/museum-cultural-institution/The-precursors-of-museums|url-status=live}} [90] => [91] => [[File:Museum exhibit, Provincial Museum, Normal School.jpg|thumb|An exhibition of the remains of Native Americans at the [[Royal Ontario Museum]] in 1908]]The late twentieth century witnessed intense debate concerning the repatriation of religious, ethnic, and cultural artifacts housed in museum collections. In the United States, several [[Native Americans in the United States|Native American]] tribes and advocacy groups have lobbied extensively for the repatriation of sacred objects and the reburial of human remains.{{Cite journal|last=Gulliford|first=Andrew|date=1992|title=Curation and Repatriation of Sacred and Tribal Artifacts|journal=The Public Historian |volume= 14| issue = 3 |page=25|doi=10.2307/3378225|jstor=3378225}} In 1990, Congress passed the [[Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act]] (NAGPRA), which required federal agencies and federally funded institutions to repatriate Native American "cultural items" to culturally affiliate tribes and groups.{{Cite web|url=https://www.nps.gov/archeology/tools/laws/nagpra.htm|title=The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (NAGPRA)|publisher=National Park Service|access-date=18 April 2016|archive-date=21 April 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160421055615/https://www.nps.gov/archeology/tools/laws/nagpra.htm|url-status=live}} Similarly, many European museum collections often contain objects and cultural artifacts acquired through [[imperialism]] and [[colonization]]. Some historians and scholars have criticized the British Museum for its possession of rare antiquities from Egypt, Greece, and the Middle East.{{Cite journal|last=Duthie|first=Emily|date=2011|title=The British Museum: An Imperial Museum in a Post-Imperial World|journal=Public History Review|volume=18 |pages=12–25|doi=10.5130/phrj.v18i0.1523|doi-access=free}} [92] => [93] => ==Management== [94] => [[File:CheesemanRoom 090721 011 (cropped).jpg|thumbnail|An honours board listing the directors of a museum in [[Auckland]], New Zealand]] [95] => The roles associated with the management of a museum largely depend on the size of the institution.American Association of Museums, "The Accreditation Commission's Expectations Regarding Governance." [http://www.aam-us.org/aboutmuseums/standards/stbp.cfm p. 1.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111119180646/http://www.aam-us.org/aboutmuseums/standards/stbp.cfm |date=19 November 2011 }} Together, the Board and the Director establish a system of governance that is guided by policies that set standards for the institution. Documents that set these standards include an institutional or strategic plan, institutional code of ethics, bylaws, and collections policy. The [[American Alliance of Museums]] (AAM) has also formulated a series of standards and best practices that help guide the management of museums. [96] => [97] => * [[Trustee|Board of Trustees]] or [[Board of directors]] – The board governs the museum and is responsible for ensuring the museum is financially and ethically sound. They set standards and policies for the museum. Board members are often involved in fundraising aspects of the museum and represent the institution.Hugh H. Genoways and Lynne M. Ireland, ''Museum Administration: An Introduction'', (Lanham: AltaMira, 2003), 3. Some museum use the terms "directors" and "trustees" interchangeably but both are different legal instruments. A board of directors governs a nonprofit corporation, a board of trustees is responsible for governing a charitable trust, foundation, or endowment.{{Cite book|last1=Latham|first1=Kiersten F.|title=Foundations of Museum Studies: Evolving Systems of Knowledge Illustrated Edition|last2=Simmons|first2=John E.|publisher=Libraries Unlimited|year=2014|isbn=978-1-61069-282-3|page=9|language=English}} In the case of small museums and all volunteer museums, a board may be more hands-on in the day-to-day operations of the museum.{{Cite journal|last=Pierce|first=Dennis|date=November–December 2018|title=The Quest for Excellence: Small museums really do have the resources to pursue accreditation.|url=https://www.aam-us.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/2018-Nov_Dec-Small-Museums-Soar.pdf|journal=Museum|publisher=American Alliance of Museum|pages=16–26|access-date=12 December 2021|archive-date=12 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211212163037/https://www.aam-us.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/01/2018-Nov_Dec-Small-Museums-Soar.pdf|url-status=live}} [98] => * Director- The director is the face of the museum to the professional and public community. They communicate closely with the board to guide and govern the museum. They work with the staff to ensure the museum runs smoothly. According to museum professionals Hugh H. Genoways and Lynne M. Ireland, "Administration of the organization requires skill in conflict management, interpersonal relations, budget management and monitoring, and staff supervision and evaluation. Managers must also set legal and ethical standards and maintain involvement in the museum profession." [99] => [[File:LBJ Foundation DIG14005 035 (32274126330).jpg|thumbnail|A curator and exhibit designer dressing a mannequin for an exhibit]] [100] => [[File:06 Restoration of gilded mirror in Muzeum Gornoslaskie, Bytom, Poland - furniture restorer working.jpg|thumbnail|Restoration of a gilded mirror by a conservator]] [101] => Various positions within the museum carry out the policies established by the Board and the Director. All museum employees should work together toward the museum's institutional goal. Here is a list of positions commonly found at museums: [102] => * [[Curator]] – Curators are the intellectual drivers behind exhibits. They research the museum's collection and topic of focus, develop exhibition themes, and publish their research aimed at either a public or academic audience. Larger museums have curators in a variety of areas. For example, [[The Henry Ford]] has a Curator of Transportation, a Curator of Public Life, a Curator of Decorative Arts, etc. Many art museums have curators dedicated to specific historic periods and geographic regions, such as American art and modern or contemporary art.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} [103] => * [[Collection Management Policy|Collections Management]] – Collections managers are primarily responsible for the hands-on care, movement, and storage of objects. They are responsible for the accessibility of collections and collections policy. [104] => * [[Registrar (museum)|Registrar]] – Registrars are the primary record keepers of the collection. They insure that objects are properly accessioned, documented, insured, and, when appropriate, loaned. Ethical and legal issues related to the collection are dealt with by registrars. Along with collections managers, they uphold the museum's collections policy.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} [105] => *[[Teacher|Educator]] – Museum educators are responsible for educating museum audiences. Their duties can include designing tours and public programs for children and adults, teacher training, developing classroom and continuing education resources, community outreach, and volunteer management.{{Cite book|title=From Knowledge to Narrative: Educators and the Changing Museum|last=Roberts|first=Lisa C.|publisher=Smithsonian Institution Press|year=1997|location=Washington, D.C.|page=2}} Educators not only work with the public, but also collaborate with other museum staff on exhibition and program development to ensure that exhibits are audience-friendly. [106] => *[[Exhibition designer|Exhibit Designer]] – Exhibit designers are in charge of the layout and physical installation of exhibits. They create a conceptual design and then bring it to fruition in the physical space.{{citation needed|date=October 2021}} [107] => * [[Conservator-restorer|Conservator]] – Conservators focus on object restoration. More than preserving the object in its present state, they seek to stabilize and repair artifacts to the condition of an earlier era.University of Rochester, [http://mag.rochester.edu/plugins/acrobat/teachers/MuseumCareers.pdf "Museum Job Descriptions".] