Array ( [0] => {{Short description|American space and aeronautics agency}} [1] => {{Other uses}} [2] => {{pp-move}} [3] => {{pp|small=yes}} [4] => {{Use American English|date=July 2015}} [5] => {{Use mdy dates|date=October 2023}} [6] => {{Infobox space agency [7] => |name = National Aeronautics and Space Administration [8] => |agency_type = [[Space agency]]
[[Aeronautics]] research agency [9] => |seal = [[File:NASA logo.svg|frameless|upright=1.0]] [10] => |seal_alt = A blue sphere with stars, a yellow planet with a white moon; a red chevron representing wings, and an orbiting spacecraft; surrounded by a white border with "NATIONAL AERONAUTICS AND SPACE ADMINISTRATION U.S.A." in red letters [11] => |logo_alt = A blue sphere with stars, white letters N-A-S-A in Helvetica font; a red chevron representing wings, and a white orbiting spacecraft with a white trail showing its orbit path and, for "worm" insignia, a red line forming stylized letters N-A-S-A [12] => |logo_caption = [[NASA insignia|NASA "meatball" and "worm" insignias, and flag]] [13] => |image = NASA HQ Building.jpg [14] => |image_caption = [[NASA Headquarters]] in [[Washington, D.C.]] [15] => |acronym = NASA [16] => |formed = {{Start date and age|1958|07|29}} [17] => |preceding1 = [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]] (1915–1958)[http://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Evolution_of_Technology/NACA/Tech1.htm US Centennial of Flight Commission, NACA]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140220005256/http://www.centennialofflight.net/essay/Evolution_of_Technology/NACA/Tech1.htm |date=February 20, 2014}}. centennialofflight.net. Retrieved on November 3, 2011. [18] => |jurisdiction = [[Federal government of the United States|United States Federal Government]] [19] => |headquarters = Washington, D.C. [20] => |coordinates = {{Coord|38|52|59|N|77|0|59|W|type:landmark_region:US-DC|display=inline}} [21] => |motto = [22] => |employees = 17,960 (2022){{Cite web |title=Workforce Profile |url=https://wicn.nssc.nasa.gov/c10/cgi-bin/cognosisapi.dll?b_action=powerPlayService&m_encoding=UTF-8&BZ=1AAABgNNr_f942m2PQWuDQBCF%7E8yOaS9hdlTUgwd1DRHamEahZ6NjCTFuUFOaf981KYTSzu7wHm__gV2ryJdFme%7ESTIXjpAfO1BMQHSShS5TK2I89x%7ENXsYt24AfKd4Mg8mLHMM%7EWvJtGu2S9jcp1CLSqdT9xPxnX6q7hAdwYHOyrE4OtFttBt4eOgTC57HlcgKsMea7qY%7EXBv9F3PRxbPdQz%7ELM245YqkmWSbzZpUmZGotc0%7EAe14rewRRQSEaVEIQQKFwWhmI8QUdcZOD2dO31lHgGDvDeBukxXI0DtPP0yP2m4MfaFq082kADygWwDsATaAwX3QD4C8afk7c7m%7EqBbP_obQJNj2A%3D%3D |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220811051531/https://wicn.nssc.nasa.gov/c10/cgi-bin/cognosisapi.dll?b_action=powerPlayService&m_encoding=UTF-8&BZ=1AAABgNNr_f942m2PQWuDQBCF~8yOaS9hdlTUgwd1DRHamEahZ6NjCTFuUFOaf981KYTSzu7wHm__gV2ryJdFme~STIXjpAfO1BMQHSShS5TK2I89x~NXsYt24AfKd4Mg8mLHMM~WvJtGu2S9jcp1CLSqdT9xPxnX6q7hAdwYHOyrE4OtFttBt4eOgTC57HlcgKsMea7qY~XBv9F3PRxbPdQz~LM245YqkmWSbzZpUmZGotc0~Ae14rewRRQSEaVEIQQKFwWhmI8QUdcZOD2dO31lHgGDvDeBukxXI0DtPP0yP2m4MfaFq082kADygWwDsATaAwX3QD4C8afk7c7m~qBbP_obQJNj2A%3D%3D |archive-date=August 11, 2022 |access-date=August 11, 2022 |publisher=NASA}} [23] => |budget = {{increase}} {{US$|25.384 billion|link=yes}} (2023){{Cite web |title=NASA's FY 2023 Budget |url=https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/nasas-fy-2023-budget |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230324094555/https://www.planetary.org/space-policy/nasas-fy-2023-budget |archive-date=March 24, 2023 |access-date=July 27, 2023 |website=[[The Planetary Society]]}} [24] => |leader_title = [[Administrator of NASA|Administrator]] [25] => |leader_name = [[Bill Nelson]] [26] => |leader_title2 = [[Deputy Administrator of NASA|Deputy Administrator]] [27] => |leader_name2 = [[Pamela Melroy]] [28] => |website = {{url|https://www.nasa.gov/|nasa.gov}} [29] => |spaceports = {{hlist|[[John F. Kennedy Space Center]]|[[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station]]|[[Vandenberg Space Force Base]]}} [30] => |language = [31] => }} [32] => {{United States space program sidebar}} [33] => [34] => The '''National Aeronautics and Space Administration''' ('''NASA'''; {{IPAc-en|ˈ|n|æ|s|ə}}) is an [[independent agencies of the United States government|independent agency]] of the [[federal government of the United States|U.S. federal government]] responsible for the civil [[list of government space agencies|space program]], [[aeronautics]] research, and [[outer space|space]] research. [[National Aeronautics and Space Act|Established in 1958]], it succeeded the [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]] (NACA) to give the U.S. space development effort a distinctly civilian orientation, emphasizing peaceful applications in [[space science]].{{Cite web |date=2013 |title=Ike in History: Eisenhower Creates NASA |url=http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/#/news?nid=244 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131119131818/http://www.eisenhowermemorial.org/#/news?nid=244 |archive-date=November 19, 2013 |access-date=November 27, 2013 |publisher=Eisenhower Memorial}}{{Cite web |date=2005 |title=The National Aeronautics and Space Act |url=https://www.nasa.gov/offices/ogc/about/space_act1.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816121716/http://www.nasa.gov/offices/ogc/about/space_act1.html |archive-date=August 16, 2007 |access-date=August 29, 2007 |publisher=NASA}}{{Cite book |last=Bilstein |first=Roger E. |title=NASA SP-4206, Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles |date=1996 |publisher=NASA |isbn=978-0-16-004259-1 |pages=32–33 |chapter=From NACA to NASA |access-date=May 6, 2013 |chapter-url=https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/ch2.htm#32 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190714121412/https://history.nasa.gov/SP-4206/ch2.htm#32 |archive-date=July 14, 2019 |url-status=live}} It has since led most American [[space exploration]], including [[Project Mercury]], [[Project Gemini]], the 1968–1972 [[Apollo program|Apollo]] [[Moon landing]] missions, the [[Skylab]] space station, and the [[Space Shuttle]]. It currently supports the [[International Space Station]] and oversees the development of the [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion spacecraft]] and the [[Space Launch System]] for the crewed lunar [[Artemis program]], the [[Commercial Crew Program|Commercial Crew]] spacecraft, and the planned [[Lunar Gateway]] space station. [35] => [36] => NASA's science is focused on better understanding Earth through the [[Earth Observing System]];{{Cite web |last=Netting |first=Ruth |date=June 30, 2009 |title=Earth—NASA Science |url=http://nasascience.nasa.gov/earth-science |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090716013403/http://nasascience.nasa.gov/earth-science |archive-date=July 16, 2009 |access-date=July 15, 2009}} advancing [[heliophysics]] through the efforts of the [[Science Mission Directorate]]'s Heliophysics Research Program;{{Cite web |last=Netting |first=Ruth |date=January 8, 2009 |title=Heliophysics—NASA Science |url=http://nasascience.nasa.gov/heliophysics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090716023622/http://nasascience.nasa.gov/heliophysics |archive-date=July 16, 2009 |access-date=July 15, 2009}} exploring bodies throughout the [[Solar System]] with advanced [[robotic spacecraft]] such as ''[[New Horizons]]'' and [[Rover (space exploration)|planetary rovers]] such as ''[[Perseverance (rover)|Perseverance]]'';{{Cite news |last=Roston |first=Michael |date=August 28, 2015 |title=NASA's Next Horizon in Space |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/08/25/science/space/nasa-next-mission.html |url-status=live |access-date=August 28, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150829045031/http://www.nytimes.com/interactive/2015/08/25/science/space/nasa-next-mission.html |archive-date=August 29, 2015}} and researching [[astrophysics]] topics, such as the [[Big Bang]], through the [[James Webb Space Telescope]], the [[Great Observatories program|Great Observatories]] and associated programs.{{Cite web |last=Netting |first=Ruth |date=July 13, 2009 |title=Astrophysics—NASA Science |url=http://nasascience.nasa.gov/astrophysics |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090716013614/http://nasascience.nasa.gov/astrophysics |archive-date=July 16, 2009 |access-date=July 15, 2009}} The [[Launch Services Program]] oversees launch operations and countdown management for its [[Uncrewed NASA missions|uncrewed launches]]. [37] => [38] => == History == [39] => === Creating a civil aeronautics and space agency === [40] => {{Main|Creation of NASA|National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics}} [41] => [[File:Bell X-1A in flight.jpg|thumb|A U.S. Air Force [[Bell X-1]] test flight]] [42] => [43] => NASA traces its roots to the [[National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics]] (NACA). Despite being the birthplace of aviation, by 1914 the United States recognized that it was far behind Europe in aviation capability. Determined to regain American leadership in aviation, Congress created the [[Aviation Section, U.S. Signal Corps|Aviation Section]] of the U.S. Army Signal Corps in 1914 and established NACA in 1915 to foster aeronautical research and development. Over the next forty years NACA would conduct aeronautical research in support of the [[U.S. Air Force]], its predecessors in the [[U.S. Army]], the [[U.S. Navy]], and the civil aviation sector. After the end of [[World War II]], NACA became interested in the possibilities of guided missiles and supersonic aircraft, developing and testing the [[Bell X-1]] in a joint program with the [[U.S. Air Force]]. NACA's interest in space grew out of its rocketry program at the Pilotless Aircraft Research Division.{{Cite web |title=Naca to Nasa to Now – The frontiers of air and space in the American century |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/naca_to_nasa_to_now_tagged.pdf |access-date=June 8, 2023 |archive-date=May 5, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230505075936/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/naca_to_nasa_to_now_tagged.pdf |url-status=live }} [44] => [45] => [[File:Launch of Jupiter C with Explorer 1.jpg|thumb|Launch of the [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]]'s [[Explorer 1]], America's first satellite]] [46] => The Soviet Union's launch of [[Sputnik 1]] ushered in the [[Space Age]] and kicked off the [[Space Race]]. Despite NACA's early rocketry program, the responsibility for launching the first American satellite fell to the [[Naval Research Laboratory]]'s [[Project Vanguard]], whose operational issues ensured the [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]] would launch [[Explorer 1]], America's first satellite, on February 1, 1958. [47] => [48] => The [[Eisenhower Administration]] decided to split the United States' military and civil spaceflight programs, which were organized together under the [[United States Department of Defense|Defense Department]]'s [[Advanced Research Projects Agency]]. NASA was established on July 29, 1958, with the signing of the [[National Aeronautics and Space Act]] and it began operations on October 1, 1958. [49] => [50] => As the United States' premier aeronautics agency, NACA formed the core of NASA's new structure, absorbing its 8,000 employees and three major research laboratories. NASA also proceeded to absorb the Naval Research Laboratory's [[Project Vanguard]], the Army's [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]], and the [[Army Ballistic Missile Agency]] under [[Wernher von Braun]]. This left NASA firmly as the United States' civil space lead and the Air Force as the military space lead. [51] => [52] => === First orbital and hypersonic flights === [53] => {{Main|Project Mercury}} [54] => [[File:Launch of Friendship 7 - GPN-2000-000686.jpg|thumb|Launch of ''[[Friendship 7]]'', NASA's first orbital flight, February 20, 1962]] [55] => Plans for human spaceflight began in the U.S. Armed Forces prior to NASA's creation. The Air Force's [[Man in Space Soonest]] and the Army's Project Adam served as the foundation for [[Project Mercury]], the first American program to put people in space. NASA established the [[Space Task Group]] to manage the program, which would conduct sub-orbital flights with the Army's [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Redstone]] rockets and orbital flights with the Air Force's [[Mercury-Atlas|Atlas]] launch vehicles. While NASA intended for its first astronauts to be civilians, President Eisenhower directed that they be selected from the military. The [[Mercury 7]] astronauts included three Air Force pilots, three Navy aviators, and one Marine Corps pilot. [56] => [57] => [[File:X-15 flying.jpg|thumb|The NASA-Air Force [[North American X-15|X-15]] hypersonic aircraft]] [58] => On May 5, 1961 [[Alan Shepard]] became the first American to enter space, performing a suborbital spaceflight in the [[Mercury-Redstone 3|''Freedom 7'']]. This flight occurred less than a month after the Soviet Union's [[Yuri Gagarin]] became the first human in space, executing a full orbital spaceflight. NASA's first orbital spaceflight was conducted by [[John Glenn]] on February 20, 1962, in the [[Mercury-Atlas 6|''Friendship 7'']], conducting three full orbits before reentering. Glenn had to fly parts of his final two orbits manually due to a malfunction in the autopilot. The sixth and final Mercury mission was flown by [[Gordon Cooper]] in May 1963, performing 22 orbits over 34 hours in the [[Mercury-Atlas 9|''Faith 7'']]. The Mercury Program was a resounding success, achieving its objectives to orbit a human in space, develop tracking and control systems, and identify other issues associated with human spaceflight. [59] => [60] => While much of NASA's attention turned to space, it did not forget its aeronautics mission. Early aeronautics research attempted to build upon the X-1's [[supersonic flight]] to build an aircraft capable of [[hypersonic flight]]. The [[North American X-15]] was a joint NASA-U.S. Air Force program, with the hypersonic test aircraft becoming the first non-dedicated spacecraft to cross from the atmosphere to outer space. The X-15 also served as a testbed for Apollo program technologies and [[ramjet]] and [[scramjet]] propulsion. [61] => [62] => === Moon landing === [63] => {{Main|Project Gemini|Apollo program}} [64] => [[File:S65-63188.jpg|thumb|[[Gemini 6]] and [[Gemini 7]] conduct an orbital rendezvous]] [65] => [66] => Escalations in the [[Cold War]] between the United States and Soviet Union prompted President [[John F. Kennedy]] to charge NASA with landing an American on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth by the end of the 1960s, and installed [[James E. Webb]] as NASA administrator to achieve this goal. On May{{nbsp}}25, 1961, President Kennedy openly declared this goal in his "Urgent National Needs" speech to the [[United States Congress]], declaring: [67] => {{blockquote|I believe this Nation should commit itself to achieving the goal, before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him safely to Earth. No single space project in this period will be more impressive to mankind, or more important for the long-range exploration of space; and none will be so difficult or expensive to accomplish.}} [68] => Kennedy gave his "[[We choose to go to the Moon]]" speech the next year, on September{{nbsp}}12, 1962 at [[Rice University]]. [69] => [70] => Despite attacks on the goal of landing astronauts on the Moon from the former president Dwight Eisenhower and 1964 presidential candidate [[Barry Goldwater]], President Kennedy was able to protect NASA's growing budget, of which 50% went directly to human spaceflight and it was later estimated that, at its height, 5% of Americans worked on some aspect of the Apollo program. [71] => [72] => [[File:Apollo 11 Launch - GPN-2000-000630.jpg|thumb|Launch of [[Apollo 11]]]] [73] => To manage the Apollo program, NASA required a more rigorous approach than it applied to Project Mercury. Mirroring the Department of Defense's program management concept using redundant systems in building the first intercontinental ballistic missiles, NASA requested the Air Force assign Major General [[Samuel C. Phillips]] to the space agency where he would serve as the director of the Apollo program. Development of the [[Saturn V|Saturn{{nbsp}}V]] rocket was led by [[Wernher von Braun]] and his team at the [[Marshall Space Flight Center]], derived from the Army Ballistic Missile Agency's original [[Saturn I|Saturn{{nbsp}}I]]. The [[Apollo command and service module|Apollo spacecraft]] was designed and built by [[North American Aviation]], while the [[Apollo Lunar Module]] was designed and built by [[Grumman]]. [74] => [75] => To develop the spaceflight skills and equipment required for a lunar mission, NASA initiated [[Project Gemini]]. Using a modified Air Force [[Titan II GLV|Titan{{nbsp}}II]] launch vehicle, the Gemini capsule could hold two astronauts for flights of over two weeks. Gemini pioneered the use of [[fuel cells]] instead of legacy batteries and demonstrated [[spacewalks]] and [[Space rendezvous|rendezvous operations]]. NASA also needed more detailed information about the Moon's geography and composition to prepare for a landing, using three uncrewed spacecraft programs. [76] => [77] => [[File:Buzz salutes the U.S. Flag.jpg|thumb|[[Buzz Aldrin]] salutes the United States flag on the [[lunar surface]]]] [78] => The [[Ranger Program]] was started in the 1950s as a response to Soviet lunar exploration but was generally considered to be a failure. The [[Lunar Orbiter program]] had greater success, mapping the surface in preparation for Apollo landings and measured [[Selenography]], conducted meteoroid detection, and measured radiation levels. The [[Surveyor program]] conducted uncrewed lunar landings and takeoffs, as well as taking surface and regolith observations. Despite the setback caused by the [[Apollo 1|Apollo{{nbsp}}1]] fire, which killed three astronauts, the program proceeded. [79] => [80] => [[Apollo 8|Apollo{{nbsp}}8]] was the first crewed [[spacecraft]] to leave [[low Earth orbit]] and the first [[human spaceflight]] to reach the [[Moon]]. The crew orbited the Moon ten times on December{{nbsp}}24 and{{nbsp}}25, 1968, and then traveled safely back to [[Earth]].{{Cite news |last=Overbye |first=Dennis |author-link=Dennis Overbye |date=December 21, 2018 |title=Apollo 8's Earthrise: The Shot Seen Round the World—Half a century ago today, a photograph from the moon helped humans rediscover Earth. |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |url-access=limited |access-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/21/science/earthrise-moon-apollo-nasa.html |archive-date=January 1, 2022}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite news |last1=Boulton |first1=Matthew Myer |last2=Heithaus |first2=Joseph |date=December 24, 2018 |title=We Are All Riders on the Same Planet—Seen from space 50 years ago, Earth appeared as a gift to preserve and cherish. What happened? |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |url-access=limited |access-date=December 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/earth-space-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |archive-date=January 1, 2022}}{{cbignore}}{{Cite news |last=Widmer |first=Ted |date=December 24, 2018 |title=What Did Plato Think the Earth Looked Like?—For millenniums, humans have tried to imagine the world in space. Fifty years ago, we finally saw it. |work=[[The New York Times]] |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |url-access=limited |access-date=December 25, 2018 |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220101/https://www.nytimes.com/2018/12/24/opinion/plato-earth-christmas-eve-apollo-8.html |archive-date=January 1, 2022}}{{cbignore}} The three Apollo{{nbsp}}8 astronauts—[[Frank Borman]], [[Jim Lovell|James Lovell]], and [[William Anders]]—were the first humans to see the Earth as a globe in space, the first to witness an [[Earthrise]], and the first to see and manually photograph the far side of the Moon. [81] => [82] => The first lunar landing was conducted by [[Apollo 11|Apollo{{nbsp}}11]]. Commanded by [[Neil Armstrong]] with astronauts [[Buzz Aldrin]] and [[Michael Collins (astronaut)|Michael Collins]], Apollo{{nbsp}}11 was one of the most significant missions in NASA's history, marking the end of the Space Race when the Soviet Union gave up its lunar ambitions. As the first human to step on the surface of the Moon, Neil Armstrong uttered the now famous words: [83] => {{blockquote|That's one small step for man, one giant leap for mankind.}} [84] => NASA would conduct six total lunar landings as part of the Apollo program, with [[Apollo 17|Apollo{{nbsp}}17]] concluding the program in 1972. [85] => [86] => [[File:Apollo CSM lunar orbit.jpg|thumb|[[Apollo 15|Apollo{{nbsp}}15]] [[Apollo command and service module|CSM]] ''Endeavour'' in lunar orbit]] [87] => [[Wernher von Braun]] had advocated for NASA to develop a space station since the agency was created. In 1973, following the end of the Apollo lunar missions, NASA launched its first space station, [[Skylab]], on the final launch of the Saturn{{nbsp}}V. Skylab repurposed a significant amount of former Apollo and Saturn hardware, with a repurposed Saturn{{nbsp}}V third stage serving as primary module for the space station. Damage to Skylab during launch required spacewalks by the first crew to make it habitable and operational. Skylab only hosted 9 missions and was decommissioned in 1974 and deorbited in 1979, two years prior to the Space Shuttle's launch and any possibility of boosting its orbit. [88] => [89] => In 1975, the [[Apollo–Soyuz]] mission was the first ever international spaceflight and a major diplomatic accomplishment between the Cold War rivals. Flown in 1975, a U.S. Apollo spacecraft docked with a Soviet [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] capsule. It also was the last flight of the Apollo capsule. [90] => [91] => === Interplanetary exploration and space science === [92] => [[File:Viking2lander1.jpg|thumb|right|Image from Mars taken by the ''Viking 2'' lander]] [93] => [94] => During the 1960s, NASA started its [[space science]] and interplanetary probe program. The [[Mariner program]] was its flagship program, launching probes to [[Venus]], [[Mars]], and [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] in the 1960s. The [[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] was the lead NASA center for robotic interplanetary exploration, making significant discoveries about the [[inner planets]]. Despite these successes, Congress was unwilling to fund further interplanetary missions and NASA Administrator James Webb suspended all future interplanetary probes to focus resources on the Apollo program. [95] => [96] => Following the conclusion of the Apollo program, NASA resumed launching interplanetary probes and expanded its [[space science]] program. The first planet tagged for exploration was [[Venus]], sharing many similar characteristics to Earth. First visited by American [[Mariner 2]] spacecraft, Venus was observed to be a hot and inhospitable planet. Follow-on missions included the [[Pioneer Venus project]] in the 1970s and [[Magellan (spacecraft)|Magellan]], which performed radar mapping of Venus' surface in the 1980s and 1990s. Future missions were flybys of Venus, on their way to other destinations in the Solar System. [97] => [98] => [[Mars]] has long been a planet of intense fascination for NASA, being suspected of potentially having harbored life. [[Mariner 5]] was the first NASA spacecraft to flyby Mars, followed by [[Mariner 6]] and [[Mariner 7]]. [[Mariner 9]] was the first orbital mission to Mars. Launched in 1975, [[Viking program]] consisted of two landings on Mars in 1976. Follow-on missions would not be launched until 1996, with the [[Mars Global Surveyor]] orbiter and [[Mars Pathfinder]], deploying the first Mars rover, [[Sojourner (rover)|Sojourner]]. During the early 2000s, the [[2001 Mars Odyssey]] orbiter reached the planet and in 2004 the ''[[Spirit (rover)|Sprit]]'' and ''[[Opportunity (rover)|Opportunity]]'' rovers landed on the Red Planet. This was followed in 2005 by the [[Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter]] and 2007 ''[[Phoenix (spacecraft)|Phoenix]]'' Mars lander. The 2012 landing of ''[[Curiosity (rover)|Curiosity]]'' discovered that the radiation levels on Mars were equal to those on the [[International Space Station]], greatly increasing the possibility of Human exploration, and observed the key chemical ingredients for life to occur. In 2013, the Mars Atmosphere and Volatile Evolution ([[MAVEN]]) mission observed the Martian upper atmosphere and space environment and in 2018, the Interior exploration using Seismic Investigations Geodesy, and Heat Transport ([[InSight]]) studied the Martian interior. The 2021 ''[[Perseverance (rover)|Perseverance]]'' rover carried the first extraplanetary aircraft, a helicopter named ''[[Ingenuity (helicopter)|Ingenuity]]''. [99] => [100] => [[File:Curiosity Self-Portrait at 'Big Sky' Drilling Site.jpg|thumb|''[[Curiosity (rover)|Curiosity]]'' on the surface of Mars]] [101] => NASA also launched missions to [[Mercury (planet)|Mercury]] in 2004, with the ''[[MESSENGER]]'' probe demonstrating as the first use of a [[solar sail]]. NASA also launched probes to the [[outer Solar System]] starting in the 1960s. ''[[Pioneer 10]]'' was the first probe to the outer planets, flying by [[Jupiter]], while ''[[Pioneer 11]]'' provided the first close up view of the planet. Both probes became the first objects to leave the Solar System. The [[Voyager program]] launched in 1977, conducting flybys of [[Jupiter]] and [[Saturn]], [[Neptune]], and [[Uranus]] on a trajectory to leave the Solar System. The ''[[Galileo (spacecraft)|Galileo]]'' spacecraft, deployed from the Space Shuttle flight [[STS-34]], was the first spacecraft to orbit Jupiter, discovering evidence of subsurface oceans on the [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] and observed that the moon may hold ice or liquid water. A joint NASA-[[European Space Agency]]-[[Italian Space Agency]] mission, [[Cassini–Huygens]], was sent to [[Saturn]]'s moon of [[Titan (moon)|Titan]], which along with Mars and Europa, are the only objects non-Terran objects in the Solar System suspected of being capable of harboring life. Cassini discovered three new moons of Saturn and the [[Huygens (spacecraft)|Huygens]] probe entered Titan's atmosphere. The mission discovered evidence of liquid hydrocarbon lakes on Titan and subsurface water oceans on the moon of [[Enceladus]], which could harbor life. Finally launched in 2006, the [[New Horizons]] mission was the first spacecraft to visit [[Pluto]] and the [[Kuiper Belt]]. [102] => [103] => Beyond interplanetary probes, NASA has a long tradition of launching [[space telescopes]]. Launched in the 1960s, the [[Orbiting Astronomical Observatory]] were NASA's first orbital telescopes, providing ultraviolet, gamma-ray, x-ray, and infrared observations. Not just looking up, NASA launched the [[Orbiting Geophysical Observatory]] to look down at Earth and observe its interactions with the Sun. The [[Uhuru (satellite)|Uhuru]] satellite was the first dedicated x-ray telescope, mapping 85% of the sky and discovering a large number of [[black holes]]. [104] => [105] => [[File:View of Hubble after Being Released from the Shuttle Atlantis (28045752710).jpg|thumb|The [[Hubble Space Telescope]] in Low Earth Orbit]] [106] => Launched in the 1990s and early 2000s, the [[Great Observatories program]] are among NASA's most powerful telescopes. The [[Hubble Space Telescope]] was launched in 1990 on [[STS-31]] from the ''Discovery'' and could view galaxies 15 billion light years away. A major defect in the telescope's mirror could have crippled the program, had NASA not used computer enhancement to compensate for the imperfection and launched five Space Shuttle servicing flights to replace the damaged components. The [[Compton Gamma Ray Observatory]] was launched from the ''Atlantis'' on [[STS-37]] in 1991, discovering a possible source of [[antimatter]] at the center of the [[Milky Way]] and observing that the majority of gamma-ray bursts occur outside of the Milky Way galaxy. The [[Chandra X-ray Observatory]] was launched from the ''Columbia'' on [[STS-93]] in 1999, observing black holes, [[quasars]], [[supernova]], and [[dark matter]]. It provided critical observations on the [[Sagittarius A*]] black hole at the center of the Milky Way galaxy and the separation of dark and regular matter during galactic collisions. Finally, the [[Spitzer Space Telescope]] is an infrared telescope and the last of the great observatories, launched in 2003 from a [[Delta II]] rocket. It is in a trailing orbit around the Sun, following the Earth and discovered the existence of [[brown dwarf star]]s. [107] => [108] => Other telescopes, such as the [[Cosmic Background Explorer]] and the [[Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe]], provided evidence to support the [[Big Bang]]. The [[James Webb Space Telescope]], named after the NASA administrator who lead the Apollo program, is an infrared observatory launched in 2021. The James Webb Space Telescope is a direct successor to the Hubble Space Telescope, intended to observe the formation of the first galaxies. Other space telescopes include the [[Kepler space telescope]], launched in 2009 to identify planets orbiting extrasolar stars that may be Terran and possibly harbor life. The first exoplanet that the Keplar space telescope confirmed was [[Kepler-22b]], orbiting within the habitable zone of its star. [109] => [110] => NASA also launched a number of different satellites to study Earth, such as [[Television Infrared Observation Satellite]] (TIROS) in 1960, which was the first weather satellite. NASA and the [[United States Weather Bureau]] cooperated on future TIROS and the second generation [[Nimbus program]] of weather satellites. It also worked with the [[Environmental Science Services Administration]] on a series of weather satellites and the agency launched its experimental [[Applications Technology Satellites]] into geosynchronous orbit. NASA's first dedicated Earth observation satellite, [[Landsat]], was launched in 1972. This led to NASA and the [[National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration]] jointly developing the [[Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite]] and discovering [[Ozone depletion]]. [111] => [112] => === Space Shuttle === [113] => {{Main|Space Shuttle}} [114] => [[File:STS120LaunchHiRes-edit1.jpg|thumb|Launch of the [[Space Shuttle Discovery|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']] on [[STS-120]]]] [115] => [116] => NASA had been pursuing [[spaceplane]]s since the 1960s, blending the administration's dual aeronautics and space missions. NASA viewed a spaceplane as part of a larger program, providing routine and economical logistical support to a [[space station]] in Earth orbit that would be used as a hub for lunar and Mars missions. A reusable launch vehicle would end the need for expensive and expendable boosters like the Saturn V. [117] => [118] => In 1969, NASA designated the [[Johnson Space Center]] as the lead center for developing the design, development, and manufacturing of the [[Space Shuttle orbiter]], while the [[Marshall Space Flight Center]] would lead the development of the launch system. NASA's series of [[lifting body]] aircraft, culminating in the joint NASA-U.S. Air Force [[Martin Marietta X-24]], directly informed the development of the Space Shuttle and future hypersonic flight aircraft. Official development of the [[Space Shuttle]] began in 1972, with [[Rockwell International]] contracted to design the orbiter and engines, [[Martin Marietta]] for the [[Space Shuttle external tank|external fuel tank]], and [[Morton Thiokol]] for the [[Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster|solid rocket boosters]]. NASA acquired six orbiters: the ''[[Space Shuttle Enterprise|Enterprise]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Columbia|Columbia]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Challenger|Challenger]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Discovery]]'', ''[[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Atlantis]]'', and ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavour]]'' [119] => [120] => The Space Shuttle program also allowed NASA to make dramatic changes to its [[NASA Astronaut Corps|Astronaut Corps]]. While almost all previous astronauts were Air Force or Naval test pilots, the Space Shuttle allowed NASA to begin recruiting more non-military scientific and technical experts. A prime example is [[Sally Ride]], who became the first American woman to fly in space on [[STS-7]]. It also allowed NASA to accept exchange astronauts from U.S. allies and partners for the first time. [121] => [122] => The first Space Shuttle flight occurred in 1981, when the ''Columbia'' launched on the [[STS-1]] mission, designed to serve as a flight test for the new spaceplane. NASA intended for the Space Shuttle to replace expendable launch systems like the Air Force's [[Atlas (rocket family)|Atlas]], [[Delta (rocket family)|Delta]], and [[Titan (rocket family)|Titan]] and the [[European Space Agency]]'s [[Ariane (rocket family)|Ariane]]. The Space Shuttle's [[Spacelab]] payload, developed by the [[European Space Agency]], dramatically increased the scientific capabilities of shuttle missions over anything NASA was able to previously accomplish. [123] => [124] => [[File:Space Shuttle Discovery.png|thumb|[[Space Shuttle Discovery|Space Shuttle ''Discovery'']] in Low Earth Orbit on [[STS-120]]]] [125] => NASA launched its first commercial satellites on the [[STS-5]] mission and in 1984, the [[STS-41-C]] mission conducted the world's first [[on-orbit satellite servicing]] mission when the ''Challenger'' captured and repaired the malfunctioning [[Solar Maximum Mission]] satellite. It also had the capability to return malfunctioning satellite to Earth, like it did with the [[Palapa B2]] and [[Westar 6]] satellites. Once returned to Earth, the satellites were repaired and relaunched. [126] => [127] => Despite ushering in a new era of spaceflight, where NASA was contracting launch services to commercial companies, the Space Shuttle was criticized for not being as reusable and cost-effective as advertised. In 1986, [[Space Shuttle Challenger disaster|''Challenger'' disaster]] on the [[STS-51L]] mission resulted in the loss of the spacecraft and all seven astronauts on launch, grounding the entire space shuttle fleet for 36 months and forced the 44 commercial companies that contracted with NASA to deploy their satellites to return to expendable launch vehicles. When the Space Shuttle returned to flight with the [[STS-26]] mission, it had undergone significant modifications to improve its reliability and safety. [128] => [129] => [[File:STS-44 DSP deployment.jpg|thumb|An [[Air Force Space Command]] [[Defense Support Program]] missile warning spacecraft deploys from the [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'']] on the [[STS-44]] mission]] [130] => Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the Russian Federation and United States initiated the [[Shuttle–Mir program|Shuttle-''Mir'' program]]. The first Russian cosmonaut flew on the [[STS-60]] mission in 1994 and the ''Discovery'' rendezvoused, but did not dock with, the Russian ''[[Mir]]'' in the [[STS-63]] mission. This was followed by ''Atlantis''' [[STS-71]] mission where it accomplished the initial intended mission for the Space Shuttle, docking with a space station and transferring supplies and personnel. The Shuttle-''Mir'' program would continue until 1998, when a series of orbital accidents on the space station spelled an end to the program. [131] => [132] => In 2003, a second space shuttle was lost when the ''Columbia'' was [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|lost]] upon reentry during the [[STS-107]] mission, resulting in the loss of the spacecraft and all seven astronauts. This accident marked the beginning of the end of the Space Shuttle program, with President [[George W. Bush]] directing that upon the completion of the International Space Station, the space shuttle be retired. In 2006, the Space Shuttle returned to flight and flew several additional missions, flying several mission to service the [[Hubble Space Telescope]], but was retired with the completion of the completion of the [[STS-135]] resupply mission to the International Space Station in 2011. [133] => [134] => === Space stations === [135] => {{Main|Space Station Freedom|International Space Station}} [136] => [[File:Skylab (SL-4).jpg|thumb|[[Skylab]] seen on the [[Skylab 4]] mission]] [137] => [138] => NASA never gave up on the idea of a space station after Skylab's reentry in 1979. The agency began lobbing politicians to support building a space station as soon as the Space Shuttle began flying, selling it as an orbital laboratory, repair station, and a jumping off point for lunar and Mars missions. NASA found a strong advocate in President [[Ronald Reagan]], who declared in a 1984 speech: [139] => {{blockquote|America has always been greatest when we dared to be great. We can reach for greatness again. We can follow our dreams to distant stars, living and working in space for peaceful, economic, and scientific gain. Tonight I am directing NASA to develop a permanently manned space station and to do it within a decade.}} [140] => In 1985, NASA proposed the [[Space Station Freedom|Space Station ''Freedom'']], which both the agency and President Reagan intended to be an international program. While this would add legitimacy to the program, there were concerns within NASA that the international component would dilute its authority within the project, having never been willing to work with domestic or international partners as true equals. There was also a concern with sharing sensitive space technologies with the Europeans, which had the potential to dilute America's technical lead. Ultimately, an international agreement to develop the Space Station ''Freedom'' program would be signed with thirteen countries in 1985, including the [[European Space Agency]] member states, Canada, and Japan. [141] => [142] => Despite its status as the first international space program, the Space Station ''Freedom'' was controversial, with much of the debate centering on cost. Several redesigns to reduce cost were conducted in the early 1990s, stripping away much of its functions. Despite calls for Congress to terminate the program, it continued, in large part because by 1992 it had created 75,000 jobs across 39 states. By 1993, President [[Bill Clinton]] attempted to significantly reduce NASA's budget and directed costs be significantly reduced, aerospace industry jobs were not lost, and the Russians be included. [143] => [144] => [[File:International Space Station after undocking of STS-132.jpg|thumb|The [[International Space Station]] seen from the [[Space Shuttle Atlantis|Space Shuttle ''Atlantis'']] on the [[STS-132]] mission]] [145] => In 1993, the Clinton Administration announced that the Space Station ''Freedom'' would become the [[International Space Station]] in an agreement with the Russian Federation. This allowed the Russians to maintain their space program through an infusion of American currency to maintain their status as one of the two premier space programs. While the United States built and launched the majority of the International Space Station, Russia, Canada, Japan, and the European Space Agency all contributed components. Despite NASA's insistence that costs would be kept at a budget of $17.4, they kept rising and NASA had to transfer funds from other programs to keep the International Space Station solvent. Ultimately, the total cost of the station was $150 billion, with the United States paying for two-thirds.Following the Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' disaster in 2003, NASA was forced to rely on Russian [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] launches for its astronauts and the 2011 retirement of the Space Shuttle accelerated the station's completion. [146] => [147] => In the 1980s, right after the first flight of the Space Shuttle, NASA started a joint program with the Department of Defense to develop the [[Rockwell X-30]] National Aerospace Plane. NASA realized that the Space Shuttle, while a massive technological accomplishment, would not be able to live up to all its promises. Designed to be a [[single-stage-to-orbit]] spaceplane, the X-30 had both civil and military applications. With the end of the [[Cold War]], the X-30 was canceled in 1992 before reaching flight status. [148] => [149] => === Unleashing commercial space and return to the Moon === [150] => {{Main|Commercial Crew Program|Artemis program}} [151] => [[File:SpaceX Demo-2 Launch (NHQ202005300044).jpg|thumb|Launch of [[SpaceX Demo-2]] from [[Kennedy Space Center]], the first U.S. crewed space launch since the end of the Space Shuttle program]] [152] => [153] => Following the 2003 Space Shuttle ''Columbia'' disaster, President Bush started the [[Constellation program]] to smoothly replace the Space Shuttle and expand space exploration beyond low Earth orbit. Constellation was intended to use a significant amount of former Space Shuttle equipment and return astronauts to the Moon. This program was canceled by the [[Obama Administration]] and former astronauts [[Neil Armstrong]], [[Gene Cernan]], and [[Jim Lovell]] sent a letter to President [[Barack Obama]] to warn him that if the United States did not get new human spaceflight ability, the U.S. risked become a second or third-rate space power. [154] => [155] => [[File:The SpaceX Crew Dragon Endeavour approaches the International Space Station (iss065e002231).jpg|thumb|[[SpaceX Crew-2]] docks with the [[International Space Station]]]] [156] => As early as the Reagan Administration, there had been calls for NASA to expand private sector involvement in space exploration rather than do it all in house. In the 1990s, NASA and Lockheed Martin entered into an agreement to develop the [[Lockheed Martin X-33]] and [[VentureStar]] spaceplane, which was intended to replace the Space Shuttle. Due to technical challenges, the spacecraft was cancelled in 2001. Despite this, it was the first time a commercial space company directly expended a significant amount of its own resources into spacecraft development. The advent of [[space tourism]] also forced NASA to challenge its assumption that only governments would have people in space. The first space tourist was [[Dennis Tito]], an American investment manager and former aerospace engineer who contracted with the Russians to fly to the International Space Station for four days, despite the opposition of NASA to the idea. [157] => [158] => [[File:Launch of Artemis 1 (NHQ202211160002) (cropped).jpg|thumb|Launch of [[Artemis 1]]]] [159] => Advocates of this new commercial approach for NASA included former astronaut [[Buzz Aldrin]], who remarked that it would return NASA to its roots as a research and development agency, with commercial entities actually operating the space systems. Having corporations take over orbital operations would also allow NASA to focus all its efforts on deep space exploration and returning humans to the Moon and going to Mars. Embracing this approach, NASA's [[Commercial Crew Program]] started by contracting cargo delivery to the International Space Station and flew its first operational contracted mission on [[SpaceX Crew-1]]. This marked the first time since the retirement of the Space Shuttle that NASA was able to launch its own astronauts on an American spacecraft from the United States, ending a decade of reliance on the Russians. [160] => [161] => In 2019, NASA announced the [[Artemis program]], intending to return to the Moon and establish a permanent human presence.{{Cite web |last1=Mann |first1=Adam |last2=Harvey |first2=Ailsa |date=August 17, 2022 |title=NASA's Artemis program: Everything you need to know |url=https://www.space.com/artemis-program.html |website=Space.com |access-date=June 8, 2023 |archive-date=April 17, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210417175557/https://www.space.com/artemis-program.html |url-status=live }} This was paired with the [[Artemis Accords]] with partner nations to establish rules of behavior and norms of space commercialization on the Moon.{{Cite web |title=NASA: Artemis Accords |url=https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html |website=NASA |access-date=June 8, 2023 |archive-date=May 16, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200516053058/https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/index.html |url-status=live }} [162] => [163] => == Active programs == [164] => === Human spaceflight === [165] => ==== International Space Station (1993–present) ==== [166] => {{Further|International Space Station}} [167] => {{Image frame|align=left |total_width=120|content=[[File:ISS emblem.png|100px]]|border=no}} [168] => [[File:STS-134 International Space Station after undocking.jpg|thumb|The International Space Station as seen from {{OV|105}} during [[STS-134]]]] [169] => [170] => The [[International Space Station]] (ISS) combines NASA's [[Space Station Freedom|Space Station ''Freedom'']] project with the Soviet/Russian ''[[Mir-2]]'' station, the European ''[[Columbus (ISS module)|Columbus]]'' station, and the Japanese [[Japanese Experiment Module|Kibō]] laboratory module.{{Cite book |last=Catchpole |first=John E. |url={{Google books|VsTdriusftgC|plainurl=yes}} |title=The International Space Station: Building for the Future |date=June 17, 2008 |publisher=Springer-Praxis |isbn=978-0-387-78144-0 |pages=1–2}} NASA originally planned in the 1980s to develop ''Freedom'' alone, but US budget constraints led to the merger of these projects into a single multi-national program in 1993, managed by NASA, the [[Russian Federal Space Agency]] (RKA), the [[JAXA|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] (JAXA), the [[European Space Agency]] (ESA), and the [[Canadian Space Agency]] (CSA).{{Cite web |date=2009 |title=Human Spaceflight and Exploration—European Participating States |url=http://www.esa.int/esaHS/partstates.