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120405214417/http://mag.rochester.edu/plugins/acrobat/teachers/MuseumCareers.pdf |date=5 April 2012 }} [108] => [109] => Other positions commonly found at museums include: building operator, public programming staff, [[photographer]], [[librarian]], [[archivist]], [[Groundskeeping|groundskeeper]], volunteer coordinator, preparator, security staff, development officer, membership officer, business officer, gift shop manager, public relations staff, and [[graphic designer]]. [110] => [111] => At smaller museums, staff members often fulfill multiple roles. Some of these positions are excluded entirely or may be carried out by a contractor when necessary. [112] => [113] => ===Protection=== [114] => The [[cultural property]] stored in museums is threatened in many countries by [[natural disaster]], [[war]], terrorist attacks or other emergencies. To this end, an internationally important aspect is a strong bundling of existing resources and the networking of existing specialist competencies in order to prevent any loss or damage to cultural property or to keep damage as low as possible. International partner for museums is [[UNESCO]] and [[Blue Shield International]] in accordance with the Hague Convention for the Protection of Cultural Property from 1954 and its 2nd Protocol from 1999. For legal reasons, there are many international collaborations between museums, and the local Blue Shield organizations.Cf. e.g. Marilyn E. Phelan: '' Museum Law: A Guide for Officers, Directors, and Counsel. '' 2014, p. 419 ff.{{Cite web|url=http://archives.icom.museum/emergency.html|title=ICOM and the International Committee of the Blue Shield|website=ICOM|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200323142530/http://archives.icom.museum/emergency.html |archive-date = 23 March 2020}} [115] => [116] => Blue Shield has conducted extensive missions to protect museums and cultural assets in armed conflict, such as 2011 in Egypt and Libya, 2013 in Syria and 2014 in Mali and Iraq. During these operations, the looting of the collection is to be prevented in particular.Peter Stone ''Inquiry: Monuments Men.'' In: ''Apollo – The International Art Magazine.'' 2 February 2015; Mehroz Baig: ''When War Destroys Identity.'' In: ''Worldpost.'' 12 May 2014; Fabian von Posser: ''Welterbe-Stätten zerbombt, Kulturschätze verhökert.'' (German) In: ''Die Welt.'' 5 November 2013. [117] => ===Gallery - Museum Storage=== [118] => [119] => File:Archives Processing Room, Minnesota History Center.jpg|Archive Processing rooms provide a space for archivists to arrange and describe archival materials to make them accessible to researchers. [120] => File:Textiles Collections Storage, Minnesota History Center.jpg|Museum textile storage includes rolled storage racks, hanging wardrobe and garments shelving, and cabinets. [121] => File:3D Collections Storage, Minnesota History Center.jpg|Collections storage for three-dimensional historic artifacts. [122] => File:Benton Museum of Art collections vault.jpg|In museums, paintings, framed and unframed, are normally hung on sliding or fixed racking. [123] => [124] => [125] => ==Planning== [126] => [[File:Computer History Museum Wikipedia exhibit planning meeting 8.jpg|thumb|upright=1.2|Exhibit planning]] [127] => {{See also|Museum planning|Interpretive planning}} [128] => [129] => The design of museums has evolved throughout history. However, museum planning involves planning the actual mission of the museum along with planning the space that the collection of the museum will be housed in. Intentional museum planning has its beginnings with the museum founder and librarian [[John Cotton Dana]]. Dana detailed the process of founding the [[Newark Museum]] in a series of books in the early 20th century so that other museum founders could plan their museums. Dana suggested that potential founders of museums should form a committee first, and reach out to the community for input as to what the museum should supply or do for the community.Dana, John Cotton. The New Museum (Woodstock, VT: The Elm Tree Press, 1917), 25. According to Dana, museums should be planned according to community's needs: [130] => [131] => "The new museum ... does not build on an educational superstition. It examines its community's life first, and then straightway bends its energies to supplying some the material which that community needs, and to making that material's presence widely known, and to presenting it in such a way as to secure it for the maximum of use and the maximum efficiency of that use."Dana, John Cotton. The New Museum (Woodstock, VT: The Elm Tree Press, 1917), 32. [132] => [133] => The way that museums are planned and designed vary according to what collections they house, but overall, they adhere to planning a space that is easily accessed by the public and easily displays the chosen artifacts. These elements of planning have their roots with John Cotton Dana, who was perturbed at the historical placement of museums outside of cities, and in areas that were not easily accessed by the public, in gloomy European style buildings.Dana, John Cotton. The Gloom of the Museum. (Woodstock, VT: The Elm Tree Press, 1917), 12. [134] => [135] => Questions of accessibility continue to the present day. Many museums strive to make their buildings, programming, ideas, and collections more publicly accessible than in the past. Not every museum is participating in this trend, but that seems to be the trajectory of museums in the twenty-first century with its emphasis on inclusiveness. One pioneering way museums are attempting to make their collections more accessible is with open storage. Most of a museum's collection is typically locked away in a secure location to be preserved, but the result is most people never get to see the vast majority of collections. The Brooklyn Museum's Luce Center for American Art practices this open storage where the public can view items not on display, albeit with minimal interpretation. The practice of open storage is all part of an ongoing debate in the museum field of the role objects play and how accessible they should be.{{Cite web|title = Turning Museums Inside-Out with Beautiful Visible Storage|url = http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/turning-museums-inside-out-with-beautiful-visible-storage|website = Atlas Obscura|date = 24 September 2014|access-date = 1 February 2016|archive-date = 1 February 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160201151035/http://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/turning-museums-inside-out-with-beautiful-visible-storage|url-status = live}} [136] => [137] => In terms of modern museums, interpretive museums, as opposed to art museums, have missions reflecting curatorial guidance through the subject matter which now include content in the form of images, audio and visual effects, and interactive exhibits. Museum creation begins with a museum plan, created through a [[museum planning]] process. The process involves identifying the museum's vision and the resources, organization and experiences needed to realize this vision. A feasibility study, analysis of comparable facilities, and an [[Interpretive planning|interpretive plan]] are all developed as part of the museum planning process. [138] => [139] => Some museum experiences have very few or no artifacts and do not necessarily call themselves museums, and their mission reflects this; the [[Griffith Observatory]] in [[Los Angeles]] and the [[National Constitution Center]] in [[Philadelphia]], being notable examples where there are few artifacts, but strong, memorable stories are told or information is interpreted. In contrast, the [[United States Holocaust Memorial Museum]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] uses many artifacts in their memorable exhibitions. [140] => [141] => Museums are laid out in a specific way for a specific reason and each person who enters the doors of a museum will see its collection completely differently to the person behind them- this is what makes museums fascinating because they are represented differently to each individual.{{rp|9–10}} [142] => [143] => ===Financial uses=== [144] => {{See also|Economic theory of museums}} [145] => In recent years, some cities have turned to museums as an avenue for economic development or rejuvenation. This is particularly true in the case of postindustrial cities.{{cite book |title=Do Museums Still Need Objects? |last=Conn |first=Steven |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2010 |location=Philadelphia |page=17}} Examples of museums fulfilling these economic roles exist around the world. For example, the [[Guggenheim Museum Bilbao]] was built in [[Bilbao|Bilbao, Spain]] in a move by the Basque regional government to revitalize the dilapidated old port area of that city. The Basque government agreed to pay $100 million for the construction of the museum, a price tag that caused many Bilbaoans to protest against the project.{{cite news |title=A Gleaming New Guggenheim for Grimy Bilbao |last=Riding |first=Alan |date=24 June 1997 |work=[[The New York Times]] |page=C9}} Nonetheless, over 1.1 million people visited the museum in 2015, indicating it appeared to have paid off for the local government despite local backlash; key to this is the large demographic of foreign visitors to the museum, with 63% of the visitors residing outside of Spain and thus feeding foreign investment straight into Bilbao.{{Cite web|url = http://prensa.guggenheim-bilbao.es/src/uploads/2016/01/NP_Balance-2015_ES.pdf|title = Guggenheim Bilbao Annual Report 2015|access-date = 20 January 2016|website = Guggenheim Bilbao|archive-date = 27 January 2016|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20160127030943/http://prensa.guggenheim-bilbao.es/src/uploads/2016/01/NP_Balance-2015_ES.pdf|url-status = live}} A similar project to that undertaken in Bilbao was the [[Titanic Belfast]], built on disused shipyards in [[Belfast]], [[Northern Ireland]], incidentally for the same price as the Guggenheim Museum Bilbao and by the same architect, [[Frank Gehry]], in time for the 100th anniversary of ''[[Titanic]]'''s maiden voyage in 2012. Initially expecting modest visitor numbers of 425,000 annually, first year visitor numbers reached over 800,000, with almost 60% coming from outside Northern Ireland.{{Cite news|title = Northern Ireland Focus: Titanic Success Raises Hopes For Tourism|last = Smyth|first = Jamie|date = 16 June 2013|work = Financial Times}} In the United States, similar projects include the 81,000 square foot [[Taubman Museum of Art]] in [[Roanoke, Virginia]] and [[The Broad]] in [[Los Angeles]]. [146] => [147] => Museums being used as a cultural economic driver by city and local governments has proven to be controversial among museum activists and local populations alike. Public protests have occurred in numerous cities which have tried to employ museums in this way. While most subside if a museum is successful, as happened in Bilbao, others continue especially if a museum struggles to attract visitors. The Taubman Museum of Art is an example of an expensive museum (eventually $66 million) that attained little success and continues to have a low endowment for its size.{{Cite news|title = Start-Up Success Isn't Enough to Found a Museum|last = Wallis|first = David|date = 20 March 2014|work = [[The New York Times]]|page = F6}} Some museum activists see this method of museum use as a deeply flawed model for such institutions. Steven Conn, one such museum proponent, believes that "to ask museums to solve our political and economic problems is to set them up for inevitable failure and to set us (the visitor) up for inevitable disappointment." [148] => [149] => ===Funding=== [150] => [[File:Fire - Museu Nacional 03.jpg|thumb|Officials blamed a lack of funding for [[National Museum of Brazil fire|a 2018 fire]] at the [[National Museum of Brazil]] that destroyed over 90% of its contents {{Cite news |date=2018-09-03 |title=Brazil museum fire: Funding cuts blamed as icon is gutted |language=en-GB |work=BBC News |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-45398084 |access-date=2022-08-22 |archive-date=22 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822135337/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-45398084 |url-status=live }}]] Museums are facing funding shortages. Funding for museums comes from four major categories, and as of 2009 the breakdown for the United States is as follows: Government support (at all levels) 24.4%, private (charitable) giving 36.5%, earned income 27.6%, and investment income 11.5%.Bell, Ford W. [http://www.photos.state.gov/libraries/amgov/133183/english/P_You_Asked_How_Are_Museums_Supported_Financially.pdf "How Are Museums Supported Nationally in the U.S.?"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181010125711/https://photos.state.gov/libraries/amgov/133183/english/P_You_Asked_How_Are_Museums_Supported_Financially.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://photos.state.gov/libraries/amgov/133183/english/P_You_Asked_How_Are_Museums_Supported_Financially.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |date=10 October 2018 }} Embassy of the United States of America, 2012.. Accessed 26 March 2017. Government funding from the [[National Endowment for the Arts]], the largest museum funder in the United States, decreased by 19.586 million between 2011 and 2015, adjusted for inflation.[http://www.arts.gov/sites/default/files/2011-NEA-Annual-Report.pdf "National Endowment for the Arts 2011 Annual Report."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190110113135/https://www.arts.gov/sites/default/files/2011-NEA-Annual-Report.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.arts.gov/sites/default/files/2011-NEA-Annual-Report.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |date=10 January 2019 }} National Endowment for the Arts, 2012. Accessed 26 February 2017.[http://www.arts.gov/sites/default/files/2015%20Annual%20Report.pdf "National Endowment for the Arts 2015 Annual Report."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190111204145/https://www.arts.gov/sites/default/files/2015%20Annual%20Report.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.arts.gov/sites/default/files/2015%20Annual%20Report.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |date=11 January 2019 }} National Endowment for the Arts, 2016.. Accessed 26 February 2017. The average spent per visitor in an art museum in 2016 was $8 between admissions, store and restaurant, where the average expense per visitor was $55.[http://www.aamd.org/sites/default/files/document/Art%20Museums%20By%20the%20Numbers%202016.pdf Association of Art Museum Directors (AAMD)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181219042942/https://aamd.org/sites/default/files/document/Art%20Museums%20By%20the%20Numbers%202016.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://aamd.org/sites/default/files/document/Art%20Museums%20By%20the%20Numbers%202016.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |date=19 December 2018 }}, "Art Museums by the Numbers 2016." AAMD.org,. Accessed 26 February 2017. [[Corporation]]s, which fall into the private giving category, can be a good source of funding to make up the funding gap. The amount corporations currently give to museums accounts for just 5% of total funding.Stubbs, Ryan and Henry Clapp. [http://www.giarts.org/article/public-funding-arts-2015-update "Public Funding for the Arts: 2015 Update."] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181126051030/https://www.giarts.org/article/public-funding-arts-2015-update |date=26 November 2018 }} Grantmakers in the Arts, GIA Reader, vol. 26, no. 3, Fall 2015.. Accessed 26 February 2017. Corporate giving to the arts, however, was set to increase by 3.3% in 2017.{{cite web|title = Sponsorship Spending on the Arts to Grow 3.3 Percent in 2017|website = ESP Sponsorship Report|date = 13 February 2017|url = http://www.sponsorship.com/iegsr/2017/02/13/Sponsorship-Spending-On-The-Arts-To-Grow-3-3-Perce.aspx|publisher = ESP Properties, LLC.