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120730150845/http://www.esa.int/esaHS/partstates.html |archive-date=July 30, 2012 |access-date=January 17, 2009 |publisher=European Space Agency (ESA)}}{{Cite book |first=Gary |last=Kitmacher |title=Reference Guide to the International Space Station |date=2006 |series=Apogee Books Space Series |publisher=[[Apogee Books]] |isbn=978-1-894959-34-6 |location=Canada |pages=71–80 |issn=1496-6921}} The station consists of pressurized modules, external [[Integrated Truss Structure|trusses]], [[solar arrays]] and other components, which were [[Manufacturing of the International Space Station|manufactured]] in various factories around the world, and have been launched by Russian [[Proton (rocket)|Proton]] and [[Soyuz (rocket family)|Soyuz]] rockets, and the US Space Shuttles. The on-orbit assembly began in 1998, the completion of the [[US Orbital Segment]] occurred in 2009 and the completion of the [[Russian Orbital Segment]] occurred in 2010, though there are some debates of whether new modules should be added in the segment. The ownership and use of the space station is established in intergovernmental treaties and agreements{{Cite web |date=April 19, 2009 |title=ISS Intergovernmental Agreement |url=http://www.spaceflight.esa.int/users/index.cfm?act=default.page&level=11&page=1980 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610083738/http://www.spaceflight.esa.int/users/index.cfm?act=default.page&level=11&page=1980 |archive-date=June 10, 2009 |access-date=April 19, 2009 |publisher=European Space Agency (ESA)}} which divide the station into two areas and allow [[Russian Federation|Russia]] to retain full ownership of the Russian Orbital Segment (with the exception of ''[[Zarya (ISS module)|Zarya]]''),{{Cite web |date=January 29, 1998 |title=Memorandum of Understanding Between the National Aeronautics and Space Administration of the United States of America and the Russian Space Agency Concerning Cooperation on the Civil International Space Station |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_rsa.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090610221509/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/structure/elements/nasa_rsa.html |archive-date=June 10, 2009 |access-date=April 19, 2009 |publisher=NASA}}{{Cite web |last=Zak |first=Anatoly |date=October 15, 2008 |title=Russian Segment: Enterprise |url=http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_enterprise.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120920153519/http://www.russianspaceweb.com/iss_enterprise.html |archive-date=September 20, 2012 |access-date=August 4, 2012 |publisher=RussianSpaceWeb}} with the US Orbital Segment allocated between the other international partners. [171] => [172] => Long-duration missions to the ISS are referred to as [[List of International Space Station expeditions|ISS Expeditions]]. Expedition crew members typically spend approximately six months on the ISS.{{Cite web |date=2011 |title=ISS Fact sheet: FS-2011-06-009-JSC |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/562641main_FS-2011-ISS%20intro.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130510171224/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/johnson/pdf/562641main_FS-2011-ISS%20intro.pdf |archive-date=May 10, 2013 |access-date=September 2, 2012 |publisher=NASA}} The initial expedition crew size was three, temporarily decreased to two following the ''Columbia'' disaster. Since May 2009, expedition crew size has been six crew members.{{Cite web |date=February 3, 2010 |title=MCB Joint Statement Representing Common Views on the Future of the ISS |url=https://www.nasa.gov/pdf/423071main_mcb_joint_stmt_020110.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121116024323/http://www.nasa.gov/pdf/423071main_mcb_joint_stmt_020110.pdf |archive-date=November 16, 2012 |access-date=August 16, 2012 |publisher=International Space Station Multilateral Coordination Board}} Crew size is expected to be increased to seven, the number the ISS was designed for, once the Commercial Crew Program becomes operational.{{Cite web |last=Leone |first=Dan |date=June 20, 2012 |title=Wed, 20 June, 2012 NASA Banking on Commercial Crew To Grow ISS Population |url=http://www.spacenews.com/civil/120620-nasa-commercial-crew-grow-iss-pop.html |archive-url=https://archive.today/20130105004023/http://www.spacenews.com/civil/120620-nasa-commercial-crew-grow-iss-pop.html |archive-date=January 5, 2013 |access-date=September 1, 2012 |publisher=Space News}} The ISS has been continuously occupied for the past {{age in years and days|November 2, 2000|sep=and}}, having exceeded the previous record held by ''[[Mir]]''; and has been visited by astronauts and cosmonauts from [[List of International Space Station visitors|15 different nations]].{{Cite web |date=November 17, 2008 |title=Nations Around the World Mark 10th Anniversary of International Space Station |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/10th_anniversary.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090213140619/http://www.nasa.gov//mission_pages//station//main//10th_anniversary.html |archive-date=February 13, 2009 |access-date=March 6, 2009 |publisher=NASA}}{{Cite web |last=Boyle |first=Rebecca |date=November 11, 2010 |title=The International Space Station Has Been Continuously Inhabited for Ten Years Today |url=http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2010-11/happy-anniversary-international-space-station |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130318033003/http://www.popsci.com/science/article/2010-11/happy-anniversary-international-space-station |archive-date=March 18, 2013 |access-date=September 1, 2012 |publisher=Popular Science}} [173] => [174] => The station can be seen from the Earth with the naked eye and, as of {{CURRENTYEAR}}, is the largest artificial satellite in Earth orbit with a mass and volume greater than that of any previous space station.[http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/ISS_OVR/index.htm International Space Station] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090224042229/http://www.shuttlepresskit.com/ISS_OVR/index.htm |date=February 24, 2009}}, Retrieved October 20, 2011 The Russian [[Soyuz (spacecraft)|Soyuz]] and American [[SpaceX Dragon 2|Dragon]] spacecraft are used to send astronauts to and from the ISS. Several uncrewed cargo spacecraft provide service to the ISS; they are the Russian [[Progress (spacecraft)|Progress spacecraft]] which has done so since 2000, the European [[Automated Transfer Vehicle]] (ATV) since 2008, the Japanese [[H-II Transfer Vehicle]] (HTV) since 2009, the (uncrewed) [[SpaceX Dragon|Dragon]] since 2012, and the American [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus spacecraft]] since 2013.{{Cite news |last=de Selding |first=Peter B. |date=August 12, 2014 |title=After Maneuvers, Final ATV Docks with Station |publisher=Space News |url=https://spacenews.com/41568after-maneuvers-final-atv-docks-with-station/ |access-date=October 2, 2022}}{{Cite news |last=Clark |first=Stephen |date=May 25, 2020 |title=HTV supply ship successfully berthed at space station |publisher=SpaceFlightNow.com |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/05/25/htv-supply-ship-successfully-berthed-at-space-station/ |access-date=October 2, 2022 |archive-date=October 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001203724/https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/05/25/htv-supply-ship-successfully-berthed-at-space-station/ |url-status=live }} The Space Shuttle, before its retirement, was also used for cargo transfer and would often switch out expedition crew members, although it did not have the capability to remain docked for the duration of their stay. Between the retirement of the Shuttle in 2011 and the commencement of crewed Dragon flights in 2020, American astronauts exclusively used the Soyuz for crew transport to and from the ISS{{Cite web |last=Chow |first=Denise |date=November 17, 2011 |title=U.S. Human Spaceflight Program Still Strong, NASA Chief Says |url=http://www.space.com/13664-nasa-future-space-exploration-progress.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120625050543/http://www.space.com/13664-nasa-future-space-exploration-progress.html |archive-date=June 25, 2012 |access-date=July 2, 2012 |publisher=Space.com}} The highest number of people occupying the ISS has been thirteen; this occurred three times during the late Shuttle ISS assembly missions.{{Cite web |last=Potter |first=Ned |date=July 17, 2009 |title=Space Shuttle, Station Dock: 13 Astronauts Together |url=https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=8112821&page=1 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170630165148/https://abcnews.go.com/Technology/story?id=8112821&page=1 |archive-date=June 30, 2017 |access-date=September 7, 2012 |publisher=ABC News}} [175] => [176] => The ISS program is expected to continue to 2030,{{Cite tweet |number=1075840067569139712 |user=SenBillNelson |title=Commercial Space Company Bill Announcement |first=Bill |last=Nelson |date=December 20, 2018}} after which the space station will be retired and destroyed in a controlled de-orbit.{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=August 20, 2022 |title=NASA asks industry for input on ISS deorbit capabilities |publisher=Space News |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-asks-industry-for-input-on-iss-deorbit-capabilities/ |access-date=October 2, 2022}} [177] => [178] => ==== Commercial Resupply Services (2008–present) ==== [179] => {{Further|Commercial Resupply Services}} [180] => [181] => {{multiple image|perrow = 2/1 [182] => | total_width = 320 [183] => | align = right [184] => | caption_align = center [185] => | image1 = SpX CRS-2 berthing.jpg [186] => | alt1 = [187] => | caption1 = Dragon [188] => | image2 = ISS-45 Cygnus 5 approaching the ISS (1).jpg [189] => | alt2 = [190] => | caption2 = Cygnus [191] => | image3 = The station pictured from the SpaceX Crew Dragon 5 (cropped).jpg [192] => | caption3 = [193] => | alt3 = [194] => | footer = Commercial Resupply Services missions approaching International Space Station [195] => | footer_align = left [196] => }} [197] => [198] => Commercial Resupply Services (CRS) are a contract solution to deliver cargo and supplies to the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) on a commercial basis.{{Cite news |last=Jason Rhian |date=September 27, 2014 |title=NASA continues Commercial "push" with CRS extension |publisher=Spaceflight Insider |url=http://www.spaceflightinsider.com/missions/commercial/nasa-continues-commercial-push-crs-extension/ |access-date=October 12, 2022 |archive-date=October 20, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161020231358/http://www.spaceflightinsider.com/missions/commercial/nasa-continues-commercial-push-crs-extension/ |url-status=live }} NASA signed its first CRS contracts in 2008 and awarded $1.6 billion to [[SpaceX]] for twelve cargo [[Dragon (spacecraft)|Dragon]] and $1.9 billion to [[Orbital Sciences]]{{efn|name=Orbital|group=note|[[Orbital Sciences]] was awarded a CRS contract in 2008. In 2015, Orbital Sciences became [[Orbital ATK]] through a business merger. Orbital ATK was awarded a CRS-2 contract in 2016. In 2018, Orbital ATK was acquired by [[Northrop Grumman]].}} for eight [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]] flights, covering deliveries to 2016. Both companies evolved or created their launch vehicle products to support the solution (SpaceX with The [[Falcon 9]] and Orbital with the [[Antares (rocket)|Antares]]). [199] => [200] => SpaceX flew its first operational resupply mission ([[SpaceX CRS-1]]) in 2012.{{Cite web |date=September 20, 2012 |title=SpaceX, NASA Target Oct. 7 Launch For Resupply Mission To Space Station |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/spacex-crs1-target.html |access-date=September 26, 2012 |publisher=NASA |archive-date=April 6, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130406081057/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/main/spacex-crs1-target.html |url-status=live }} Orbital Sciences followed in 2014 ([[Cygnus CRS Orb-1]]).{{Cite news |last=Malik |first=Tariq |date=January 20, 2014 |title=Orbital's Cygnus Delivers Gifts, Ants To Station in First Commercial Run |publisher=spacenews.com |url=https://spacenews.com/39183orbitals-cygnus-delivers-gifts-ants-to-station-in-first-commercial-run/ |access-date=September 3, 2022}} In 2015, NASA extended CRS-1 to twenty flights for SpaceX and twelve flights for [[Orbital ATK]].{{efn|name=Orbital|group=note}}{{Cite news |last=Bergin |first=Chris |title=NASA lines up four additional CRS missions for Dragon and Cygnus |work=[[NASASpaceFlight.com]] |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/03/nasa-crs-missions-dragon-cygnus/ |access-date=April 19, 2015 |archive-date=January 30, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170130164344/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2015/03/nasa-crs-missions-dragon-cygnus/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |last=de Selding |first=Peter B. |date=February 24, 2016 |title=SpaceX wins 5 new space station cargo missions in NASA contract estimated at $700 million |work=[[SpaceNews]] |url=http://spacenews.com/spacex-wins-5-new-space-station-cargo-missions-in-nasa-contract-estimated-at-700-million/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-date=February 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20160224170629/http://spacenews.com/spacex-wins-5-new-space-station-cargo-missions-in-nasa-contract-estimated-at-700-million/ |url-status=live }} [201] => [202] => A second phase of contracts (known as CRS-2) was solicited in 2014; contracts were awarded in January 2016 to Orbital ATK{{efn|name=Orbital|group=note}} [[Cygnus (spacecraft)|Cygnus]], [[Sierra Nevada Corporation]] ''[[Dream Chaser]]'', and SpaceX ''[[SpaceX Dragon 2|Dragon 2]]'', for cargo transport flights beginning in 2019 and expected to last through 2024. In March 2022, NASA awarded an additional six CRS-2 missions each to both SpaceX and Northrop Grumman (formerly Orbital).{{Cite news |last=Alamalhodaei |first=Aria |date=March 25, 2022 |title=SpaceX, Northrop Grumman to resupply the ISS through 2026 |publisher=Tech Crunch |url=https://techcrunch.com/2022/03/25/spacex-northrop-grumman-to-resupply-the-iss-through-2026/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-date=October 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012030217/https://techcrunch.com/2022/03/25/spacex-northrop-grumman-to-resupply-the-iss-through-2026/ |url-status=live }} [203] => [204] => [[Northrop Grumman]] successfully delivered [[Cygnus NG-17]] to the ISS in February 2022.{{Cite news |last=Burghardt |first=Thomas |date=February 19, 2022 |title=Northrop Grumman Cygnus NG-17 arrives at ISS |publisher=NASA Spaceflight |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/02/antares-cygnus-ng-17/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-date=December 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20221228013745/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/02/antares-cygnus-ng-17/ |url-status=live }} In July 2022, SpaceX launched its 25th CRS flight ([[SpaceX CRS-25]]) and successfully delivered its cargo to the ISS.{{Cite news |last=Kanayama |first=Lee |date=July 14, 2022 |title=SpaceX and NASA launch CRS-25 mission to the ISS |publisher=NASA Spaceflight |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/07/spacex-crs-25-launch/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-date=July 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220717040652/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/07/spacex-crs-25-launch/ |url-status=live }} In late 2022, Sierra Nevada continued to assemble their Dream Chaser CRS solution; current estimates put its first launch in early 2023.{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=April 29, 2022 |title=First Dream Chaser vehicle takes shape |publisher=Space News |url=https://spacenews.com/first-dream-chaser-vehicle-takes-shape/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-date=June 24, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230624155403/https://spacenews.com/first-dream-chaser-vehicle-takes-shape/ |url-status=live }} [205] => [206] => ==== Commercial Crew Program (2011–present) ==== [207] => {{Further|Commercial Crew Program}} [208] => {{Image frame|align=left |total_width=120|content=[[File:NASA Commercial Crew Program logo (cropped).svg|100px]]|border=no}} [209] => {{Multiple image [210] => | total_width = 320 [211] => | image1 = Crew Dragon at the ISS for Demo Mission 1 (cropped).jpg [212] => | image2 = Boeing's Starliner crew ship approaches the space station (iss067e066735) (cropped).jpg [213] => | footer = The Crew Dragon (left) and Starliner (right) approaching the [[International Space Station|ISS]] on their respective missions [214] => }} [215] => [216] => The Commercial Crew Program (CCP) provides [[Private spaceflight|commercially operated]] [[human spaceflight|crew transportation service]] to and from the [[International Space Station]] (ISS) under contract to NASA, conducting crew rotations between the [[List of International Space Station expeditions|expeditions]] of the [[International Space Station program]]. American [[space industry|space manufacturer]] [[SpaceX]] began providing service in 2020, using the [[SpaceX Dragon 2|Crew Dragon]] spacecraft,{{Cite press release |last1=Schierholz |first1=Stephanie |last2=Martin |first2=Stephanie |date=September 16, 2014 |title=NASA Chooses American Companies to Transport U.S. Astronauts to International Space Station |publisher=NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-u-s-astronauts-to-international-space-station/ |id=14-256 |access-date=October 2, 2022 |archive-date=January 12, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240112220221/https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-chooses-american-companies-to-transport-u-s-astronauts-to-international-space-station/ |url-status=live }} and NASA plans to add [[Boeing Defense, Space & Security|Boeing]] when its [[Boeing Starliner]] spacecraft becomes operational {{update after|2024|5|text=some time after 2024}}.{{cite web |last1=Costa |first1=Jason |title=NASA, Boeing Provide Update on Starliner Crew Flight Test |url=https://blogs.nasa.gov/boeing-crew-flight-test/2023/08/08/nasa-boeing-provide-update-on-starliner-crew-flight-test/ |website=NASA Blogs |publisher=NASA |access-date=January 20, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230813181132/https://blogs.nasa.gov/boeing-crew-flight-test/2023/08/08/nasa-boeing-provide-update-on-starliner-crew-flight-test/ |archive-date=August 13, 2023 |date=August 8, 2023 |url-status=live}} NASA has contracted for six operational missions from Boeing and fourteen from SpaceX, ensuring sufficient support for ISS through 2030.{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=September 1, 2022 |title="NASA and SpaceX finalize extension of commercial crew contract" |work=[[SpaceNews]] |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-and-spacex-finalize-extension-of-commercial-crew-contract/ |access-date=October 1, 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240120215421/https://spacenews.com/nasa-and-spacex-finalize-extension-of-commercial-crew-contract/ |archive-date=January 20, 2024 |url-status=live }} [217] => [218] => The spacecraft are owned and operated by the vendor, and crew transportation is provided to NASA as a commercial service. Each mission sends up to four astronauts to the ISS, with an option for a fifth passenger available. Operational flights occur approximately once every six months for missions that last for approximately six months. A spacecraft remains docked to the ISS during its mission, and missions usually overlap by at least a few days. Between the retirement of the [[Space Shuttle]] in 2011 and the first operational CCP mission in 2020, NASA relied on the [[Soyuz program]] to transport its astronauts to the ISS. [219] => [220] => A Crew Dragon spacecraft is launched to space atop a [[Falcon 9 Block 5]] launch vehicle and the capsule returns to Earth via [[splashdown]] in the ocean near Florida. The program's first operational mission, [[SpaceX Crew-1]], launched on November 16, 2020.{{Cite news |last=Haskell |first=Matt |date=November 16, 2020 |title=SpaceX Successfully Launches First Operational Crewed Mission |work=spaceflightinsider.com |url=https://www.spaceflightinsider.com/missions/human-spaceflight/spacex-successfully-launches-first-operational-crewed-mission/ |access-date=October 2, 2022 |archive-date=October 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002171237/https://www.spaceflightinsider.com/missions/human-spaceflight/spacex-successfully-launches-first-operational-crewed-mission/ |url-status=live }} [[Boeing Starliner]] operational flights will now commence after its [[Boeing Crewed Flight Test|final test flight]] which was launched atop an [[Atlas V]] N22 launch vehicle. Instead of a splashdown, a Starliner capsule returns on land with [[airbag]]s at one of four designated sites in the western United States.{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=May 25, 2022 |title=Starliner concludes OFT-2 test flight with landing in New Mexico |work=[[SpaceNews]] |url=https://spacenews.com/starliner-concludes-oft-2-test-flight-with-landing-in-new-mexico/ |access-date=October 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://archive.today/20240120215623/https://spacenews.com/starliner-concludes-oft-2-test-flight-with-landing-in-new-mexico/ |archive-date=January 20, 2024 |url-status=live }} [221] => [222] => ==== Artemis (2017–present) ==== [223] => {{Further|Artemis program}} [224] => {{Image frame|align=left|content=[[File:Artemis program (solid contrast with wordmark).svg|100px|alt=An arrowhead combined with a depiction of a trans-lunar injection trajectory forms an "A", with an "Artemis" wordmark printed underneath]]|border=no}} [225] => [[File:Artemis 1 SLS Rollout (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|SLS with Orion rolling to Launch Complex 39B for tests, Mar 2022]] [226] => [227] => Since 2017, NASA's [[List of human spaceflight programs|crewed spaceflight program]] has been the [[Artemis program]], which involves the help of US [[Private spaceflight|commercial spaceflight companies]] and international partners such as [[European Space Agency|ESA]], [[JAXA]], and [[Canadian Space Agency|CSA]].{{Cite web |title=NASA: Moon to Mars |url=https://www.nasa.gov/specials/moontomars/index.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190805055135/https://www.nasa.gov/specials/moontomars/index.html |archive-date=August 5, 2019 |access-date=May 19, 2019 |website=NASA}} The goal of this program is to land "the first woman and the next man" on the [[lunar south pole]] region by 2025. Artemis would be the first step towards the long-term goal of establishing a sustainable presence on the Moon, laying the foundation for companies to build a lunar economy, and eventually sending humans to [[Mars]]. [228] => [229] => The [[Orion (spacecraft)|Orion]] Crew Exploration Vehicle was held over from the canceled Constellation program for Artemis. [[Artemis 1]] was the uncrewed initial launch of [[Space Launch System]] (SLS) that would also send an Orion spacecraft on a [[Distant Retrograde Orbit]].