|access-date = 15 March 2018|archive-date = 15 March 2018|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20180315202959/http://www.sponsorship.com/iegsr/2017/02/13/Sponsorship-Spending-On-The-Arts-To-Grow-3-3-Perce.aspx|url-status = live}} [151] => [152] => ==Exhibition design== [153] => {{Main|Exhibit design}} [154] => [[File:Dresden - Japanese tourist with baby - 1786.jpg|thumb|left|Paintings arranged in groupings in the "salon style"]] [155] => Most mid-size and large museums employ [[exhibit design]] staff for graphic and environmental design projects, including exhibitions. In addition to traditional 2-D and 3-D designers{{cite journal|title=Exhibit supports for sandstone artifacts designed through topology optimization and additive manufacturing techniques|journal= Journal of Cultural Heritage|date=2022|doi= 10.1016/j.culher.2022.04.008|last1= Barbieri|first1= Loris|last2= Fuoco|first2= Fabrizio|last3= Bruno|first3= Fabio|last4= Muzzupappa|first4= Maurizio|volume= 55|pages= 329–338|s2cid= 248439991}} and architects, these staff departments may include audio-visual specialists, software designers, audience research, evaluation specialists, writers, editors, and preparators or art handlers. These staff specialists may also be charged with supervising contract design or production services. The exhibit design process builds on the [[Interpretive planning|interpretive plan]] for an exhibit, determining the most effective, engaging and appropriate methods of communicating a message or telling a story. The process will often mirror the architectural process or schedule, moving from conceptual plan, through schematic design, design development, contract document, fabrication, and installation. Museums of all sizes may also contract the outside services of exhibit fabrication businesses.{{Cite journal|last1=Taheri|first1=Babak|last2=Jafari|first2=Aliakbar|last3=O'Gorman|first3=Kevin|title=Keeping your audience: Presenting a visitor engagement scale|journal=Tourism Management|volume=42|pages=321–329|doi=10.1016/j.tourman.2013.12.011|year=2014|url=https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/46406/4/Taheri_Jafari_O_Gorman_Pre_Print_Draft.pdf|access-date=20 November 2018|archive-date=11 November 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211111120326/https://strathprints.strath.ac.uk/46406/4/Taheri_Jafari_O_Gorman_Pre_Print_Draft.pdf|url-status=live}} [156] => [157] => {{multiple image [158] => | total_width = 400 [159] => | align = right [160] => | image1 = Museum, Winona Normal School.jpg [161] => | alt1 = Exterior of building [162] => | image2 = Chihuahuita exhibit at the El Paso Museum of History.jpg [163] => | alt2 = Exterior of building [164] => | footer = Left: "Cabinet of curiosities" style of exhibit, {{Circa|1890}}. Right: Contemporary history exhibit, 2016. [165] => }} [166] => [167] => Some museum scholars have even begun to question whether museums truly need artifacts at all. Historian Steven Conn provocatively asks this question, suggesting that there are fewer objects in ''all'' museums now, as they have been progressively replaced by interactive technology.{{Cite book [168] => | title = Do Museums Still Need Objects? [169] => | last = Conn [170] => | first = Steven [171] => | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press [172] => | year = 2010 [173] => | location = Philadelphia [174] => | page = 26 [175] => }} As educational programming has grown in museums, mass collections of objects have receded in importance. This is not necessarily a negative development; [[Dorothy Canfield Fisher]] observed that the reduction in objects has pushed museums to grow from institutions that artlessly showcased their many artifacts (in the style of early cabinets of curiosity) to instead "thinning out" the objects presented "for a general view of any given subject or period, and to put the rest away in archive-storage-rooms, where they could be consulted by students, the only people who really needed to see them".{{Cite book [176] => | title = Why Stop Learning? [177] => | last = Canfield Fisher [178] => | first = Dorothy [179] => | publisher = Harcourt [180] => | year = 1927 [181] => | location = New York [182] => | pages = 250–251 [183] => }} This phenomenon of disappearing objects is especially present in science museums like the [[Museum of Science and Industry (Chicago)|Museum of Science and Industry]] in [[Chicago]], which have a high visitorship of school-aged children who may benefit more from hands-on interactive technology than reading a label beside an artifact.{{cite book [184] => | title = Do Museums Still Need Objects? [185] => | last = Conn [186] => | first = Steven [187] => | publisher = University of Pennsylvania Press [188] => | year = 2010 [189] => | location = Philadelphia [190] => | page = 265 [191] => }} [192] => [193] => ==Types== [194] => [[File:Petersen Automotive Museum PA140031 (44324591460).jpg|thumb|[[Classic car]]s displayed at an [[automotive museum]], which could be considered both a history and technology museum]] [195] => There is no definitive standard as to the set types of museums. Additionally, the museum landscape has become so varied, that it may not be sufficient to use traditional categories to comprehend fully the vast variety existing throughout the world. However, it may be useful to categorize museums in different ways under multiple perspectives. Museums can vary based on size, from large institutions, to very small institutions focusing on specific subjects, such as a specific location, a notable person, or a given period of time. Museums also can be based on the main source of funding: central or federal government, provinces, regions, universities; towns and communities; other subsidised; nonsubsidised and private.{{Cite journal|last1=Ginsburgh|first1=Victor|last2=Mairesse|first2=François|date=1997|title=Defining a Museum: Suggestions for an Alternative Approach|journal=Museum Management and Curatorship|publisher=Routledge|volume=16|pages=15–33| doi=10.1016/S0260-4779(97)00003-4 }} [196] => [197] => It may sometimes be useful to distinguish between [[wikt:diachronic|diachronic]] museums which interpret the way its subject matter has developed and evolved through time (e.g. [[Lower East Side Tenement Museum]] and [[Diachronic Museum of Larissa]]), and [[wikt:synchronic|synchronic]] museums which interpret the way its subject matter existed at a certain point in time (e.g. the [[Anne Frank House]] and [[Colonial Williamsburg]]). According to [[University of Florida]] Professor Eric Kilgerman, "While a museum in which a particular narrative unfolds within its halls is diachronic, those museums that limit their space to a single experience are called synchronic."Kilgerman, Eric. ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=r5TEsqmRfA8C&pg=PA255 Sites of the Uncanny: Paul Celan, Specularity and the Visual Arts] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151008112315/https://books.google.com/books?id=r5TEsqmRfA8C&pg=PA255 |date=8 October 2015 }}'', p. 255 (2007). [198] => [199] => In her book ''Civilizing the Museum'', author Elaine Heumann Gurian proposes that there are five categories of museums based on intention and not content: object centered, narrative, client centered, community centered, and national.{{Cite book|last=Heumann Gurian|first=Elaine|title=The Collected Writings of Elaine Heumann Gurian|publisher=Taylor & Francis|date=May 17, 2006|pages=48–56}} [200] => [201] => Museums can also be categorized into major groups by the type of collections they display, to include: [[fine art]]s, [[applied arts]], [[craft]], [[archaeology]], [[anthropology]] and [[ethnology]], [[biography]], [[history]], [[cultural history]], [[science]], [[technology]], [[children's museum]]s, [[natural history]], [[botanical garden|botanical]] and [[zoo|zoological gardens]]. Within these categories, many museums specialize further, e.g. museums of [[modern art]], [[folk art]], [[local history]], [[military history]], [[History of aviation|aviation history]], [[philately]], [[agriculture]], or [[geology]]. The size of a museum's collection typically determines the museum's size, whereas its collection reflects the type of museum it is. Many museums normally display a "permanent collection" of important selected objects in its area of specialization, and may periodically display "special collections" on a temporary basis.