{{Cite news |date=May 1, 2020 |title=Hopeful for launch next year, NASA aims to resume SLS operations within weeks |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/05/01/hopeful-for-launch-next-year-nasa-aims-to-resume-sls-operations-within-weeks/ |url-status=live |access-date=September 2, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200913103626/https://spaceflightnow.com/2020/05/01/hopeful-for-launch-next-year-nasa-aims-to-resume-sls-operations-within-weeks/ |archive-date=September 13, 2020}} [230] => [231] => NASA's next major space initiative is to be the construction of the [[Lunar Gateway]], a small space station in lunar orbit.Whitwam, Ryan. [https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/277788-nasa-sets-new-roadmap-for-moon-base-crewed-missions-to-mars NASA Sets New Roadmap for Moon Base, Crewed Missions to Mars] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181127022433/https://www.extremetech.com/extreme/277788-nasa-sets-new-roadmap-for-moon-base-crewed-missions-to-mars |date=November 27, 2018}} Extreme Tech, September 27, 2018. Accessed November 26, 2018. This space station will be designed primarily for non-continuous human habitation. The first tentative steps of returning to crewed lunar missions will be [[Artemis 2]], which is to include the Orion crew module, propelled by the SLS, and is to launch in 2025.{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=2024-01-09 |title=NASA delays Artemis 2 and 3 missions |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-delays-artemis-2-and-3-missions/ |access-date=2024-01-16 |website=SpaceNews |language=en-US}} This mission is to be a 10-day mission planned to briefly place a crew of four into a [[free-return trajectory|Lunar flyby]].{{Cite web |last=Bergin |first=Chris |date=February 23, 2012 |title=Acronyms to Ascent – SLS managers create development milestone roadmap |url=http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2012/02/acronyms-ascent-sls-managers-create-developmental-milestone-roadmap/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120430013811/http://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2012/02/acronyms-ascent-sls-managers-create-developmental-milestone-roadmap/ |archive-date=April 30, 2012 |access-date=April 29, 2012 |publisher=NASA}} The construction of the Gateway would begin with the proposed Artemis 3, which is planned to deliver a crew of four to [[Lunar orbit]] along with the first modules of the Gateway. This mission would last for up to 30 days. NASA plans to build full scale deep space habitats such as the Lunar Gateway and the [[Nautilus-X]] as part of its [[Next Space Technologies for Exploration Partnerships]] (NextSTEP) program.{{Cite web |date=August 11, 2016 |title=NASA builds deep space habitats on Earth |url=https://www.yahoo.com/tech/nasa-builds-deep-space-habitats-on-earth-180702737.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170224213331/https://www.yahoo.com/tech/nasa-builds-deep-space-habitats-on-earth-180702737.html |archive-date=February 24, 2017 |access-date=December 30, 2016}} In 2017, NASA was directed by the congressional NASA Transition Authorization Act of 2017 to get humans to Mars-orbit (or to the Martian surface) by the 2030s.{{Cite web |date=March 9, 2017 |title=US Government Issues NASA Demand, 'Get Humans to Mars By 2033' |url=https://futurism.com/us-government-issues-nasa-demand-get-humans-to-mars-by-2033/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180217082516/https://futurism.com/us-government-issues-nasa-demand-get-humans-to-mars-by-2033/ |archive-date=February 17, 2018 |access-date=February 16, 2018}}{{Cite web |date=March 21, 2017 |title=Trump Signs NASA Authorization act of 2017 |url=https://www.spaceflightinsider.com/organizations/nasa/trump-signs-nasa-transition-authorization-act-2017/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181203055748/https://www.spaceflightinsider.com/organizations/nasa/trump-signs-nasa-transition-authorization-act-2017/ |archive-date=December 3, 2018 |access-date=December 2, 2018 |publisher=Spaceflight Insider}} [232] => [233] => In support of the Artemis missions, NASA has been funding private companies to land robotic probes on the lunar surface in a program known as the [[Commercial Lunar Payload Services]]. As of March 2022, NASA has awarded contracts for robotic lunar probes to companies such as [[Intuitive Machines]], [[Firefly Space Systems]], and [[Astrobotic]].{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=November 18, 2021 |title=NASA selects Intuitive Machines for CLPS lunar landing mission |publisher=SpaceNews |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-for-clps-lunar-landing-mission/ |url-status=live |access-date=March 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901052905/https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-intuitive-machines-for-clps-lunar-landing-mission/ |archive-date=September 1, 2022}} [234] => [235] => On April 16, 2021, NASA announced they had selected the [[Starship HLS|SpaceX Lunar Starship]] as its Human Landing System. The agency's Space Launch System rocket will launch four astronauts aboard the Orion spacecraft for their multi-day journey to lunar orbit where they will transfer to SpaceX's Starship for the final leg of their journey to the surface of the Moon.{{Cite web |date=April 16, 2021 |title=As Artemis Moves Forward, NASA Picks SpaceX to Land Next Americans on Moon |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416221751/http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/as-artemis-moves-forward-nasa-picks-spacex-to-land-next-americans-on-moon/ |archive-date=April 16, 2021 |access-date=November 16, 2021 |website=NASA}} [236] => [237] => In November 2021, it was announced that the goal of landing astronauts on the Moon by 2024 had slipped to no earlier than 2025 due to numerous factors. [[Artemis 1]] launched on November 16, 2022, and returned to Earth safely on December 11, 2022. As of June 2022, NASA plans to launch [[Artemis 2]] in May 2024 and [[Artemis 3]] in December 2025.{{Cite web |date=November 9, 2021 |title=NASA delays human lunar landing to at least 2025 |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-delays-human-lunar-landing-to-at-least-2025/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901052905/https://spacenews.com/nasa-delays-human-lunar-landing-to-at-least-2025/ |archive-date=September 1, 2022 |access-date=November 16, 2021 |website=spacenews.com |language=en}}{{Cite news |title=Space Launch System • Artemis 1 |url=https://spaceflightnow.com/launch-schedule/ |access-date=January 31, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220128160958/https://spaceflightnow.com/launch-schedule/ |archive-date=January 28, 2022}} Additional Artemis missions, [[Artemis 4]] and [[Artemis 5]], are planned to launch after 2025.{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=January 20, 2022 |title=NASA foresees gap in lunar landings after Artemis 3 |publisher=SpaceNews |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-foresees-gap-in-lunar-landings-after-artemis-3/ |url-status=live |access-date=February 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901052906/https://spacenews.com/nasa-foresees-gap-in-lunar-landings-after-artemis-3/ |archive-date=September 1, 2022}} [238] => [239] => ==== Commercial LEO Development (2021–present) ==== [240] => {{further|Commercial LEO Destinations program}} [241] => The Commercial Low Earth Orbit Destinations program is an initiative by NASA to support work on commercial space stations that the agency hopes to have in place by the end of the current decade to replace the "International Space Station". The three selected companies are: [[Blue Origin]] (et al.) with their [[Orbital Reef]] station concept, [[Nanoracks]] (et al.) with their [[Starlab Space Station]] concept, and [[Northrop Grumman]] with a station concept based on the HALO-module for the Gateway station.{{Cite web |date=December 3, 2021 |title=NASA awards funding to three commercial space station concepts |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-awards-funding-to-three-commercial-space-station-concepts/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220901052906/https://spacenews.com/nasa-awards-funding-to-three-commercial-space-station-concepts/ |archive-date=September 1, 2022 |access-date=December 3, 2021 |website=spacenews.com |language=en}} [242] => [243] => === Robotic exploration === [244] => {{Further|List of NASA missions|List of uncrewed NASA missions}} [245] => [[File:NASA 60th- What’s Out There.webm|thumb|Video of many of the uncrewed missions used to explore the outer reaches of space]] [246] => [247] => NASA has conducted many uncrewed and robotic spaceflight programs throughout its history. More than 1,000 uncrewed missions have been designed to explore the Earth and the Solar System.{{Cite web |title=Launch History (Cumulative) |url=https://history.nasa.gov/pocketstats/sect%20B/Launch%20Hist.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111019231919/http://history.nasa.gov/pocketstats/sect%20B/Launch%20Hist.pdf |archive-date=October 19, 2011 |access-date=September 30, 2011 |publisher=NASA}} [248] => [249] => ==== Mission selection process ==== [250] => NASA executes a mission development framework to plan, select, develop, and operate robotic missions. This framework defines cost, schedule and technical risk parameters to enable competitive selection of missions involving mission candidates that have been developed by principal investigators and their teams from across NASA, the broader U.S. Government research and development stakeholders, and industry. The mission development construct is defined by four umbrella programs. [251] => [252] => ===== Explorer program ===== [253] => {{Further|Explorers Program}} [254] => The Explorer program derives its origin from the earliest days of the U.S. Space program. In current form, the program consists of three classes of systems – [[Explorer program#Small Explorers (SMEX)|Small Explorers (SMEX)]], [[Explorer program#Medium-Class Explorers (MIDEX)|Medium Explorers (MIDEX)]], and [[Explorer program|University-Class Explorers (UNEX)]] missions. The NASA Explorer program office provides frequent flight opportunities for moderate cost innovative solutions from the heliophysics and astrophysics science areas. The Small Explorer missions are required to limit cost to NASA to below $150M (2022 dollars). Medium class explorer missions have typically involved NASA cost caps of $350M. The Explorer program office is based at NASA Goddard Space Flight Center.{{Cite web |title=The Explorers Program |url=https://explorers.gsfc.nasa.gov/ |access-date=October 10, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=September 2, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160902230101/http://gems.gsfc.nasa.gov/ |url-status=live }} [255] => [256] => ===== Discovery program ===== [257] => {{Further|Discovery Program}} [258] => The NASA Discovery program develops and delivers robotic spacecraft solutions in the planetary science domain. Discovery enables scientists and engineers to assemble a team to deliver a solution against a defined set of objectives and competitively bid that solution against other candidate programs. Cost caps vary but recent mission selection processes were accomplished using a $500M cost cap for NASA. The Planetary Mission Program Office is based at the NASA Marshall Space Flight Center and manages both the Discovery and New Frontiers missions. The office is part of the Science Mission Directorate.{{Cite web |date=June 16, 2022 |title=Discovery Program |url=https://www.nasa.gov/planetarymissions/discovery.html |access-date=October 10, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 12, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201012215048/https://www.nasa.gov/planetarymissions/discovery.html |url-status=live }} [259] => [260] => NASA Administrator Bill Nelson announced on June 2, 2021, that the ''[[DAVINCI]]+'' and ''[[VERITAS (spacecraft)|VERITAS]]'' missions were selected to launch to Venus in the late 2020s, having beat out competing proposals for missions to Jupiter's volcanic moon Io and Neptune's large moon [[Triton (moon)|Triton]] that were also selected as Discovery program finalists in early 2020. Each mission has an estimated cost of $500 million, with launches expected between 2028 and 2030. Launch contracts will be awarded later in each mission's development.{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=June 2, 2021 |title=NASA selects two Venus missions for Discovery program |publisher=Space News |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-two-venus-missions-for-discovery-program/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-date=February 18, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240218201805/https://spacenews.com/nasa-selects-two-venus-missions-for-discovery-program/ |url-status=live }} [261] => [262] => ===== New Frontiers program ===== [263] => {{Further|New Frontiers program}} [264] => The New Frontiers program focuses on specific [[Solar System]] exploration goals identified as top priorities by the planetary science community. Primary objectives include Solar System exploration employing medium class spacecraft missions to conduct high-science-return investigations. New Frontiers builds on the development approach employed by the Discovery program but provides for higher cost caps and schedule durations than are available with Discovery. Cost caps vary by opportunity; recent missions have been awarded based on a defined cap of $1 billion. The higher cost cap and projected longer mission durations result in a lower frequency of new opportunities for the program – typically one every several years. ''[[OSIRIS-REx]]'' and ''[[New Horizons]]'' are examples of New Frontiers missions.{{Cite web |date=October 4, 2021 |title=New Frontiers Program |url=https://www.nasa.gov/planetarymissions/newfrontiers.html |access-date=October 10, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 1, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201001163630/https://www.nasa.gov/planetarymissions/newfrontiers.html |url-status=live }} [265] => [266] => NASA has determined that the next opportunity to propose for the fifth round of New Frontiers missions will occur no later than the fall of 2024. Missions in NASA's New Frontiers Program tackle specific Solar System exploration goals identified as top priorities by the planetary science community. Exploring the Solar System with medium-class spacecraft missions that conduct high-science-return investigations is NASA's strategy to further understand the Solar System.{{Cite news |title=NASA Moves New Frontiers 5 Mission Selection to No Earlier Than 2024 |publisher=Sci Tech Daily |url=https://scitechdaily.com/nasa-moves-new-frontiers-5-mission-selection-to-no-earlier-than-2024/ |access-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-date=October 14, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014041211/https://scitechdaily.com/nasa-moves-new-frontiers-5-mission-selection-to-no-earlier-than-2024/ |url-status=live }} [267] => [268] => ===== Large strategic missions ===== [269] => {{Further|Large strategic science missions}} [270] => Large strategic missions (formerly called Flagship missions) are strategic missions that are typically developed and managed by large teams that may span several NASA centers. The individual missions become the program as opposed to being part of a larger effort (see Discovery, New Frontiers, etc.). The [[James Webb Space Telescope]] is a strategic mission that was developed over a period of more than 20 years. Strategic missions are developed on an ad-hoc basis as program objectives and priorities are established. Missions like Voyager, had they been developed today, would have been strategic missions. Three of the Great Observatories were strategic missions (the [[Chandra X-ray Observatory]], the [[Compton Gamma Ray Observatory]], and the [[Hubble Space Telescope]]). ''[[Europa Clipper]]'' is the next large strategic mission in development by NASA. [271] => [272] => ==== Planetary science missions ==== [273] => NASA continues to play a material role in exploration of the Solar System as it has for decades. Ongoing missions have current science objectives with respect to more than five extraterrestrial bodies within the Solar System – Moon ([[Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter]]), Mars (''[[Perseverance (rover)|Perseverance]]'' rover), Jupiter (''[[Juno (spacecraft)|Juno]]''), asteroid [[101955 Bennu|Bennu]] (''[[OSIRIS-REx]]''), and Kuiper Belt Objects (''[[New Horizons]]''). The ''Juno'' extended mission will make multiple flybys of the Jovian moon Io in 2023 and 2024 after flybys of [[Ganymede (moon)|Ganymede]] in 2021 and [[Europa (moon)|Europa]] in 2022. ''[[Voyager 1]]'' and ''[[Voyager 2]]'' continue to provide science data back to Earth while continuing on their outward journeys into interstellar space. [274] => [275] => On November 26, 2011, NASA's [[Mars Science Laboratory]] mission was successfully launched for Mars. The ''[[Curiosity (rover)|Curiosity]]'' rover successfully landed on Mars on August 6, 2012, and subsequently began its search for evidence of past or present life on Mars.{{Cite web |last=NASA Staff |date=November 26, 2011 |title=Mars Science Laboratory |url=https://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111127020258/http://marsprogram.jpl.nasa.gov/msl/ |archive-date=November 27, 2011 |access-date=November 26, 2011 |publisher=NASA}}{{Cite news |date=November 26, 2011 |title=NASA Launches Super-Size Rover to Mars: 'Go, Go!' |work=The New York Times |agency=Associated Press |url=https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2011/11/26/science/AP-US-SCI-Mars-Rover.html |access-date=November 26, 2011 |archive-date=May 9, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509124705/https://www.nytimes.com/aponline/2011/11/26/science/AP-US-SCI-Mars-Rover.html |url-status=live }}{{Cite news |last=Kenneth Chang |date=August 6, 2012 |title=Curiosity Rover Lands Safely on Mars |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/06/science/space/curiosity-rover-lands-safely-on-mars.html?hp |url-status=live |access-date=August 6, 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120806142116/http://www.nytimes.com/2012/08/06/science/space/curiosity-rover-lands-safely-on-mars.html?hp |archive-date=August 6, 2012}} [276] => [277] => In September 2014, NASA's ''[[MAVEN]]'' spacecraft, which is part of the [[Mars Scout Program]], successfully entered Mars orbit and, as of October 2022, continues its study of the [[atmosphere of Mars]].{{Cite web |last=Wilson |first=Jim |date=September 15, 2008 |title=NASA Selects 'MAVEN' Mission to Study Mars Atmosphere |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mars/news/maven_20080915.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090619181039/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/mars/news/maven_20080915.html |archive-date=June 19, 2009 |access-date=July 15, 2009 |publisher=NASA}}{{Cite news |date=September 21, 2014 |title=Success! NASA's Maven Probe Goes Into Orbit Around Mars |publisher=NBC News |url=https://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/success-nasas-maven-probe-goes-orbit-around-mars-n208371 |access-date=October 17, 2022 |archive-date=October 18, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221018050233/https://www.nbcnews.com/science/space/success-nasas-maven-probe-goes-orbit-around-mars-n208371 |url-status=live }} NASA's ongoing Mars investigations include in-depth surveys of Mars by the ''[[Perseverance (rover)|Perseverance]]'' rover and ''[[InSight]]''). [278] => [279] => NASA's ''[[Europa Clipper]]'', planned for launch in October 2024, will study the Galilean moon Europa through a series of flybys while in orbit around Jupiter. ''[[Dragonfly (Titan space probe)|Dragonfly]]'' will send a mobile robotic [[rotorcraft]] to Saturn's biggest moon, [[Titan (moon)|Titan]].{{Cite web |date=2017 |title=Dragonfly: Titan Rotorcraft Lander |url=http://dragonfly.jhuapl.edu/ |access-date=September 20, 2017 |publisher=The Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Laboratory |archive-date=September 20, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170920093208/http://dragonfly.jhuapl.edu/ |url-status=live }} As of May 2021, ''Dragonfly'' is scheduled for launch in June 2027.{{Cite web |date=May 12, 2021 |title=NASA New Frontiers 5: Third Community Announcement |url=http://www.spaceref.com/news/viewsr.html?pid=54791 |access-date=May 14, 2021 |website=NASA [[Science Mission Directorate]] |via=SpaceRef}}{{dead link|date=June 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }}{{Cite web |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=September 25, 2020 |title=NASA delays Dragonfly launch by a year |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-delays-dragonfly-launch-by-a-year/ |website=[[SpaceNews]] |access-date=October 4, 2022 |archive-date=March 19, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319065932/https://spacenews.com/nasa-delays-dragonfly-launch-by-a-year/ |url-status=live }} [280] => [281] => ==== Astrophysics missions ==== [282] => [[File:AstroFleetPoster 062022 print.jpg|thumb|NASA astrophysics spacecraft fleet, credit [[Goddard Space Flight Center|NASA GSFC]], 2022]] [283] => [284] => The NASA Science Mission Directorate Astrophysics division manages the agency's astrophysics science portfolio. NASA has invested significant resources in the development, delivery, and operations of various forms of space telescopes. These telescopes have provided the means to study the cosmos over a large range of the electromagnetic spectrum.{{Cite web |title=NASA Astrophysics |url=https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics |access-date=October 7, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008025547/https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics |url-status=live }} [285] => [286] => The Great Observatories that were launched in the 1980s and 1990s have provided a wealth of observations for study by physicists across the planent. The first of them, the [[Hubble Space Telescope]], was delivered to orbit in 1990 and continues to function, in part due to prior servicing missions performed by the Space Shuttle.{{Cite web |date=May 26, 2022 |title=About – The Hubble Story |url=https://www.nasa.gov/content/about-the-hubble-story |access-date=October 7, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010002442/https://www.nasa.gov/content/about-the-hubble-story/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=May 26, 2022 |title=About-Hubble Servicing Missions |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/servicing/index.html |access-date=October 7, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 14, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014032509/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/hubble/servicing/index.html |url-status=live }} The other remaining active great observatories include the [[Chandra X-ray Observatory]] (CXO), launched by [[STS-93]] in July 1999 and is now in a 64-hour [[elliptical orbit]] studying X-ray sources that are not readily viewable from terrestrial observatories.