{{citation needed|date= October 2021}} [202] => [203] => ===Major types=== [204] => The following is a list to give an idea of the major museum types. While comprehensive, it is not a definitive list. [205] => {{div col|colwidth=20em}} [206] => *[[Agricultural museum|Agricultural]] [207] => *[[Architecture museum|Architecture]] [208] => *[[Archaeological museum|Archaeological]] [209] => *[[Art museum|Art]] [210] => *[[Design museum|Design]] [211] => *[[Biographical museum|Biographical]] [212] => *[[Children's museum|Children's]] [213] => *[[Community museum|Community]] [214] => *[[Encyclopedic museum|Encyclopedic]] [215] => *[[Folk museum|Folk]] [216] => *[[Historic house museum|Historic house]] [217] => *[[Historic site]] [218] => *[[Living museum|Living history]] [219] => *[[Local museum|Local]] [220] => *[[Maritime museum|Maritime]] [221] => *[[Medical museum|Medical]] [222] => *[[Memorial museum|Memorial]] [223] => *[[Military museum|Military]] [224] => *[[Natural history]] [225] => *[[Open-air museum|Open-air]] [226] => *[[Science museum|Science]] [227] => *[[Virtual museum|Virtual]] [228] => {{div col end}} [229] => [230] => ===Legal framework=== [231] => ====Public vs. private==== [232] => Private museums are organized by individuals and managed by a board and museum officers, but public museums are created and managed by federal, state, or local governments. A government can charter a museum through legislative action but the museum can still be private as it is not part of the government. The distinction regulates the ownership and legal accountability for the care of the collections.{{Cite book|last1=Malaro|first1=Marie C.|title=A Legal Primer on Managing Museum Collections, Third Edition|last2=DeAngelis|first2=Ildiko|publisher=Smithsonian Books|year=2012|isbn=978-1-58834-322-2|page=8|language=English}} [233] => [234] => ====Non-profit vs. for-profit==== [235] => Nonprofit means that an organization is classified as a charitable corporation and is exempt from paying most taxes and the money the organization earns is invested in the organization itself. Money made by a private, for-profit museum is paid to the museum's owners or shareholders. [236] => [237] => The nonprofit museum has a fiduciary responsibility in regards to the public, in essence the museum holds its collections and administers it for the benefit of the public. Collections of for-profit museums are legally corporate assets the museum administers for the benefit of the owners or shareholders. [238] => [239] => ====Run by trusts vs. corporations==== [240] => A trust is a legal instrument where trustees manage the trust's assets for the benefit of the museum following the specific wishes of the donor. This provides tax benefits for the donor, and also allows the donor to have control over how assets are distributed. [241] => [242] => Corporations are legal entities and may acquire property in a way similar to how an individual can own property. Museums under incorporation are usually organized by a community or group of individuals. While a board of director's loyalty is to the corporation, a board of trustee's loyalty has to be loyal to the intention of the trust. The ramification is that a trust is far less flexible than a corporation.{{Cite book|last1=Latham|first1=Kiersten F.|title=Foundations of Museum Studies: Evolving Systems of Knowledge Illustrated Edition|last2=Simmons|first2=John E.|publisher=Libraries Unlimited|year=2014|isbn=978-1-61069-282-3|page=11|language=English}}{{Cite book|last1=Malaro|first1=Marie C.|title=A Legal Primer on Managing Museum Collections, Third Edition|last2=DeAngelis|first2=Ildiko|publisher=Smithsonian Books|year=2012|isbn=978-1-58834-322-2|pages=6–9|language=English}} [243] => [244] => ==Current challenges== [245] => [246] => ===Decolonization=== [247] => {{see also|Decolonisation of knowledge}} [248] => [[File:Basalt statue, Hoa Hakananai'a (hidden or stolen friend). Moai; an ancestor figure, made by the Rapanui people. 1000-1200 CE. From Orongo (Polynesia, Easter Island); probably made in Rano Kao. British Museum.jpg|thumb|upright|left|Moai figure at the British Museum]] [249] => A global movement for the decolonization of museums has been gaining momentum since the late 20th century.{{cite web |title=The battle at the British Museum for a 'stolen' shield that could tell the story of Captain Cook's landing |first=Bridget |last=Brennan |website=ABC News (Australian Broadcasting Corporation) |date=10 May 2019 |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-05-11/british-museum-battle-for-stolen-indigenous-gweagal-shield/11085534 |access-date=14 September 2020 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806095341/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2019-05-11/british-museum-battle-for-stolen-indigenous-gweagal-shield/11085534 |url-status=live }} [[Proponent]]s of this movement argue that "museums are a box of things" and do not represent complete stories; instead they show biased narratives based on ideologies, in which certain stories are intentionally disregarded.{{cite book|last=Procter|first=Alice|title=The whole Picture: the colonial story of the art in our museums and why we need to talk about it|publisher=Cassel|year=2020|isbn=978-1-78840-221-7|location=England}}{{rp|9–18}} Through this, people are encouraging others to consider this missing perspective, when looking at museum collections, as every object viewed in such environments was placed by an individual to represent a certain viewpoint, be it historical or cultural.{{rp|9–18}} [250] => [251] => The 2018 ''[[report on the restitution of African cultural heritage]]''Felwine Sarr, Bénédicte Savoy: "Rapport sur la restitution du patrimoine culturel africain. Vers une nouvelle éthique relationnelle". Paris 2018; "The Restitution of African Cultural Heritage. Toward a New Relational Ethics" (Download French original and English version, pdf, http://restitutionreport2018.com/ {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210815041636/http://restitutionreport2018.com/ |date=15 August 2021 }} is a prominent example regarding the decolonization of museums and other collections in France and the claims of African countries to regain [[Artifact (archaeology)|artifacts]] illegally taken from their original cultural settings. [252] => [253] => Since 1868, several monolithic human figures known as [[Moai]] have been [[Relocation of moai|removed]] from [[Easter Island]] and put in display in major Western museums such as the [[National Museum of Natural History]], the British Museum, the [[Louvre]] and the [[Royal Museums of Art and History]]. Several demands have been made by Easter Island residents for the return of the Moai.{{cite news|last=Bartlett|first=John|date=16 November 2018|title='Moai are family': Easter Island people to head to London to request statue back|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/16/maoi-easter-island-statue-british-museum-talks-return|access-date=8 February 2021|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=22 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222184726/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/16/maoi-easter-island-statue-british-museum-talks-return|url-status=live}} The figures are seen as ancestors and family or the soul by the [[Rapa Nui people|Rapa Nui]] and hold deep cultural value to their people.{{Cite news|last=Bartlett|first=John|date=16 November 2018|title='Moai are family': Easter Island people to head to London to request statue back|language=en-GB|work=The Guardian|url=https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/16/maoi-easter-island-statue-british-museum-talks-return|access-date=8 February 2021|issn=0261-3077|archive-date=22 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201222184726/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/nov/16/maoi-easter-island-statue-british-museum-talks-return|url-status=live}} Other examples include the [[Gweagal Shield]], thought to be a very significant shield taken from [[Botany Bay]] in April 1770{{Cite journal|last=Thomas|first=Nicholas|date=2018|title=A Case of Identity: The Artefacts of the 1770 Kamay (Botany Bay) Encounter|journal=Australian Historical Studies|volume=49|issue=1 |pages=4–27|doi=10.1080/1031461X.2017.1414862|s2cid=149069484|via=ResearchGate|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323281856|access-date=14 September 2020|archive-date=25 February 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225074951/https://www.researchgate.net/publication/323281856_A_Case_of_Identity_The_Artefacts_of_the_1770_Kamay_Botany_Bay_Encounter|url-status=live}} or the [[Elgin Marbles|Parthenon marble]] sculptures, which were taken from Greece by Lord Elgin in 1805.{{Cite web|date=28 March 2017|title=How the Parthenon Lost Its Marbles|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2017/03-04/parthenon-sculptures-british-museum-controversy/|access-date=8 February 2021|website=History Magazine|language=en|archive-date=2 February 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210202183918/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/history/magazine/2017/03-04/parthenon-sculptures-british-museum-controversy/|url-status=dead}} Successive Greek governments have unsuccessfully petitioned for the return of the Parthenon marbles. Another example among many others is the so-called [[Montezuma's headdress]] in the [[Museum of Ethnology, Vienna]], which is a source of dispute between Austria and Mexico.{{cite web|url=http://prehist.org/news/104/Mexico+and+Austria+in+dispute+over+Aztec+headdress/|publisher=prehist.org|title=Mexico and Austria in dispute over Aztec headdress|date=22 November 2012|access-date=24 November 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141129020221/http://prehist.org/news/104/Mexico+and+Austria+in+dispute+over+Aztec+headdress/|archive-date=29 November 2014}} [254] => [255] => [[Laura Van Broekhoven]], director of the [[Pitt Rivers Museum]] in Oxford, United Kingdom, stated in 2020 that "ethnographic museums should redress their [[Coloniality of knowledge|coloniality]]. They should be a pluriverse that shows the rich diversity of ways of being and knowing, not centering [[Whiteness theory|whiteness]] as the only way of being. Museums ought to allow for everyone to understand each other better."{{Cite web|title=Keynote Speaker: Laura Van Broekhoven |date=2020-12-16|url=https://decolonizingmuseums.com/keynote-speaker/|url-status=live|access-date=2021-10-21|website=decolonizingmuseums.com|language=en|archive-date=21 October 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211021133128/https://decolonizingmuseums.com/keynote-speaker/}} [256] => [257] => === Labor issues and unionization === [258] => [[File:Philadelphia Art Museum workers rally - April 1, 2022-001.jpg|thumb|Workers rallying at the Philadelphia Museum of Art]] [259] => ;Background [260] => The past few years has seen a unionizing movement. US museums workers have initiated dialogs about labor and collective organizing in the cultural sector. In 2019 the workers in multiple museums voted to form unions with more protesting to press for a fair contract and against unfair labor practices.{{Cite web |last=Wagley |first=Catherine |date=2019-11-25 |title=Museum Workers Across the Country Are Unionizing. Here's What's Driving a Movement That's Been Years in the Making |url=https://news.artnet.com/market/union-museum-analysis-1714716 |access-date=2022-05-26 |website=Artnet News |language=en-US |archive-date=26 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526052819/https://news.artnet.com/market/union-museum-analysis-1714716 |url-status=live }} During that year over 3,000 cultural workers anonymously started to share their salaries online through a pay transparency spreadsheet.{{Cite news |last=Small |first=Zachary |date=2022-02-21 |title=U.S. Museums See Rise in Unions Even as Labor Movement Slumps |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/21/arts/design/museums-unions-labor.html |access-date=2022-05-26 |issn=0362-4331 |archive-date=1 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220601043816/https://www.nytimes.com/2022/02/21/arts/design/museums-unions-labor.html |url-status=live }} [261] => [262] => The Marciano Art Foundation, a museum established by co-founders of [[Guess (clothing)|Guess clothing]], Maurice Marciano and [[Paul Marciano]] closed indefinitely in November 2019 after workers attempted to [[unionize]].{{Cite news|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/story/2019-11-06/marciano-art-foundation-announces-that-it-will-not-reopen-in-the-wake-of-layoffs|title=Marciano Art Foundation announces it won't reopen in wake of layoffs following union drive|last=Miranda|first=Carolina A.|date=2019-11-06|newspaper=[[Los Angeles Times]]|language=en-US|url-status=live|access-date=2019-11-07|archive-date=26 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526052820/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/story/2019-11-06/marciano-art-foundation-announces-that-it-will-not-reopen-in-the-wake-of-layoffs}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/story/2019-11-08/marciano-art-foundation-closing-fallout-museum-union-drive|title=What's next for nonprofit museums after the closing of the Marciano Art Foundation?|last=Miranda |first=Carolina A.|date=2019-11-08|website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|language=en-US|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526052821/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/story/2019-11-08/marciano-art-foundation-closing-fallout-museum-union-drive|archive-date=26 May 2022|access-date=2019-11-08}} The Marciano Foundation released a statement a month later that the closure was permanent.{{Cite web|url=https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/story/2019-12-06/moca-recognizes-employee-union-afscme-marciano-closure-permanent |last=Miranda |first=Carolina A. |title=MOCA will voluntarily recognize new employee union; Marciano closure is permanent|date=2019-12-07|website=Los Angeles Times|language=en-US|access-date=2019-12-09|archive-date=26 May 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220526052820/https://www.latimes.com/entertainment-arts/story/2019-12-06/moca-recognizes-employee-union-afscme-marciano-closure-permanent|url-status=live}} [263] => [264] => In the country of [[Georgia (country)|Georgia]] 40 employees were fired May 2022 as part of a restructuring. The newly formed union, the Georgian Trade Union of Science, Education, and Culture Workers said in a statement they said the employees were fired illegally and the reorganization was "carried out by the employer in an untransparent and maladministered manner" and that the organization will "definitely fight to the end to protect the rights of employees." Fired senior curator Maia Pataridze said the new management mentioned her social media posts criticizing the government.{{Cite web |last=Dafoe |first=Taylor |date=2022-06-02 |title=State-Run Museums in Georgia Abruptly Fired 40 Employees, Allegedly in Retribution for Forming a Union |url=https://news.artnet.com/art-world/employees-fired-from-state-run-museums-in-georgia-2124928 |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=Artnet News |language=en-US |archive-date=15 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220615013552/https://news.artnet.com/art-world/employees-fired-from-state-run-museums-in-georgia-2124928 |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Georgia Museums Respond to Unionization Push by Brazenly Firing Dozens of Employees |url=https://www.widewalls.ch/news-feed/georgia-museums-unionization |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=Widewalls |language=en |archive-date=10 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710023351/https://www.widewalls.ch/news-feed/georgia-museums-unionization |url-status=live }} Among those fired was union chair, Nikoloz Tsikaridze, a senior researcher and archaeologist who associated the discharging of himself and other museum staff was for forming a union, and said that [[Thea Tsulukiani]], the Georgia Minister of Culture had "punished" them.