{{Cite news |last=Howell |first=Elizabeth |date=June 15, 2018 |title=Chandra Space Telescope: Revealing the Invisible Universe |publisher=space.com |url=https://www.space.com/18669-chandra-x-ray-observatory.html |access-date=October 7, 2022 |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008025552/https://www.space.com/18669-chandra-x-ray-observatory.html |url-status=live }} [287] => [288] => [[File:Chandra artist illustration.jpg|thumb|[[Chandra X-ray Observatory]] (rendering), 2015]] [289] => The [[Imaging X-ray Polarimetry Explorer]] (IXPE) is a space observatory designed to improve the understanding of X-ray production in objects such as neutron stars and pulsar wind nebulae, as well as stellar and supermassive black holes.{{Cite web |last=Adams |first=Mitzi |date=June 16, 2022 |title=IXPE Home: Expanding the X-ray View of the Universe |url=https://ixpe.msfc.nasa.gov/ |access-date=October 7, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=September 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930205532/https://ixpe.msfc.nasa.gov/ |url-status=live }} IXPE launched in December 2021 and is an international collaboration between NASA and the [[Italian Space Agency]] (ASI). It is part of the NASA [[Explorers Program|Small Explorers program]] (SMEX) which designs low-cost spacecraft to study heliophysics and astrophysics.{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=DeLee |date=October 7, 2022 |title=Small Explorers (SMEX) Missions in Development |url=https://explorers.gsfc.nasa.gov/smex.html |access-date=October 7, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008025553/https://explorers.gsfc.nasa.gov/smex.html |url-status=live }} [290] => [291] => The [[Neil Gehrels Swift Observatory]] was launched in November 2004 and is Gamma-ray burst observatory that also monitors the afterglow in X-ray, and UV/Visible light at the location of a burst.{{Cite news |last=Howell |first=Elizabeth |date=July 30, 2018 |title=Swift Observatory: Scanning the Sky for Gamma-ray Bursts |publisher=space.com |url=https://www.space.com/41328-swift-observatory.html |access-date=October 7, 2022 |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008025537/https://www.space.com/41328-swift-observatory.html |url-status=live }} The mission was developed in a joint partnership between [[Goddard Space Flight Center]] (GSFC) and an international consortium from the United States, United Kingdom, and Italy. [[Pennsylvania State University]] operates the mission as part of NASA's [[Explorer program|Medium Explorer program]] (MIDEX).{{Cite web |title=Sci Fact Sheet |url=https://swift.gsfc.nasa.gov/about_swift/Sci_Fact_Sheet.pdf |access-date=October 7, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=December 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202194248/https://swift.gsfc.nasa.gov/about_swift/Sci_Fact_Sheet.pdf |url-status=live }} [292] => [293] => The [[Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope]] (FGST) is another gamma-ray focused space observatory that was launched to [[low Earth orbit]] in June 2008 and is being used to perform [[gamma-ray astronomy]] observations.{{Cite web |title=FGST: Fermi Gamma-ray Space Telescope |url=http://fgst.slac.stanford.edu/ |access-date=October 7, 2022 |publisher=Stanford University |archive-date=December 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221207174345/https://fgst.slac.stanford.edu/ |url-status=live }} In addition to NASA, the mission involves the [[United States Department of Energy]], and government agencies in France, Germany, Italy, Japan, and Sweden.{{Cite web |title=An Astro-Particle Physics Partnership Exploring the High Energy Universe – List of funders |url=http://www-glast.stanford.edu/ |access-date=August 9, 2007 |publisher=SLAC |archive-date=May 22, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200522050838/http://www-glast.stanford.edu/ |url-status=live }} [294] => [295] => The [[James Webb Space Telescope]] (JWST), launched in December 2021 on an [[Ariane 5]] rocket, operates in a [[halo orbit]] circling the Sun-Earth {{L2}} point.{{Cite news |last1=Pinoi |first1=Natasha |last2=Fiser |first2=Alise |last3=Betz |first3=Laura |date=December 27, 2021 |title=NASA's Webb Telescope Launches to See First Galaxies, Distant Worlds |work=NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasas-webb-telescope-launches-to-see-first-galaxies-distant-worlds |url-status=live |access-date=March 20, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220412131658/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasas-webb-telescope-launches-to-see-first-galaxies-distant-worlds/ |archive-date=April 12, 2022}}{{Cite web |title=About – Webb Orbit |url=https://webb.nasa.gov/content/about/orbit.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210520073745/https://webb.nasa.gov/content/about/orbit.html |archive-date=May 20, 2021 |access-date=June 2, 2021 |publisher=NASA}}{{Cite news |last=Strickland |first=Ashley |date=January 24, 2022 |title=Telescope reaches its final destination a million miles from Earth |publisher=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/24/world/james-webb-space-telescope-orbit-scn/index.html |access-date=October 7, 2022 |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008025552/https://www.cnn.com/2022/01/24/world/james-webb-space-telescope-orbit-scn/index.html |url-status=live }} JWST's high sensitivity in the infrared spectrum and its imaging resolution will allow it to view more distant, faint, or older objects than its predecessors, including Hubble.{{Cite news |last=Cooper |first=Keith |date=July 28, 2022 |title=James Webb Space Telescope beats its own record with potential most distant galaxies |publisher=space.com |url=https://www.space.com/james-webb-space-telescope-new-most-distant-galaxies |access-date=October 7, 2022 |archive-date=October 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221007174049/https://www.space.com/james-webb-space-telescope-new-most-distant-galaxies |url-status=live }} [296] => [297] => ==== Earth Sciences Program missions (1965–present) ==== [298] => {{Further|NASA Earth Science}} [299] => [[File:NASA Earth Science Division Operating Missions.jpg|thumb|Schematic of NASA Earth Science Division operating satellite missions as of February 2015]] [300] => [301] => NASA Earth Science is a large, umbrella program comprising a range of terrestrial and space-based collection systems in order to better understand the Earth system and its response to natural and human-caused changes. Numerous systems have been developed and fielded over several decades to provide improved prediction for weather, climate, and other changes in the natural environment. Several of the current operating spacecraft programs include: [[Aqua (satellite)|Aqua]],{{Cite news |date=May 4, 2022 |title=Aqua satellite provides 20 years of weather and environmental observations |publisher=European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts |url=https://www.ecmwf.int/en/about/media-centre/news/2022/aqua-satellite-provides-20-years-weather-and-environmental |access-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008215146/https://www.ecmwf.int/en/about/media-centre/news/2022/aqua-satellite-provides-20-years-weather-and-environmental |url-status=live }} [[Aura (satellite)|Aura]],{{Cite web |title=Earth Online – Aura |url=https://earth.esa.int/eogateway/missions/aura |access-date=October 8, 2022 |publisher=European Space Agency |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008215137/https://earth.esa.int/eogateway/missions/aura |url-status=live }} [[Orbiting Carbon Observatory 2]] (OCO-2),{{Cite web |title=Successful Launch: the Orbiting Carbon Observatory (OCO-2) |url=https://ceos.org/home-2/oco-2-launch-space-co2/ |access-date=October 8, 2022 |publisher=Committee on Earth Observation Satellites |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008215138/https://ceos.org/home-2/oco-2-launch-space-co2/ |url-status=live }} [[GRACE and GRACE-FO#GRACE Follow-On|Gravity Recovery and Climate Experiment Follow-on (GRACE FO)]],{{Cite web |title=GRACE FO Fact Sheet |url=https://gracefo.jpl.nasa.gov/resources/38/grace-fo-fact-sheet/ |access-date=October 8, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008215137/https://gracefo.jpl.nasa.gov/resources/38/grace-fo-fact-sheet/ |url-status=live }} and [[ICESat-2|Ice, Cloud, and land Elevation Satellite 2 (ICESat-2)]].{{Cite web |last=Garner |first=Rob |date=May 21, 2019 |title=About ICESat-2 |url=https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/about-icesat-2 |access-date=October 8, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 14, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221014063102/https://www.nasa.gov/content/goddard/about-icesat-2/ |url-status=live }} [302] => [303] => In addition to systems already in orbit, NASA is designing a new set of Earth Observing Systems to study, assess, and generate responses for climate change, natural hazards, forest fires, and real-time agricultural processes.{{Cite web |title=NASA Earth System Observatory, Addressing, Mitigating Climate Change |url=https://science.nasa.gov/earth-science/earth-system-observatory |access-date=October 8, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008215135/https://science.nasa.gov/earth-science/earth-system-observatory |url-status=live }} The GOES-T satellite (designated [[GOES-18]] after launch) joined the fleet of U.S. geostationary weather monitoring satellites in March 2022.{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=March 1, 2022 |title=Atlas 5 launches GOES-T weather satellite |publisher=Space News |url=https://spacenews.com/atlas-5-launches-goes-t-weather-satellite/ |access-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-date=March 16, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240316085306/https://spacenews.com/atlas-5-launches-goes-t-weather-satellite/ |url-status=live }} [304] => [305] => NASA also maintains the Earth Science Data Systems (ESDS) program to oversee the life cycle of NASA's Earth science data — from acquisition through processing and distribution. The primary goal of ESDS is to maximize the scientific return from NASA's missions and experiments for research and applied scientists, decision makers, and society at large.{{Cite news |date=May 25, 2021 |title=Earth Science Data Systems (ESDS) Program |publisher=nasa.gov |url=https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/esds |access-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008014936/https://www.earthdata.nasa.gov/esds |url-status=live }} [306] => [307] => The Earth Science program is managed by the Earth Science Division of the NASA Science Mission Directorate. [308] => [309] => === Space operations architecture === [310] => NASA invests in various ground and space-based infrastructures to support its science and exploration mandate. The agency maintains access to suborbital and orbital space launch capabilities and sustains ground station solutions to support its evolving fleet of spacecraft and remote systems. [311] => [312] => ==== Deep Space Network (1963–present) ==== [313] => {{Further|NASA Deep Space Network}} [314] => The ''NASA Deep Space Network'' (''DSN'') serves as the primary ground station solution for NASA's interplanetary spacecraft and select Earth-orbiting missions.{{Cite web |date=March 30, 2020 |title=What is the Deep Space Network? |url=https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep_space_network/about |access-date=October 7, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221002064313/https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/deep_space_network/about/ |url-status=live }} The system employs ground station complexes near Barstow California in the United States, in Spain near Madrid, and in Australia near Canberra. The placement of these ground stations approximately 120 degrees apart around the planet provides the ability for communications to spacecraft throughout the [[Solar System]] even as the Earth rotates about its axis on a daily basis. The system is controlled at a 24x7 operations center at JPL in Pasadena California which manages recurring communications linkages with up to 40 spacecraft.{{Cite news |last=Dickinson |first=David |date=September 6, 2021 |title=NASA's Deep Space Network Upgraded |publisher=Sky and Telescope |url=https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/nasas-deep-space-network-upgraded/ |access-date=October 7, 2022 |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008041427/https://skyandtelescope.org/astronomy-news/nasas-deep-space-network-upgraded/ |url-status=live }} The system is managed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL). [315] => [316] => ==== Near Space Network (1983–present) ==== [317] => {{Further|Near Earth Network|Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System}} [318] => [[File:Ground stations of the Near Earth Network (NASA) 2021.png|thumb|Near Earth Network Ground Stations, 2021]] [319] => [320] => The Near Space Network (NSN) provides telemetry, commanding, ground-based tracking, data and communications services to a wide range of customers with satellites in low earth orbit (LEO), geosynchronous orbit (GEO), highly elliptical orbits (HEO), and lunar orbits. The NSN accumulates ground station and antenna assets from the Near-Earth Network and the ''[[Tracking and Data Relay Satellite System]]'' (''TDRS'') which operates in geosynchronous orbit providing continuous real-time coverage for launch vehicles and low earth orbit NASA missions.{{Cite web |date=February 24, 2021 |title=What is the Near Space Network? |url=https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/near_space_network/about |access-date=October 9, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003030315/https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/near_space_network/about/ |url-status=live }} [321] => [322] => The NSN consists of 19 ground stations worldwide operated by the US Government and by contractors including Kongsberg Satellite Services (KSAT), Swedish Space Corporation (SSC), and South African National Space Agency (SANSA).{{Cite web |date=March 3, 2021 |title=Where Are The NSN Complexes Located? |url=https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/near_space_network/complexes |access-date=October 9, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 12, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012142501/https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/heo/scan/services/networks/near_space_network/complexes/ |url-status=live }} The ground network averages between 120 and 150 spacecraft contacts a day with TDRS engaging with systems on a near-continuous basis as needed; the system is managed and operated by the Goddard Space Flight Center.{{Cite web |title=Near Earth Network Overview |url=https://esc.gsfc.nasa.gov/projects/NEN |access-date=October 9, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221010172042/https://esc.gsfc.nasa.gov/projects/NEN/ |url-status=live }} [323] => [324] => ==== Sounding Rocket Program (1959–present) ==== [325] => {{Further|NASA Sounding Rocket Program}} [326] => [[File:Daytime Dynamo Rocket Launch (9218456164).jpg|thumb|NASA [[sounding rocket]] launch from the [[Wallops Flight Facility]]]] [327] => [328] => The ''NASA Sounding Rocket Program'' (''NSRP'') is located at the [[Wallops Flight Facility]] and provides launch capability, payload development and integration, and field operations support to execute suborbital missions.{{Cite web |title=Sounding Rockets Program Office |url=https://sites.wff.nasa.gov/code810/about.html |access-date=October 7, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=January 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230112135910/https://sites.wff.nasa.gov/code810/about.html |url-status=live }} The program has been in operation since 1959 and is managed by the Goddard Space Flight Center using a combined US Government and contractor team.{{Cite news |date=April 6, 2016 |title=NASA Awards Sounding Rocket Operations Contract |publisher=nasa.gov |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-sounding-rocket-operations-contract |access-date=October 7, 2022 |archive-date=October 13, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221013012103/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-awards-sounding-rocket-operations-contract/ |url-status=live }} The NSRP team conducts approximately 20 missions per year from both Wallops and other launch locations worldwide to allow scientists to collect data "where it occurs". The program supports the strategic vision of the Science Mission Directorate collecting important scientific data for earth science, heliophysics, and astrophysics programs. [329] => [330] => In June 2022, NASA conducted its first rocket launch from a commercial spaceport outside the US. It launched a [[Black Brant IX]] from the [[Arnhem Space Centre]] in Australia.{{Cite web |last=Garrick |first=Matt |date=July 13, 2022 |title=NASA's inaugural Northern Territory mission is over, but hopes for a space industry boom remain |url=https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-13/arnhem-land-rockets-nasa-future/101230196 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220714015439/https://www.abc.net.au/news/2022-07-13/arnhem-land-rockets-nasa-future/101230196 |archive-date=July 14, 2022 |access-date=July 14, 2022 |website=ABC News |publisher=[[Australian Broadcasting Corporation]]}} [331] => [332] => ==== Launch Services Program (1990–present) ==== [333] => {{Further|NASA Launch Services Program}} [334] => {{Image frame|align=left |total_width=120|content=[[File:Launch Services Program logo.svg|100px]]|border=no}} [335] => [336] => The NASA Launch Services Program (LSP) is responsible for procurement of launch services for NASA uncrewed missions and oversight of launch integration and launch preparation activity, providing added quality and mission assurance to meet program objectives.{{Cite web |date=April 10, 2018 |title=LSP Overview |url=https://www.nasa.gov/content/lsp-overview |access-date=September 9, 2022 |website=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003071204/https://www.nasa.gov/content/lsp-overview/ |url-status=live }} Since 1990, NASA has purchased [[expendable launch system|expendable launch vehicle launch services]] directly from commercial providers, whenever possible, for its scientific and applications missions. Expendable launch vehicles can accommodate all types of orbit inclinations and altitudes and are ideal vehicles for launching Earth-orbit and interplanetary missions. LSP operates from Kennedy Space Center and falls under the NASA Space Operations Mission Directorate (SOMD).{{Cite web |title=Launch Services Program |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/lsp_fact_sheet.pdf |access-date=October 1, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 4, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221004023747/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/lsp_fact_sheet.pdf |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |date=February 24, 2022 |title=Space Operations Mission Directorate |url=https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/space-operations-mission-directorate |access-date=September 9, 2022 |website=nasa.gov |archive-date=September 26, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220926011923/https://www.nasa.gov/directorates/space-operations-mission-directorate/ |url-status=live }} [337] => [338] => === Aeronautics Research === [339] => {{Further|NASA research|Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate}} [340] => The ''Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate'' (''ARMD'') is one of five mission [[wikt:directorate|directorates]] within NASA, the other four being the Exploration Systems Development Mission Directorate, the Space Operations Mission Directorate, the [[Science Mission Directorate]], and the Space Technology Mission Directorate.{{Cite news |last=Foust |first=Jeff |date=September 22, 2021 |title=NASA splits human spaceflight directorate into two organizations |work=Space News |url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-splits-human-spaceflight-directorate-into-two-organizations/#:~:text=WASHINGTON%20%E2%80%94%20NASA%20announced%20Sept.,similar%20organizations%20a%20decade%20ago. |access-date=September 11, 2022 |archive-date=March 16, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240316085432/https://spacenews.com/nasa-splits-human-spaceflight-directorate-into-two-organizations/#:~:text=WASHINGTON%20%E2%80%94%20NASA%20announced%20Sept.,similar%20organizations%20a%20decade%20ago. |url-status=live }} The ARMD is responsible for NASA's [[aeronautics|aeronautical]] research, which benefits the [[commercial aviation|commercial]], [[military aviation|military]], and [[general aviation]] sectors. ARMD performs its aeronautics research at four NASA facilities: [[Ames Research Center]] and [[Armstrong Flight Research Center]] in California, [[Glenn Research Center]] in Ohio, and [[Langley Research Center]] in Virginia.{{Cite web |title=About Us |url=http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/about_us.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130512034540/http://www.aeronautics.nasa.gov/about_us.htm |archive-date=May 12, 2013 |access-date=June 17, 2016 |website=Nasa.gov |publisher=NASA}} [341] => [342] => ==== NASA X-57 Maxwell aircraft (2016–present) ==== [343] => {{Further|NASA X-57 Maxwell}} [344] => The ''NASA X-57 Maxwell'' is an experimental aircraft being developed by NASA to demonstrate the technologies required to deliver a highly efficient all-electric aircraft.{{Cite web |date=September 13, 2018 |title=NASA Armstrong Fact Sheet: NASA X-57 Maxwell |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-109.html |access-date=October 7, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008030321/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/armstrong/news/FactSheets/FS-109.html |url-status=live }} The primary goal of the program is to develop and deliver all-electric technology solutions that can also achieve airworthiness certification with regulators. The program involves development of the system in several phases, or modifications, to incrementally grow the capability and operability of the system. The initial configuration of the aircraft has now completed ground testing as it approaches its first flights. In mid-2022, the X-57 was scheduled to fly before the end of the year.{{Cite web |last=Young |first=Chris |date=May 3, 2022 |title=NASA takes a huge step closer to crewed flight tests for its all-electric X-57 Maxwell |url=https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/nasa-takes-a-huge-step-closer-to-crewed-flight-tests-for-its-all-electric-x-57-maxwell |access-date=October 7, 2022 |publisher=Interesting Engineer |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008030325/https://interestingengineering.com/innovation/nasa-takes-a-huge-step-closer-to-crewed-flight-tests-for-its-all-electric-x-57-maxwell |url-status=live }} The development team includes staff from the NASA Armstrong, Glenn, and Langley centers along with number of industry partners from the United States and Italy.{{Cite web |title=X-57: Who's on the team? |url=https://www.nasa.gov/specials/X57/who-is-on-the-team.html#meet-the-team |access-date=October 7, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008030323/https://www.nasa.gov/specials/X57/who-is-on-the-team.html#meet-the-team |url-status=live }} [345] => [346] => ==== Next Generation Air Transportation System (2007–present) ==== [347] => {{Further|Next Generation Air Transportation System}} [348] => [349] => NASA is collaborating with the [[Federal Aviation Administration]] and industry stakeholders to modernize the United States [[National Airspace System]] (NAS). Efforts began in 2007 with a goal to deliver major modernization components by 2025.