{{Cite web |date=2022-05-26 |title=Georgian culture minister accused of purging critics from National Museum |url=https://oc-media.org/georgian-culture-minister-accused-of-purging-critics-from-national-museum/ |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=OC Media |language=en-US |archive-date=24 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220624222801/https://oc-media.org/georgian-culture-minister-accused-of-purging-critics-from-national-museum/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=Union vows to fight "unlawful mass dismissal" of Georgian National Museum employees |url=https://agenda.ge/en/news/2022/1938 |access-date=2022-06-15 |website=Agenda.ge |archive-date=9 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220609175255/https://agenda.ge/en/news/2022/1938 |url-status=live }} [265] => [266] => ;History [267] => In the United States, labor unrest within the arts and cultural sector go back at least nearly a century to 1933 when a New York-based collective of artists eventually known as the Artist's Union used collective bargaining for state relief for unemployed artists.{{Cite journal |last=Monroe |first=Gerald M. |date=1972 |title=The Artists Union of New York |journal=Art Journal |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=17–20 |doi=10.2307/775601 |jstor=775601}} [268] => [269] => In 1971 administrative staff at New York's Museum of Modern Art formed the organization "Professional and Staff Association of the Museum of Modern Art" (PASTA), the first union of professional employees, as opposed to maintenance and service people, at a privately‐financed museum. The contract negotiated would provide a wage increase, protection against termination without cause, and direct access to trustees and policy-making processes at the museum. While there was some interest from workers at other museums at the time, for the next fifty years there was little change in museums adding union representation of their professional employees.{{Cite news |last=Glueck |first=Grace |date=September 26, 1971 |title=MOMA Gets a Taste of PASTA |pages=Section D, Page 24 |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1971/09/26/archives/moma-gets-a-taste-of-pasta.html |access-date=2022-05-26}} [270] => [271] => === Sustainability and climate change === [272] => {{See also|Green museum}} [273] => [274] => Increasingly museums have been responded to the ongoing climate crisis through enacting sustainable museum practices, and exhibitions highlighting the issues surrounding [[climate change]] and the [[Anthropocene]]. [275] => [276] => == Diversity and inclusion == [277] => As well as an argument for the decolonization of museums, there is also the push by some to represent, in both exhibitions and new museums, the marginalized communities within a culture or society. One example of this is the work of archivist and diverse heritage specialist [[Norma Gregory]] in Nottingham, England. Gregory has set up the Black Miner's Museum{{Cite web |title=Home - Black Miners Museum |url=https://blackcoalminers.com/ |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=blackcoalminers.com |language=en-GB}} and has curated an exhibition entitled ''The Digging Deep Project Exhibition.''{{Cite web |last=TOCaribNews |date=2019-11-04 |title=Digging deeper with Norma Gregory |url=https://torontocaribbean.com/digging-deeper-with-norma-gregory/ |access-date=2024-03-05 |website=Toronto Caribbean Newspaper |language=en-US}} [278] => [279] => ==See also== [280] => * {{Portal-inline|size=tiny|Museums}} [281] => {{Div col|colwidth=22em}} [282] => * [[Audio tour]] [283] => * [[:Category:Types of museums]] [284] => * [[Cell phone tour]] [285] => * [[Collective memory]] [286] => * [[Computer Interchange of Museum Information]] [287] => * [[International Museum Day]] (18 May) [288] => * [[List of largest art museums]] [289] => * [[List of most visited art museums]] [290] => * [[List of most-visited museums by region]] [291] => * [[Lists of museums]] [292] => * [[.museum]] [293] => * [[Museum education]] [294] => * [[Museum fatigue]] [295] => * [[Museum label]] [296] => * [[Museum shop]] [297] => * [[Science tourism]] [298] => * [[Virtual Library museums pages]] [299] => {{div col end}} [300] => [301] => ==References== [302] => {{Reflist}} [303] => [304] => ==Further reading== [305] => *Aronsson, Peter., and Gabriella Elgenius. ''National Museums and Nation-Building in Europe 1750-2010 : Mobilization and Legitimacy, Continuity and Change.'' Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon: Routledge, 2015. [306] => * {{Cite book | last=Bennett | first=Tony | author-link=Tony Bennett (sociologist)| title=The Birth of the Museum: History, Theory, Politics | year=1995 | publisher=Routledge | location=London | isbn=978-0-415-05387-7 |oclc=30624669}} [307] => * {{cite book|last=Conn|first=Steven|title=Museums and American Intellectual Life, 1876–1926|year=1998|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=0-226-11493-7}} [308] => * {{cite book|last=Cuno|first=James|title=Museums Matter: In Praise of the Encyclopedic Museum|year=2013|publisher=The University of Chicago Press|location=Chicago|isbn=978-0-226-10091-3}} [309] => * {{cite book|last=Findlen|first=Paula|title=Possessing Nature: Museums, Collecting, and Scientific Culture in Early Modern Italy|year=1996|publisher=University of California Press|location=Berkeley|isbn=0-520-20508-1}} [310] => * {{cite book|last=Marotta|first=Antonello|year=2010|title=Contemporary Milan|publisher=Skira |isbn=978-88-572-0258-7}} [311] => * {{cite book|last=Murtagh|first=William J.|title=Keeping Time: The History and Theory of Preservation in America|year=2005|publisher=Sterling Publishing Company|location=New York|isbn=0-471-47377-4}} [312] => * {{cite book|last=Redman|first=Samuel|title=The Museum: A Short History of Crisis and Resilience|year=2022|publisher=New York University Press|location=New York|isbn=978-1-4798-0933-2}} [313] => * Rentzhog, Sten (2007). ''Open air museums: The history and future of a visionary idea''. Stockholm and Östersund: Carlssons Förlag / Jamtli. {{ISBN|978-91-7948-208-4}} [314] => * [http://www.participatorymuseum.org/read/ Simon, Nina K. (2010). ''The Participatory Museum.'' Santa Cruz: Museums 2.0] [315] => * {{cite book | last=van Uffelen | first=Chris | author-link=Chris van Uffelen | title=Museumsarchitektur | year=2010 | publisher=Ullmann | location=Potsdam | isbn=978-3-8331-6033-2 |language=de}} – also available in English: {{Cite book | title=Contemporary Museums – Architecture History Collections | year=2010 | publisher=Braun Publishing| isbn=978-3-03768-067-4}} [316] => * {{cite book |last = Yerkovich | first = Sally | title = A Practical Guide to Museum Ethics | location = Lanham | publisher = Rowman & Littlefield | year = 2016 | isbn = 978-1-4422-3164-1}} [317] => * {{cite web|title=The Museum and Museum Specialists: Problems of Professional Education, Proceedings of the International Conference, 14–15 November 2014|url=https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/wcm/connect/5471b8d8-b430-49af-8f49-e2050a6a77e1/conf-materials-02.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&%3B|publisher=The State Hermitage Publishers|access-date=6 December 2016|location=St. Petersburg|date=2015|archive-date=10 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510201911/https://www.hermitagemuseum.org/wps/wcm/connect/5471b8d8-b430-49af-8f49-e2050a6a77e1/conf-materials-02.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&%3B}} [318] => [319] => ==External links== [320] => {{NSRW Poster|Museums}} [321] => * {{Commons category-inline|Museums}} [322] => * [http://icom.museum/ International Council of Museums] [323] => * [https://museist.com Museums of the World] [324] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20121212063856/http://archives.icom.museum/vlmp/ VLmp directory of museums] [325] => * {{curlie|Reference/Museums|Museums}} [326] => [327] => {{Cultural Conservation-Restoration|state=collapsed}} [328] => {{Authority control}} [329] => [330] => [[Category:Museums| ]] [331] => [[Category:Educational buildings]] [332] => [[Category:Museology]] [333] => [[Category:Tourist activities]] [] => )
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Museum

A museum is an institution that collects, preserves, and displays various objects of historical, cultural, artistic, or scientific significance for public viewing and education. These objects, often referred to as exhibits, can range from artifacts and artworks to specimens and documents.

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These objects, often referred to as exhibits, can range from artifacts and artworks to specimens and documents. Museums serve as important cultural and educational resources, providing a platform for the study, interpretation, and appreciation of human and natural history, as well as other disciplines such as art, science, and technology. They play a crucial role in preserving and safeguarding cultural heritage, while also promoting research and knowledge dissemination. Museums can be found in various forms, including art museums, natural history museums, science museums, and many more. These institutions attract millions of visitors worldwide, contributing to cultural tourism and fostering a connection between individuals and their shared history and heritage.

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Agriculture

Agriculture refers to the practice of cultivating plants, animals, and other forms of life for food, fiber, medicinal plants, and other products used to sustain and enhance human life.

Anthropology

Anthropology is a social science that studies human societies, cultures, and their development.

Archaeology

Archaeology is the scientific study of human history and prehistory through the excavation of artifacts and structures.

Education

Education is the process of acquiring knowledge, skills, values, and attitudes through various methods such as teaching, training, or research.

Environmentalism

Environmentalism, also known as environmental rights, is a social and political ideology focused on the protection of the environment and conservation of natural resources.

Geology

Geology is the scientific study of the Earth's solid materials, including rocks, minerals, and the processes that shape and change them over time.

Judaism

Judaism is one of the oldest religions in the world, founded over 3,000 years ago in the Middle East.

Library

A library is a collection of books and other materials organized for use and maintained by a public or private institution.

Louvre

The Louvre is a world-renowned museum located in Paris, France.

Paris

Paris is the capital city of France and one of the most famous and influential cities in the world.

Philosophy

Philosophy is a field of study that encompasses the fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, ethics, and reality.

Science

Science is a systematic and empirical approach to acquiring knowledge through observation, experimentation, and explanation of natural phenomena.

Teacher

A teacher, also known as an educator or instructor, is a professional who provides education to students of various ages.

UNESCO

UNESCO, which stands for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, is a specialized agency of the United Nations.

University

A university is an institution of higher education and research, providing academic degrees and professional qualifications across various disciplines.