{{Cite web |title=NextGen Annual Report Fiscal Year 2020 |url=https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/2022-06/NextGenAnnualReport-FiscalYear2020.pdf |access-date=October 8, 2022 |publisher=faa.gov |archive-date=August 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220806043627/https://www.faa.gov/sites/faa.gov/files/2022-06/NextGenAnnualReport-FiscalYear2020.pdf |url-status=live }} The modernization effort intends to increase the safety, efficiency, capacity, access, flexibility, predictability, and resilience of the NAS while reducing the [[environmental impact of aviation]].{{Cite web |date=July 20, 2022 |title=Next Generation Air Transportation System (NextGen) |url=https://www.faa.gov/nextgen |access-date=October 8, 2022 |publisher=faa.gov |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008162246/https://www.faa.gov/nextgen |url-status=live }} The Aviation Systems Division of NASA Ames operates the joint NASA/FAA North Texas Research Station. The station supports all phases of NextGen research, from concept development to prototype system field evaluation. This facility has already transitioned advanced NextGen concepts and technologies to use through technology transfers to the FAA. NASA contributions also include development of advanced automation concepts and tools that provide air traffic controllers, pilots, and other airspace users with more accurate real-time information about the nation's traffic flow, weather, and routing. Ames' advanced airspace modeling and simulation tools have been used extensively to model the flow of air traffic flow across the U.S., and to evaluate new concepts in airspace design, traffic flow management, and optimization.{{Cite web |last=Colen |first=Jerry |date=August 3, 2017 |title=Areas of Ames Ingenuity: Next Generation Air Transportation |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/research/area-nextgen.html |access-date=October 8, 2022 |publisher=nasa.gov |archive-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008162247/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/ames/research/area-nextgen.html |url-status=live }} [350] => [351] => === Technology research === [352] => {{for|technologies funded or otherwise supported by NASA|NASA spinoff technologies}} [353] => [354] => ==== Nuclear in-space power and propulsion (ongoing) ==== [355] => NASA has made use of technologies such as the [[multi-mission radioisotope thermoelectric generator]] (MMRTG), which is a type of [[radioisotope thermoelectric generator]] used to power spacecraft.{{Cite web |date=March 2011 |title=Radioisotope Power Systems for Space Exploration |url=https://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/fact_sheets/radioisotope-power-systems.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304001229/http://www.jpl.nasa.gov/news/fact_sheets/radioisotope-power-systems.pdf |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |access-date=March 13, 2015 |website=[[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]]}} Shortages of the required [[plutonium-238]] have curtailed deep space missions since the turn of the millennium.{{Cite web |title=New Horizons II Final Report – March 2005 |url=http://www.lpi.usra.edu/opag/nh2_final_report.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131112004912/http://www.lpi.usra.edu/opag/nh2_final_report.pdf |archive-date=November 12, 2013 |access-date=November 14, 2016}} An example of a spacecraft that was not developed because of a shortage of this material was ''[[New Horizons 2]]''. [356] => [357] => In July 2021, NASA announced contract awards for development of [[Nuclear thermal rocket|nuclear thermal propulsion]] reactors. Three contractors will develop individual designs over 12 months for later evaluation by NASA and the [[United States Department of Energy|U.S. Department of Energy]].{{Cite news |last=Burghardt |first=Thomas |date=July 13, 2021 |title=NASA Announces Nuclear Thermal Propulsion Reactor Concept Awards |work=nasa.gov |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-nuclear-thermal-propulsion-reactor-concept-awards/ |access-date=September 5, 2022 |archive-date=September 6, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220906021944/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-nuclear-thermal-propulsion-reactor-concept-awards/ |url-status=live }} NASA's space nuclear technologies portfolio are led and funded by its Space Technology Mission Directorate. [358] => [359] => In January 2023, NASA announced a partnership with Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency on the Demonstration Rocket for Agile Cislunar Operations (DRACO) program to demonstrate a NTR engine in space, an enabling capability for NASA missions to Mars.{{Cite web |date=January 24, 2023 |title=NASA, DARPA Will Test Nuclear Engine for Future Mars Missions |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-darpa-will-test-nuclear-engine-for-future-mars-missions |access-date=August 10, 2023 |website=NASA.gov |archive-date=April 1, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401201759/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-darpa-will-test-nuclear-engine-for-future-mars-missions/ |url-status=live }} In July 2023, NASA and DARPA jointly announced the award of $499 million to Lockheed Martin to design and build an experimental NTR rocket to be launched in 2027.{{Cite web |last=Hitchens |first=Theresa |date=July 26, 2023 |title=DARPA, NASA tap Lockheed Martin to design, build DRACO nuclear rocket for deep space missions |url=https://breakingdefense.sites.breakingmedia.com/2023/07/darpa-nasa-tap-lockheed-martin-to-design-build-draco-nuclear-rocket-for-deep-space-missions/ |access-date=August 10, 2023 |website=Breaking Defense |language=en-US |archive-date=March 16, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240316085306/https://breakingdefense.com/2023/07/darpa-nasa-tap-lockheed-martin-to-design-build-draco-nuclear-rocket-for-deep-space-missions/ |url-status=live }} [360] => [361] => ==== Other initiatives ==== [362] => ''Free Space Optics''. NASA contracted a third party to study the probability of using Free Space Optics (FSO) to communicate with Optical ([[laser]]) Stations on the Ground (OGS) called laser-com [[Radio frequency|RF]] networks for satellite communications.{{Cite web |last=Nyirady |first=Annamarie |date=April 25, 2019 |title=NASA Awards PathFinder Digital Free Space Optics Contract |url=https://www.satellitetoday.com/government-military/2019/04/25/nasa-awards-pathfinder-digital-free-space-optics-contract/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190430111540/https://www.satellitetoday.com/government-military/2019/04/25/nasa-awards-pathfinder-digital-free-space-optics-contract/ |archive-date=April 30, 2019 |access-date=April 30, 2019 |website=Via Satellite}} [363] => [364] => ''Water Extraction from Lunar Soil''. On July 29, 2020, NASA requested American universities to propose new technologies for extracting water from the [[lunar soil]] and developing power systems. The idea will help the space agency conduct [[sustainable]] exploration of the Moon.{{Cite web |date=July 29, 2020 |title=Nasa moon mission asks US universities to develop technology |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/jul/29/nasa-moon-mission-asks-us-universities-design-technology |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803020936/https://www.theguardian.com/science/2020/jul/29/nasa-moon-mission-asks-us-universities-design-technology |archive-date=August 3, 2020 |access-date=August 3, 2020 |website=The Guardian}} [365] => [366] => In 2024, NASA was tasked by the [[Federal government of the United States|US Government]] to create a [[Time standard]] for the [[Moon]]. The standard is to be called [[Coordinated Lunar Time]] and is expected to be finalized in 2026.{{Cite news |last=Ramirez-Simon |first=Diana |date=2024-04-03 |title=Moon Standard Time? Nasa to create lunar-centric time reference system |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2024/apr/02/moon-nasa-coordinated-lunar-time |access-date=2024-04-04 |work=The Guardian |language=en-GB |issn=0261-3077}} [367] => [368] => === Human Spaceflight Research (2005–present) === [369] => {{Image frame|align=left |total_width=120|content=[[File:Human Research Program logo.png|100px]]|border=no}} [370] => [[File:Cristoforetti rHEALTH Sub5MB.jpg|thumb|SpaceX Crew-4 astronaut Samantha Cristoforetti operating the rHEALTH ONE on the [[International Space Station|ISS]] to address key health risks for space travel]] [371] => [372] => NASA's [[Human Research Program]] (HRP) is designed to study the effects of space on human health and also to provide countermeasures and technologies for human space exploration. The medical effects of space exploration are reasonably limited in low Earth orbit or in travel to the Moon. Travel to Mars is significantly longer and deeper into space, significant medical issues can result. These include bone density loss, radiation exposure, vision changes, circadian rhythm disturbances, heart remodeling, and immune alterations. In order to study and diagnose these ill-effects, HRP has been tasked with identifying or developing small portable instrumentation with low mass, volume, and power to monitor the health of astronauts.{{Cite web |title=NASA 2023 Budget |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23_nasa_budget_request_full_opt.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220611084217/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy23_nasa_budget_request_full_opt.pdf |archive-date=June 11, 2022 |access-date=August 16, 2022}} To achieve this aim, on May 13, 2022, NASA and [[SpaceX Crew-4]] astronauts successfully tested its rHEALTH ONE universal biomedical analyzer for its ability to identify and analyzer biomarkers, cells, microorganisms, and proteins in a spaceflight environment.{{Cite web |date=April 18, 2022 |title=Crew 4 ISS Microgravity Experiments |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/crew-4-head-to-iss-microgravity-science |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220816140545/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/crew-4-head-to-iss-microgravity-science/ |archive-date=August 16, 2022 |access-date=August 16, 2022}} [373] => [374] => === Planetary Defense (2016–present) === [375] => {{Further|Planetary Defense Coordination Office|Near Earth Objects}} [376] => {{Image frame|align=left |total_width=120|content=[[File:Planetary Defense Coordination Office seal.png|100px]]|border=no}} [377] => [378] => NASA established the Planetary Defense Coordination Office (''PDCO'') in 2016 to catalog and track potentially hazardous [[near-Earth object]]s (NEO), such as [[asteroid]]s and [[comet]]s and develop potential responses and defenses against these threats.{{Cite news |last=Sarkar |first=Monica |date=January 13, 2016 |title=NASA Planetary Defense Office set up to save Earth |work=CNN |url=https://www.cnn.com/2016/01/13/world/nasa-planetary-defense/index.html |access-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-date=December 25, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211225020330/https://www.cnn.com/2016/01/13/world/nasa-planetary-defense/index.html |url-status=live }} The PDCO is chartered to provide timely and accurate information to the government and the public on close approaches by [[Potentially hazardous objects]] (PHOs) and any potential for impact. The office functions within the Science Mission Directorate Planetary Science division.{{Cite web |date=December 22, 2015 |title=Planetary Defense Coordination Office |url=https://www.nasa.gov/planetarydefense/overview |access-date=January 14, 2016 |website=NASA |archive-date=July 28, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220728144830/https://www.nasa.gov/planetarydefense/overview/ |url-status=live }} {{PD-notice}} [379] => [380] => The PDCO augmented prior cooperative actions between the United States, the European Union, and other nations which had been scanning the sky for NEOs since 1998 in an effort called [[Spaceguard]].{{Cite web |date=May 26, 2004 |title=NASA on the Prowl for Near-Earth Objects |url=https://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/watchtheskies/near_earth052104.html |access-date=October 2, 2022 |publisher=NASA/JPL |archive-date=October 1, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211001195636/https://www.nasa.gov/vision/universe/watchtheskies/near_earth052104.html |url-status=live }} [381] => {{clear}} [382] => [383] => ==== Near Earth object detection (1998–present) ==== [384] => From the 1990s NASA has run many NEO detection programs from Earth bases observatories, greatly increasing the number of objects that have been detected. Many asteroids are very dark and those near the Sun are much harder to detect from Earth-based telescopes which observe at night, and thus face away from the Sun. NEOs inside Earth orbit only reflect a part of light also rather than potentially a "full Moon" when they are behind the Earth and fully lit by the Sun. [385] => [386] => In 1998, the [[United States Congress]] gave NASA a mandate to detect 90% of near-Earth asteroids over {{convert|1|km|mi|abbr=on}} diameter (that threaten global devastation) by 2008.{{Cite web |last=Clark R. Chapman |date=May 21, 1998 |title=Statement on The Threat of Impact by Near-Earth Asteroids before the Subcommittee on Space and Aeronautics of the Committee on Science of the U.S. House of Representatives at its hearings on "Asteroids: Perils and Opportunities" |url=http://www.boulder.swri.edu/clark/hr.html |access-date=March 6, 2018 |publisher=Southwest Research Institute |archive-date=June 23, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180623160021/http://www.boulder.swri.edu/clark/hr.html |url-status=live }} This initial mandate was met by 2011.{{Cite web |date=September 29, 2011 |title=WISE Revises Numbers of Asteroids Near Earth |url=http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/WISE/multimedia/gallery/neowise/pia14734.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171205154449/https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/WISE/multimedia/gallery/neowise/pia14734.html |archive-date=December 5, 2017 |access-date=November 9, 2017 |publisher=NASA/JPL}} In 2005, the original USA Spaceguard mandate was extended by the [[George E. Brown, Jr.]] Near-Earth Object Survey Act, which calls for NASA to detect 90% of NEOs with diameters of {{convert|140|m|ft|abbr=on}} or greater, by 2020 (compare to the 20-meter [[Chelyabinsk meteor]] that hit Russia in 2013).{{Cite web |title=Public Law 109–155–DEC.30, 2005 |url=http://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-109publ155/pdf/PLAW-109publ155.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171201223922/https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/PLAW-109publ155/pdf/PLAW-109publ155.pdf |archive-date=December 1, 2017 |access-date=November 9, 2017}} {{As of|2020|01}}, it is estimated that less than half of these have been found, but objects of this size hit the Earth only about once in 2,000 years.{{Cite journal |last=Leah Crane |date=January 25, 2020 |title=Inside the mission to stop killer asteroids from smashing into Earth |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24532661-800-inside-the-mission-to-stop-killer-asteroids-from-smashing-into-earth/ |journal=New Scientist |access-date=October 3, 2022 |archive-date=October 3, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221003040917/https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg24532661-800-inside-the-mission-to-stop-killer-asteroids-from-smashing-into-earth/ |url-status=live }} See especially [https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/22111519/g_asteroids_realweb2.jpg?width=800 this figure] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813164958/https://images.newscientist.com/wp-content/uploads/2020/01/22111519/g_asteroids_realweb2.jpg?width=800 |date=August 13, 2022 }}. [387] => [388] => In January 2020, NASA officials estimated it would take 30 years to find all objects meeting the {{convert|140|m|ft|abbr=on}} size criteria, more than twice the timeframe that was built into the 2005 mandate.{{cite web|last=Smtih|first=Marcia|title=NASA's New NEO Mission Will Substantially Reduce Time to Find Hazardous Asteroids|url=https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasas-new-neo-mission-will-substantially-reduce-time-to-find-hazardous-asteroids/#:~:text=After%20directing%20NASA%20in%202005,to%20make%20that%20a%20reality.|date=January 19, 2020|access-date=October 2, 2022|publisher=SpacePolicyOnline.com|archive-date=November 29, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129075720/https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasas-new-neo-mission-will-substantially-reduce-time-to-find-hazardous-asteroids/#:~:text=After%20directing%20NASA%20in%202005,to%20make%20that%20a%20reality.|url-status=live}} In June 2021, NASA authorized the development of the [[NEO Surveyor]] spacecraft to reduce that projected duration to achieve the mandate down to 10 years.{{cite news|last=Foust|first=Jeff|title=NASA to develop mission to search for near-Earth asteroids|url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-to-develop-mission-to-search-for-near-earth-asteroids/|date=September 23, 2019|access-date=October 2, 2022|publisher=Space News|archive-date=March 19, 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230319080917/https://spacenews.com/nasa-to-develop-mission-to-search-for-near-earth-asteroids/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|last=Talbert|first=Tricia|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-approves-asteroid-hunting-space-telescope-to-continue-development|title=NASA Approves Asteroid Hunting Space Telescope to Continue Development|publisher=NASA|date=June 11, 2021|access-date=October 2, 2022|archive-date=September 30, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220930131330/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/nasa-approves-asteroid-hunting-space-telescope-to-continue-development/|url-status=live}} {{PD-notice}} [389] => [390] => ==== Involvement in current robotic missions ==== [391] => NASA has incorporated planetary defense objectives into several ongoing missions. [392] => [393] => In 1999, NASA visited [[433 Eros]] with the ''[[NEAR Shoemaker]]'' spacecraft which entered its orbit in 2000, closely imaging the asteroid with various instruments at that time.{{Cite web|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/asteroids/433-eros/in-depth|title=In Depth | 433 Eros|website=NASA Solar System Exploration|access-date=October 7, 2019|archive-date=August 20, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190820062013/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/asteroids-comets-and-meteors/asteroids/433-eros/in-depth/|url-status=live}} ''NEAR Shoemaker'' became the first spacecraft to successfully orbit and land on an asteroid, improving our understanding of these bodies and demonstrating our capacity to study them in greater detail.{{cite news|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/near-shoemaker/in-depth/|title=NEAR Shoemaker|publisher=NASA|access-date=April 26, 2021|archive-date=May 17, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210517102752/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/near-shoemaker/in-depth/|url-status=live}} [394] => [395] => [[OSIRIS-REx]] used its suite of instruments to transmit radio tracking signals and capture optical images of [[101955 Bennu|Bennu]] during its study of the asteroid that will help NASA scientists determine its precise position in the solar system and its exact orbital path. As Bennu has the potential for recurring approaches to the Earth-Moon system in the next 100–200 years, the precision gained from OSIRIS-REx will enable scientists to better predict the future gravitational interactions between Bennu and our planet and resultant changes in Bennu's onward flight path.{{cite web |title=OSIRIS-REx |url=https://www.nasa.gov/osiris-rex |website=NASA |access-date=December 25, 2021 |date=April 14, 2021 |archive-date=July 15, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220715120333/https://www.nasa.gov/osiris-rex/ |url-status=live }}{{cite web|title=Planetary Defense: The Bennu Experiment|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/782/planetary-defense-the-bennu-experiment/|date=December 6, 2018|access-date=October 8, 2022|publisher=nasa.gov|archive-date=October 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009035849/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/news/782/planetary-defense-the-bennu-experiment/|url-status=live}} [396] => [397] => The [[Wide-field Infrared Survey Explorer|WISE/NEOWISE]] mission was launched by NASA JPL in 2009 as an infrared-wavelength astronomical space telescope. In 2013, NASA repurposed it as the NEOWISE mission to find potentially hazardous near-Earth asteroids and comets; its mission has been extended into 2023.{{cite web|title=WISE/NEOWISE|url=https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/wise-neowise/in-depth/|date=June 30, 2021|access-date=October 8, 2022|publisher=nasa.gov|archive-date=October 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009035850/https://solarsystem.nasa.gov/missions/wise-neowise/in-depth/|url-status=live}}{{cite news|first=Leonard|last=David|title=NASA's New Planetary Defense Office Gets to Work Protecting Earth|url=https://www.space.com/31770-nasa-planetary-defense-office-asteroid-threat.html|date=January 29, 2016|access-date=October 8, 2022|publisher=space.com|archive-date=October 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009035851/https://www.space.com/31770-nasa-planetary-defense-office-asteroid-threat.html|url-status=live}} [398] => [399] => NASA and [[Johns Hopkins Applied Physics Laboratory]] (JHAPL) jointly developed the first planetary defense purpose-built satellite, the [[Double Asteroid Redirection Test]] (DART) to test possible planetary defense concepts.{{cite web|title=Double Asteroid Redirection Test |url=https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2021-110A|date=April 27, 2022|access-date=October 8, 2022|publisher=nasa.gov|archive-date=November 24, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124095623/https://nssdc.gsfc.nasa.gov/nmc/spacecraft/display.action?id=2021-110A|url-status=live}} DART was launched in November 2021 by a SpaceX Falcon 9 from California on a trajectory designed to impact the [[Dimorphos]] asteroid. Scientists were seeking to determine whether an impact could alter the subsequent path of the asteroid; a concept that could be applied to future planetary defense.{{cite news|first=Ashley|last=Strickland|title=NASA launches mission to crash into a near-Earth asteroid to try to change its motion in space|url=https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/24/world/nasa-dart-asteroid-mission-launch-scn/index.html|date=November 24, 2021|access-date=October 8, 2022|publisher=CNN|archive-date=October 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009035847/https://www.cnn.com/2021/11/24/world/nasa-dart-asteroid-mission-launch-scn/index.html|url-status=live}} On September 26, 2022, DART hit its target. In the weeks following impact, NASA declared DART a success, confirming it had shortened Dimorphos' orbital period around Didymos by about 32 minutes, surpassing the pre-defined success threshold of 73 seconds.{{cite news |last=Bardan |first=Roxana |date=October 11, 2022 |title=NASA Confirms DART Mission Impact Changed Asteroid's Motion in Space |publisher=NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-confirms-dart-mission-impact-changed-asteroid-s-motion-in-space/ |access-date=December 12, 2022 |archive-date=December 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211214441/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-confirms-dart-mission-impact-changed-asteroid-s-motion-in-space/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |last=Strickland |first=Ashley |date=October 11, 2022 |title=The DART mission successfully changed the motion of an asteroid |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/10/11/world/nasa-dart-success-update-scn/index.html |access-date=December 12, 2022 |website=CNN |language=en |archive-date=October 11, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011183515/https://www.cnn.com/2022/10/11/world/nasa-dart-success-update-scn/index.html |url-status=live }} [400] => [401] => [[NEO Surveyor]], formerly called the Near-Earth Object Camera (NEOCam) mission, is a space-based [[infrared telescope]] under development to survey the [[Solar System]] for [[potentially hazardous object|potentially hazardous asteroids]].[https://neocam.ipac.caltech.edu/ Finding Asteroids Before They Find Us] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129080112/https://neocam.ipac.caltech.edu/ |date=November 29, 2020 }} NEOCam Home site at NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory – Caltech The spacecraft is scheduled to launch in 2026. [402] => [403] => === Study of Unidentified Aerial Phenomena (2022–present) === [404] => In June 2022, the head of the NASA [[Science Mission Directorate]], [[Thomas Zurbuchen]], confirmed the start of [[NASA's UAP independent study team]].{{Cite news |title=NASA not shying away from reputational risk, launches study of UFOs |work=The Economic Times |url=https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/nasa-not-shying-away-from-reputational-risk-launches-study-of-ufos/articleshow/92117584.cms |access-date=June 10, 2022 |archive-date=June 10, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220610153505/https://economictimes.indiatimes.com/magazines/panache/nasa-not-shying-away-from-reputational-risk-launches-study-of-ufos/articleshow/92117584.cms |url-status=live }} At a speech before the National Academies of Science, Engineering and Medicine, Zurbuchen said the space agency would bring a scientific perspective to efforts already underway by the Pentagon and intelligence agencies to make sense of dozens of such sightings. He said it was "high-risk, high-impact" research that the space agency should not shy away from, even if it is a controversial field of study.{{Cite news |title=NASA joins the hunt for UFOs |last=Davenport |first=Christian |newspaper=[[The Washington Post]] |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/06/09/nasa-ufo-uap-extraterrestrial-space/ |date=June 9, 2022 |access-date=September 5, 2022 |archive-date=June 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630161033/https://www.washingtonpost.com/technology/2022/06/09/nasa-ufo-uap-extraterrestrial-space/ |url-status=live }} [405] => [406] => == Collaboration == [407] => [408] => === NASA Advisory Council === [409] => In response to the [[Apollo 1]] accident, which killed three astronauts in 1967, Congress directed NASA to form an Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP) to advise the NASA Administrator on safety issues and hazards in NASA's air and space programs. In the aftermath of the [[Space Shuttle Columbia disaster|Shuttle ''Columbia'' disaster]], Congress required that the ASAP submit an annual report to the NASA Administrator and to Congress.{{cite web|title=NASA Aerospace Safety Advisory Panel (ASAP)|url=https://oiir.hq.nasa.gov/asap/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170308004409/https://oiir.hq.nasa.gov/asap/|archive-date=March 8, 2017|access-date=April 13, 2017|website=oiir.hq.nasa.gov}} By 1971, NASA had also established the Space Program Advisory Council and the Research and Technology Advisory Council to provide the administrator with advisory committee support. In 1977, the latter two were combined to form the NASA Advisory Council (NAC).{{cite web|last=Mochinski|first=Ron|date=April 8, 2015|title=About Us – Background and Charter|url=https://www.nasa.gov/offices/nac/about.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151228031143/http://www.nasa.gov/offices/nac/about.html|archive-date=December 28, 2015|access-date=April 13, 2017}} The [[NASA Authorization Act of 2014]] reaffirmed the importance of ASAP. [410] => [411] => === National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) === [412] => {{further|National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration}} [413] => {{Image frame|align=left |total_width=120|content=[[File:NOAA logo mobile.svg|100px]]|border=no}} [414] => [415] => NASA and NOAA have cooperated for decades on the development, delivery and operation of polar and geosynchronous weather satellites.{{cite web|title=NOAA's Eyes in the Sky – After Five Decades of Weather Forecasting with Environmental Satellites, What Do Future Satellites Promise for Meteorologists and Society?|url=https://public-old.wmo.int/en/resources/bulletin/noaa%E2%80%99s-eyes-sky-after-five-decades-of-weather-forecasting-environmental|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231218171711/https://public-old.wmo.int/en/resources/bulletin/noaa%E2%80%99s-eyes-sky-after-five-decades-of-weather-forecasting-environmental|url-status=dead|archive-date=December 18, 2023|first1=Derek|last1=Hanson|first2=James|last2=Peronto|first3=Douglas|last3=Hilderbrand|date=2013|publisher=World Meteorological Organization|access-date=November 5, 2022}} The relationship typically involves NASA developing the space systems, launch solutions, and ground control technology for the satellites and NOAA operating the systems and delivering weather forecasting products to users. Multiple generations of NOAA Polar orbiting platforms have operated to provide detailed imaging of weather from low altitude.{{cite news|title=NASA, NOAA Invite Media to Polar Orbiting Weather Satellite Launch|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-noaa-invite-media-to-polar-orbiting-weather-satellite-launch|date=September 1, 2022|access-date=November 5, 2022|publisher=NASA|archive-date=November 5, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105233005/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-noaa-invite-media-to-polar-orbiting-weather-satellite-launch/|url-status=live}} [[Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellites]] (GOES) provide near-real-time coverage of the western hemisphere to ensure accurate and timely understanding of developing weather phenomenon.{{cite news|title=NASA, NOAA to get new weather eyes in the sky with March launch from Cape Canaveral|url=https://www.orlandosentinel.com/weather/os-ne-goes-t-satellite-conference-nasa-20220204-ugmrrczrtfcg3nbfxpni56f2da-story.html|first=Joe Mario|last=Pedersen|publisher=Orlando Sentinel|date=February 4, 2022|access-date=November 5, 2022|archive-date=November 5, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105232956/https://www.orlandosentinel.com/weather/os-ne-goes-t-satellite-conference-nasa-20220204-ugmrrczrtfcg3nbfxpni56f2da-story.html|url-status=live}} [416] => [417] => === United States Space Force === [418] => {{Further|United States Space Force}} [419] => {{Image frame|align=left |total_width=120|content=[[File:United States Space Force logo.svg|100px]]|border=no}} [420] => [421] => The [[United States Space Force]] (USSF) is the space service branch of the [[United States Armed Forces]], while the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) is an independent agency of the United States government responsible for civil spaceflight. NASA and the Space Force's predecessors in the Air Force have a long-standing cooperative relationship, with the Space Force supporting NASA launches out of [[Kennedy Space Center]], [[Cape Canaveral Space Force Station]], and [[Vandenberg Space Force Base]], to include range support and rescue operations from Task Force 45.{{Cite web|last=Erwin|first=Sandra|date=May 12, 2020|title=Space Force troops preparing for possibility of having to rescue NASA astronauts|url=https://spacenews.com/space-force-troops-preparing-for-possibility-of-having-to-rescue-nasa-astronauts/|access-date=February 3, 2021|website=SpaceNews|archive-date=May 13, 2020|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20200513194413/https://spacenews.com/space%2Dforce%2Dtroops%2Dpreparing%2Dfor%2Dpossibility%2Dof%2Dhaving%2Dto%2Drescue%2Dnasa%2Dastronauts/|url-status=live}} NASA and the Space Force also partner on matters such as defending Earth from asteroids.{{Cite web|last=Smith|first=Marcia|date=May 5, 2020|title=NASA and Space Force to Work Together on Planetary Defense|url=https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-and-space-force-to-work-together-on-planetary-defense/|access-date=February 2, 2021|website=SpacePolicyOnline.com|language=en-US|archive-date=February 26, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210226165823/https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-and-space-force-to-work-together-on-planetary-defense/|url-status=live}} Space Force members can be NASA astronauts, with Colonel [[Michael S. Hopkins]], the commander of [[SpaceX Crew-1]], commissioned into the Space Force from the [[International Space Station]] on December 18, 2020.{{Cite web|last=Erwin|first=Sandra|date=October 1, 2020|title=Space Force members can go to the moon, if they're picked by NASA|url=https://spacenews.com/space-force-members-can-go-to-the-moon-if-theyre-picked-by-nasa/|access-date=February 3, 2021|website=SpaceNews|archive-date=September 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927131853/https://spacenews.com/space-force-members-can-go-to-the-moon-if-theyre-picked-by-nasa/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|last=Erwin|first=Sandra|date=October 28, 2020|title=NASA's Crew-1 commander to be sworn into U.S. Space Force from the International Space Station|url=https://spacenews.com/nasas-crew-1-commander-to-be-sworn-into-u-s-space-force-from-the-international-space-station/|access-date=February 3, 2021|website=SpaceNews|language=en-US|archive-date=November 5, 2020|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20201105173541/https://spacenews.com/nasas%2Dcrew%2D1%2Dcommander%2Dto%2Dbe%2Dsworn%2Dinto%2Du%2Ds%2Dspace%2Dforce%2Dfrom%2Dthe%2Dinternational%2Dspace%2Dstation/|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|last=Kramer|first=Miriam|date=December 18, 2020|title=Astronaut Mike Hopkins sworn into the Space Force from orbit|url=https://www.axios.com/astronaut-mike-hopkins-space-force-7891a73d-33a8-4b3f-8437-72f502ecce37.html|access-date=February 3, 2021|website=Axios|language=en|archive-date=January 20, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210120025438/https://www.axios.com/astronaut-mike-hopkins-space-force-7891a73d-33a8-4b3f-8437-72f502ecce37.html|url-status=live}} In September 2020, the Space Force and NASA signed a [[memorandum of understanding]] formally acknowledging the joint role of both agencies. This new memorandum replaced a similar document signed in 2006 between NASA and Air Force Space Command.{{cite web|title=Memorandum of Understanding Between The National Aeronautics And Space Administration and The United States Space Force|url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/nasa_ussf_mou_21_sep_20.pdf|access-date=September 22, 2020|website=nasa.gov|publisher=NASA|language=en|archive-date=November 25, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201125145450/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/nasa_ussf_mou_21_sep_20.pdf|url-status=live}}{{cite web|date=September 22, 2020|title=NASA, US Space Force Establish Foundation for Broad Collaboration|url=https://www.spaceforce.mil/News/Article/2356032/nasa-us-space-force-establish-foundation-for-broad-collaboration/|access-date=September 22, 2020|website=spaceforce.mil|publisher=USSF|language=en|archive-date=February 27, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210227072718/https://www.spaceforce.mil/News/Article/2356032/nasa-us-space-force-establish-foundation-for-broad-collaboration/|url-status=live}} [422] => [423] => === U.S. Geological Survey === [424] => {{Further|United States Geological Survey|Landsat 9}} [425] => {{Image frame|align=left |total_width=120|content=[[File:USGS logo green.svg|100px]]|border=no}} [426] => [427] => The [[Landsat program]] is the longest-running enterprise for acquisition of [[satellite imagery]] of Earth. It is a joint NASA / [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]] program.{{cite web|title=What is the Landsat satellite program and why is it important?|url=https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-landsat-satellite-program-and-why-it-important|access-date=October 5, 2022|publisher=USGS|archive-date=October 6, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006015714/https://www.usgs.gov/faqs/what-landsat-satellite-program-and-why-it-important|url-status=live}} On July 23, 1972, the ''[[Landsat 1|Earth Resources Technology Satellite]]'' was launched. This was eventually renamed to ''[[Landsat 1]]'' in 1975.{{cite book |last=Short|first=N.M.|title=The LANDSAT Tutorial Workbook: Basics of Satellite Remote Sensing|id=1078|date=1982 |location=Washington DC |publisher=NASA|hdl=2060/19830002188}} {{PD-notice}} The most recent satellite in the series, ''[[Landsat 9]]'', was launched on September 27, 2021.{{cite news|last=Foust|first=Jeff|title=Atlas 5 launches Landsat 9|url=https://spacenews.com/atlas-5-launches-landsat-9/|date=September 27, 2021|access-date=October 5, 2022|publisher=Space News|archive-date=March 16, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240316085404/https://spacenews.com/atlas-5-launches-landsat-9/|url-status=live}} [428] => [429] => The instruments on the Landsat satellites have acquired millions of images. The images, archived in the [[United States]] and at Landsat receiving stations around the world, are a unique resource for global change research and applications in [[agriculture]], [[cartography]], [[geology]], [[forestry]], [[regional planning]], [[surveillance]] and [[education]], and can be viewed through the U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) "EarthExplorer" website. The collaboration between NASA and USGS involves NASA designing and delivering the space system (satellite) solution, launching the satellite into orbit with the USGS operating the system once in orbit. As of October 2022, nine satellites have been built with eight of them successfully operating in orbit. [430] => [431] => === European Space Agency (ESA) === [432] => {{further|European Space Agency}} [433] => {{Image frame|align=left |total_width=120|content=[[File:European Space Agency logo.svg|100px]]|border=no}} [434] => [435] => NASA collaborates with the European Space Agency on a wide range of scientific and exploration requirements.{{cite report|title=National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine U.S.-European Collaboration in Space Science |date=1998|publisher=National Academies Press|doi=10.17226/5981 |isbn=978-0-309-05984-8 }} From participation with the Space Shuttle (the Spacelab missions) to major roles on the Artemis program (the Orion Service Module), ESA and NASA have supported the science and exploration missions of each agency. There are NASA payloads on ESA spacecraft and ESA payloads on NASA spacecraft. The agencies have developed joint missions in areas including heliophysics (e.g. [[Solar Orbiter]]){{cite news|title=Solar Orbiter reveals a never-before-seen look at our sun|first=Ashley|last=Strickland|url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/18/world/esa-solar-orbiter-hedgehog-new-images-scn|date=May 18, 2022|access-date=November 5, 2022|publisher=CNN|archive-date=November 4, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221104175206/https://www.cnn.com/2022/05/18/world/esa-solar-orbiter-hedgehog-new-images-scn|url-status=live}} and astronomy ([[Hubble Space Telescope]], [[James Webb Space Telescope]]).{{cite web|title=MoU between NASA and the European Space Agency Concerning the James Webb Space Telescope|url=https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/105712.pdf|date=June 18, 2007|access-date=November 5, 2022|publisher=U.S. State Department|archive-date=November 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221116215459/https://2009-2017.state.gov/documents/organization/105712.pdf|url-status=live}} [436] => Under the Artemis Gateway partnership, ESA will contribute habitation and refueling modules, along with enhanced lunar communications, to the Gateway.{{cite news|title=NASA, European Space Agency Formalize Artemis Gateway Partnership|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-european-space-agency-formalize-artemis-gateway-partnership|date=October 27, 2020|access-date=November 5, 2022|publisher=NASA.gov|archive-date=December 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221216165205/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-european-space-agency-formalize-artemis-gateway-partnership|url-status=live}}{{cite news|last=Foust|first=Jeff|title=NASA and ESA sign lunar cooperation statement|url=https://spacenews.com/nasa-and-esa-sign-lunar-cooperation-statement/|date=September 26, 2022|access-date=November 5, 2022|publisher=Space News|archive-date=March 16, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240316085304/https://spacenews.com/nasa-and-esa-sign-lunar-cooperation-statement/|url-status=live}} [437] => NASA and ESA continue to advance cooperation in relation to Earth Science including climate change with agreements to cooperate on various missions including the [[Sentinel-6 Michael Freilich|Sentinel-6]] series of spacecraft{{cite news|first=Michael|last=Hill|title=NASA, ESA Sign Cooperation Agreements on Climate Change, Lunar Exploration|url=https://potomacofficersclub.com/news/nasa-esa-sign-cooperation-agreements-on-climate-change-lunar-exploration/|date=June 17, 2022|access-date=November 5, 2022|publisher=Potomac Officer's Club|archive-date=November 5, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221105233000/https://potomacofficersclub.com/news/nasa-esa-sign-cooperation-agreements-on-climate-change-lunar-exploration/|url-status=live}} [438] => [439] => === Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency (JAXA) === [440] => {{Further|Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency}} [441] => {{Image frame|align=left |total_width=120|content=[[File:Jaxa logo.svg|100px]]|border=no}} [442] => [443] => NASA and the [[Japan Aerospace Exploration Agency]] (JAXA) cooperate on a range of space projects. JAXA is a direct participant in the Artemis program, including the Lunar Gateway effort. JAXA's planned contributions to Gateway include I-Hab's environmental control and life support system, batteries, thermal control, and imagery components, which will be integrated into the module by the European Space Agency (ESA) prior to launch. These capabilities are critical for sustained Gateway operations during crewed and uncrewed time periods.{{cite news|title=NASA, Government of Japan Formalize Gateway Partnership for Artemis Program|url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-government-of-japan-formalize-gateway-partnership-for-artemis-program|date=January 12, 2021|access-date=October 5, 2022|publisher=NASA|archive-date=October 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009070848/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-government-of-japan-formalize-gateway-partnership-for-artemis-program/|url-status=live}}{{cite news|last=Patel|first=Neel|title=Why Japan is emerging as NASA's most important space partner|url=https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/07/22/1005546/why-japan-jaxa-nasas-most-important-space-partner-artemis-moon-gateway/|date=July 22, 2020|access-date=October 5, 2022|publisher=MIT Technology Review|archive-date=October 6, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006050530/https://www.technologyreview.com/2020/07/22/1005546/why-japan-jaxa-nasas-most-important-space-partner-artemis-moon-gateway/|url-status=live}} [444] => [445] => JAXA and NASA have collaborated on numerous satellite programs, especially in areas of Earth science. NASA has contributed to JAXA satellites and vice versa. Japanese instruments are flying on NASA's [[Terra (satellite)|Terra]] and [[Aqua (satellite)|Aqua]] satellites, and NASA sensors have flown on previous Japanese Earth-observation missions. The NASA-JAXA [[Global Precipitation Measurement]] mission was launched in 2014 and includes both NASA- and JAXA-supplied sensors on a NASA satellite launched on a JAXA rocket. The mission provides the frequent, accurate measurements of rainfall over the entire globe for use by scientists and weather forecasters.{{cite news|title=Innovative NASA-JAXA Partnership Benefits Global Earth Science|url=https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2010/apr/HQ_10-079_NASA-JAXA.html|date=April 12, 2010|access-date=October 5, 2022|publisher=NASA|archive-date=December 21, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221221034414/https://www.nasa.gov/home/hqnews/2010/apr/HQ_10-079_NASA-JAXA.html|url-status=live}} [446] => [447] => === Roscosmos === [448] => {{Further|Roscosmos}} [449] => {{Image frame|align=left |total_width=120|content=[[File:Roscosmos logo ru.svg|100px]]|border=no}} [450] => [451] => NASA and Roscosmos have cooperated on the development and operation of the International Space Station since September 1993.{{cite web|title=NASA's Space Station Program: Evolution and Current Status, Testimony Before the House Science Committee|date=April 4, 2001|url=https://history.nasa.gov/isstestimony2001.pdf|publisher=NASA|access-date=November 11, 2022|archive-date=December 22, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221222165631/https://www.history.nasa.gov/isstestimony2001.pdf|url-status=live}} The agencies have used launch systems from both countries to deliver station elements to orbit. Astronauts and Cosmonauts jointly maintain various elements of the station. Both countries provide access to the station via launch systems noting Russia's unique role as the sole provider of delivery of crew and cargo upon retirement of the space shuttle in 2011 and prior to commencement of NASA COTS and crew flights. In July 2022, NASA and Roscosmos signed a deal to share space station flights enabling crew from each country to ride on the systems provided by the other.{{cite news|first=Joey|last=Roulette|title=NASA, Russian space agency sign deal to share space station flights – Roscosmos|url=https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/nasa-russian-space-agency-sign-deal-share-space-station-flights-roscosmos-2022-07-15/|date=July 15, 2022|publisher=Reuters|access-date=November 11, 2022|archive-date=December 17, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221217151651/https://www.reuters.com/business/aerospace-defense/nasa-russian-space-agency-sign-deal-share-space-station-flights-roscosmos-2022-07-15|url-status=live}} Current geopolitical conditions in late 2022 make it unlikely that cooperation will be extended to other programs such as Artemis or lunar exploration.{{cite web|title=The Future of Western-Russian Civil-Space Cooperation|first=Jeremy|last=Gruner|date=May 26, 2022|url=https://warontherocks.com/2022/05/the-future-of-western-russian-civil-space-cooperation/|access-date=November 12, 2022|archive-date=November 12, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112164528/https://warontherocks.com/2022/05/the-future-of-western-russian-civil-space-cooperation/|url-status=live}} [452] => [453] => === Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) === [454] => {{Further|ISRO}} [455] => {{Image frame|align=left |total_width=120|content=[[File:Indian Space Research Organisation Logo.svg|100px]]|border=no}} [456] => [457] => In September 2014, NASA and [[ISRO|Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)]] signed a partnership to collaborate on and launch a joint radar mission, the ''[[NISAR (satellite)|NASA-ISRO Synthetic Aperature Radar]]'' (''[[NISAR]]'') mission. The mission is targeted to launch in 2024. NASA will provide the mission's L-band synthetic aperture radar, a high-rate communication subsystem for science data, GPS receivers, a solid-state recorder and payload data subsystem. ISRO provides the spacecraft bus, the S-band radar, the launch vehicle and associated launch services.{{cite web|title=NASA partnership with the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO)|url=https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/isro-partnership/|access-date=October 11, 2022|publisher=nasa.gov|archive-date=October 12, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012053716/https://nisar.jpl.nasa.gov/mission/isro-partnership/|url-status=live}}{{cite news|title=NISAR payload integration completed, to arrive in India next year|url=https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bangalore/nasa-isro-nisar-mission-payload-integration-completed-7948710/|date=June 2, 2022|access-date=October 11, 2022|publisher=Indian Express|archive-date=October 12, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221012053721/https://indianexpress.com/article/cities/bangalore/nasa-isro-nisar-mission-payload-integration-completed-7948710/|url-status=live}} [458] => {{clear}} [459] => [460] => === Artemis Accords === [461] => {{Further|Artemis Accords}} [462] => The [[Artemis Accords]] have been established to define a framework for cooperating in the peaceful exploration and exploitation of the [[Moon]], [[Mars]], [[asteroid]]s, and [[comet]]s. The Accords were drafted by NASA and the U.S. State Department and are executed as a series of bilateral agreements between the United States and the participating countries.{{cite web|title=Fact Sheet: Artemis Accords Foster Peaceful Space Cooperation|url=https://www.state.gov/artemis-accords-foster-peaceful-space-cooperation/|date=May 11, 2022|access-date=October 9, 2022|publisher=U.S. State Department|archive-date=October 9, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221009234408/https://www.state.gov/artemis-accords-foster-peaceful-space-cooperation/|url-status=live}}{{cite web|title=The Artemis Accords – Principles for Cooperation in the Civil Exploration and Use of the Moon, Mars, Comets, and Asteroids for Peaceful Purposes|url=https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/img/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf|access-date=October 9, 2022|publisher=NASA|archive-date=July 10, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220710094248/https://www.nasa.gov/specials/artemis-accords/img/Artemis-Accords-signed-13Oct2020.pdf|url-status=live}} As of September 2022, 21 countries have signed the accords. They are Australia, Bahrain, Brazil, Canada, Colombia, France, Israel, Italy, Japan, the Republic of Korea, Luxembourg, Mexico, New Zealand, Poland, Romania, the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Ukraine, the United Arab Emirates, the United Kingdom, and the United States.{{cite news|title=Kingdom of Saudi Arabia Signs the Artemis Accords|url=https://www.state.gov/kingdom-of-saudi-arabia-signs-the-artemis-accords/#:~:text=The%20Kingdom%20of%20Saudi%20Arabia%20is%20the%2021st%20nation%20to,Kingdom%2C%20and%20the%20United%20States.|date=July 16, 2022|access-date=October 9, 2022|publisher=U.S. State Department|archive-date=September 20, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920171909/https://www.state.gov/kingdom-of-saudi-arabia-signs-the-artemis-accords/#:~:text=The%20Kingdom%20of%20Saudi%20Arabia%20is%20the%2021st%20nation%20to,Kingdom%2C%20and%20the%20United%20States.|url-status=live}}{{cite news|first=Jeff|last=Foust|title=Artemis Accords signatories hold first meeting|url=https://spacenews.com/artemis-accords-signatories-hold-first-meeting/|date=September 21, 2022|access-date=October 9, 2022|publisher=Space News|archive-date=March 16, 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240316085416/https://spacenews.com/artemis-accords-signatories-hold-first-meeting/|url-status=live}} [463] => [464] => === China National Space Administration === [465] => {{further|Wolf Amendment|China National Space Administration}} [466] => The Wolf Amendment was passed by the U.S. Congress into law in 2011 and prevents NASA from engaging in direct, bilateral cooperation with the Chinese government and China-affiliated organizations such as the China National Space Administration without the explicit authorization from Congress and the Federal Bureau of Investigation. The law has been renewed annually since by inclusion in annual appropriations bills.{{cite web|title=Defanging the Wolf Amendment|url=https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3725/1|first=Jeff|last=Foust|date=June 3, 2019|access-date=November 5, 2022|publisher=The Space Review|archive-date=October 31, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211031042048/https://www.thespacereview.com/article/3725/1|url-status=live}} [467] => [468] => == Management == [469] => === Leadership === [470] => [[File:NASA Administrator Bill Nelson Official Portrait (NHQ202105170001).jpg|thumb|upright|Administrator [[Bill Nelson]] (2021–present)]] [471] => [472] => The agency's administration is located at [[NASA Headquarters]] in Washington, DC, and provides overall guidance and direction.{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/hq/home/index.html |title=Welcome to NASA Headquarters |first=Mary |last=Shouse |date=July 9, 2009 |access-date=July 15, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090713052817/http://www1.nasa.gov/centers/hq/home/index.html |archive-date=July 13, 2009 |url-status=live}} Except under exceptional circumstances, NASA civil service employees are required to be [[Citizenship in the United States|US citizens]].[https://nasajobs.nasa.gov/jobs/noncitizens.htm Information for Non U.S. Citizens] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007011245/https://nasajobs.nasa.gov/jobs/noncitizens.htm |date=October 7, 2018}}, NASA (downloaded September 16, 2013) [473] => NASA's administrator is nominated by the President of the United States subject to the approval of the [[United States Senate|US Senate]],{{cite act|type=Title|index=|date=July 29, 1958|article=II Sec. 202 (a)|article-type=Title|legislature=85th Congress of the United States|title=[[National Aeronautics and Space Act]]|trans-title=|page=|url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act_of_1958|access-date=September 11, 2020|archive-date=September 17, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917214738/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act_of_1958|url-status=live}} {{Cite web |title=National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 - Wikisource, the free online library |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act_of_1958 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917214738/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act_of_1958 |archive-date=September 17, 2020 |access-date=September 11, 2020 }}{{Cite web |title=National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958 - Wikisource, the free online library |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act_of_1958 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200917214738/https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/National_Aeronautics_and_Space_Act_of_1958 |archive-date=September 17, 2020 |access-date=September 11, 2020 }} and serves at the President's pleasure as a senior space science advisor. The current administrator is [[Bill Nelson]], appointed by President [[Joe Biden]], since May 3, 2021.{{cite news |last=Bartels |first=Meghan |title=President Biden nominates Bill Nelson to serve as NASA chief |url=https://www.space.com/biden-nasa-chief-bill-nelson-nomination |work=space.com |date=March 19, 2021 |access-date=September 6, 2022 |archive-date=September 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060212/https://www.space.com/biden-nasa-chief-bill-nelson-nomination |url-status=live }} [474] => [475] => === Strategic plan === [476] => NASA operates with four FY2022 strategic goals.{{cite web |title=NASA FY2022 Strategic Plan |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy_22_strategic_plan.pdf |access-date=September 2, 2022 |archive-date=September 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060206/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy_22_strategic_plan.pdf |url-status=live }} [477] => * Expand human knowledge through new scientific discoveries [478] => * Extend human presence to the Moon and on towards Mars for sustainable long-term exploration, development, and utilization [479] => * Catalyze economic growth and drive innovation to address national challenges [480] => * Enhance capabilities and operations to catalyze current and future mission success [481] => [482] => === Budget === [483] => {{Further|Budget of NASA}} [484] => NASA budget requests are developed by NASA and approved by the administration prior to submission to the [[United States Congress|U.S. Congress]]. Authorized budgets are those that have been included in enacted appropriations bills that are approved by both houses of Congress and enacted into law by the U.S. president.{{cite web |title=Budget of the U.S. Government |url=https://www.usa.gov/budget |work=us.gov |access-date=September 6, 2022 |archive-date=September 5, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220905064523/https://www.usa.gov/budget |url-status=live }} [485] => [486] => NASA fiscal year budget requests and authorized budgets are provided below. [487] => {| class="wikitable float-left" style="text-align: center;" [488] => !Year [489] => !Budget Request
in bil. US$ [490] => !Authorized Budget
in bil. US$ [491] => !U.S. Government
Employees [492] => |- [493] => |2018 [494] => |$19.092{{cite web |title=NASA FY2018 Budget Estimates |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy19_nasa_budget_estimates.pdf |access-date=September 2, 2022 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224004339/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy19_nasa_budget_estimates.pdf |url-status=live }} [495] => |$20.736 [496] => |17,551{{cite web|title=NASA Equal Employment Opportunity Strategic Plan: FY 2018–19|url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/2018_nasa_md_715_report_5-15-2019_tagged.pdf|access-date=September 2, 2022|archive-date=September 7, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060213/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/2018_nasa_md_715_report_5-15-2019_tagged.pdf|url-status=live}} [497] => |- [498] => |2019 [499] => |$19.892{{cite web |title=NASA FY2019 Budget Estimates |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy19_nasa_budget_estimates.pdf |access-date=September 2, 2022 |archive-date=December 24, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181224004339/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy19_nasa_budget_estimates.pdf |url-status=live }} [500] => |$21.500 [501] => |17,551{{cite web|title=NASA Model Equal Employment Opportunity Program Status Report: FY2019|url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/a2020-00087-signed-05-08-2020-tagged.pdf|access-date=September 2, 2022|archive-date=September 7, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060212/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/a2020-00087-signed-05-08-2020-tagged.pdf|url-status=live}} [502] => |- [503] => |2020 [504] => |$22.613{{cite web |title=NASA FY2020 Budget Estimates |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy_2020_congressional_justification.pdf |access-date=September 2, 2022 |archive-date=April 1, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190401070409/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy_2020_congressional_justification.pdf |url-status=live }} [505] => |$22.629 [506] => |18,048{{cite web|title=NASA Model Equal Employment Opportunity Program Status Report: FY2020|url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy2020_md_715_report_signed_tagged.pdf|access-date=September 2, 2022|archive-date=June 16, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220616172020/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy2020_md_715_report_signed_tagged.pdf|url-status=live}} [507] => |- [508] => |2021 [509] => |$25.246{{cite web |title=NASA FY2021 Budget Estimates |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy_2021_budget_book_508.pdf |access-date=September 2, 2022 |archive-date=July 27, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200727051233/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy_2021_budget_book_508.pdf |url-status=live }} [510] => |$23.271 [511] => |18,339{{cite web|title=NASA Model Equal Employment Opportunity Program Status Report: FY2021|url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/odeo-fy21_model_715_report_tagged.pdf|access-date=September 2, 2022|archive-date=August 20, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220820210814/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/odeo-fy21_model_715_report_tagged.pdf|url-status=live}} [512] => |- [513] => |2022 [514] => |$24.802{{cite web |title=NASA FY2022 Budget Estimates |url=https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy2022_congressional_justification_nasa_budget_request.pdf |access-date=September 2, 2022 |archive-date=June 10, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210610114215/https://www.nasa.gov/sites/default/files/atoms/files/fy2022_congressional_justification_nasa_budget_request.pdf |url-status=live }} [515] => |$24.041{{cite web |last=Smith |first=Marcia |title=NASA to get $24 billion for FY2022, more than last year but less than Biden Wanted |url=https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-to-get-24-billion-for-fy2022-more-than-last-year-but-less-than-biden-wanted/ |date=March 9, 2022 |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=SpacePolicyOnline.com |archive-date=March 13, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220313063009/https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-to-get-24-billion-for-fy2022-more-than-last-year-but-less-than-biden-wanted/ |url-status=live }} [516] => |18,400 est [517] => |} [518] => [519] => === Organization === [520] => NASA funding and priorities are developed through its six Mission Directorates. [521] => [522] => {| class="wikitable float-left" style="text-align: left" style="width: 500px;" [523] => !Mission Directorate [524] => !Associate Administrator [525] => !% of NASA Budget (FY22) [526] => |- [527] => |[[Aeronautics Research Mission Directorate|Aeronautics Research (ARMD)]] [528] => |Catherine A. Koerner{{cite web |title=Catherine Koerner - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/people/catherine-koerner-associate-administrator-for-exploration-systems-development/ |website=NASA |access-date=20 February 2024 |archive-date=February 20, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220042650/https://www.nasa.gov/people/catherine-koerner-associate-administrator-for-exploration-systems-development/ |url-status=live }} [529] => |{{center|4%}} [530] => |- [531] => |Exploration Systems Development (ESDMD) [532] => |James Free{{cite news [533] => |title=NASA Splits Human Spaceflight Directorate into Two [534] => |url=https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-splits-human-spaceflight-directorate-into-two/ [535] => |last=Smith [536] => |first=Marcia [537] => |date=September 21, 2021 [538] => |access-date=September 6, 2022 [539] => |work=Space Policy Online [540] => |archive-date=September 7, 2022 [541] => |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060206/https://spacepolicyonline.com/news/nasa-splits-human-spaceflight-directorate-into-two/ [542] => |url-status=live [543] => }} [544] => |{{center|28%}} [545] => |- [546] => |Space Operations (SOMD) [547] => |Kenneth Bowersox{{cite web |title=Kenneth Bowersox - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/people/kenneth-bowersox/ |website=NASA |access-date=20 February 2024 |archive-date=February 20, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220042654/https://www.nasa.gov/people/kenneth-bowersox/ |url-status=live }} [548] => |{{center|17%}} [549] => |- [550] => |[[Science Mission Directorate|Science (SMD)]] [551] => |[[Nicola Fox]]{{Cite news |last=Roulette |first=Joey |date=February 27, 2023 |title=NASA names solar physicist as agency's science chief |language=en |work=Reuters |url=https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/nasa-name-first-woman-agencys-science-chief-sources-say-2023-02-27/ |access-date=April 7, 2023 |archive-date=March 23, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230323194530/https://www.reuters.com/lifestyle/science/nasa-name-first-woman-agencys-science-chief-sources-say-2023-02-27/ |url-status=live }} [552] => |{{center|32%}} [553] => |- [554] => |Space Technology (STMD) [555] => |Kurt Vogel {{cite web |title=Dr. Kurt Vogel - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/people/dr-kurt-vogel-associate-administrator-space-technology/ |website=NASA |access-date=20 February 2024 |archive-date=February 20, 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240220042655/https://www.nasa.gov/people/dr-kurt-vogel-associate-administrator-space-technology/ |url-status=live }} [556] => |{{center|5%}} [557] => |- [558] => |Mission Support (MSD) [559] => |Robert Gibbs{{cite news |title=NASA executive discusses his approach to leadership |url=https://federalnewsnetwork.com/leaders-and-legends/2022/06/nasa-executive-discusses-his-approach-to-leadership/ |date=June 21, 2022 |access-date=September 7, 2022 |work=Federal News Network |archive-date=September 8, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220908031142/https://federalnewsnetwork.com/leaders-and-legends/2022/06/nasa-executive-discusses-his-approach-to-leadership/ |url-status=live }} [560] => |{{center|14%}} [561] => |- [562] => |} [563] => [564] => Center-wide activities such as the Chief Engineer and Safety and Mission Assurance organizations are aligned to the headquarters function. The MSD budget estimate includes funds for these HQ functions. The administration operates 10 major field centers with several managing additional subordinate facilities across the country. Each is led by a Center Director (data below valid as of September 1, 2022). [565] => [566] => {| class="wikitable float-left" style="text-align: left;" [567] => !Field Center [568] => !Primary Location [569] => !Center Director [570] => |- [571] => |[[Ames Research Center]] [572] => |[[Mountain View, California]] [573] => |Eugene L. Tu{{cite news |last=Clemens |first=Jay |title=Eugene Tu Named Director of NASA Ames Research Center; Charles Bolden Comments |url=https://executivegov.com/2015/05/eugene-tu-named-director-of-nasa-ames-research-center-charles-bolden-comments/ |date=May 5, 2015 |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=ExecutiveGov |archive-date=September 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060206/https://executivegov.com/2015/05/eugene-tu-named-director-of-nasa-ames-research-center-charles-bolden-comments/ |url-status=live }} [574] => |- [575] => |[[Armstrong Flight Research Center]] [576] => |[[Palmdale, California]] [577] => |Brad Flick (acting){{cite web |title=NASA Announces Armstrong Flight Research Center Director to Retire |url=https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-armstrong-flight-research-center-director-to-retire |date=May 23, 2022 |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=NASA.gov |archive-date=June 30, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220630135043/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-announces-armstrong-flight-research-center-director-to-retire/ |url-status=live }} [578] => |- [579] => |[[Glenn Research Center]] [580] => |[[Cleveland]], Ohio [581] => |James A. Kenyon (acting){{cite news |last=Suttle |first=Scott |title=NASA names two interim leaders for Glenn Research Center |url=https://www.crainscleveland.com/government/nasa-names-two-interim-leaders-glenn-research-center |date=May 22, 2022 |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=Crain's Cleveland Business |archive-date=September 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060222/https://www.crainscleveland.com/government/nasa-names-two-interim-leaders-glenn-research-center |url-status=live }} [582] => |- [583] => |[[Goddard Space Flight Center]] [584] => |[[Greenbelt, Maryland]] [585] => |Makenzie Lystrup{{cite press release | last=Bardan | first=Roxana | title=NASA Administrator Names New Goddard Center Director | website=NASA | date=April 6, 2023 | url=http://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-administrator-names-new-goddard-center-director | access-date=April 6, 2023 | archive-date=April 6, 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230406182913/https://www.nasa.gov/press-release/nasa-administrator-names-new-goddard-center-director/ | url-status=live }} [586] => |- [587] => |[[Jet Propulsion Laboratory]] [588] => |[[La Canada-Flintridge, California]] [589] => |Laurie Leshin{{cite news |title=WPI president to step down to become director of JPL |url=https://apnews.com/article/business-education-worcester-67f3316391e12747d149cec3129596f9 |date=January 29, 2022 |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=ap news |archive-date=September 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060205/https://apnews.com/article/business-education-worcester-67f3316391e12747d149cec3129596f9 |url-status=live }} [590] => |- [591] => |[[Johnson Space Center]] [592] => |[[Houston]], Texas [593] => |Vanessa E. Wyche{{cite news |last=Hagerty |first=Michael |title=Vanessa Wyche Takes The Helm At NASA's Johnson Space Center |url=https://www.houstonpublicmedia.org/articles/shows/houston-matters/2021/08/26/406823/vanessa-wyche-takes-the-helm-at-nasas-johnson-space-center-aug-26-2021/ |work=Houston Public Media |date=August 26, 2021 |access-date=September 6, 2022 |archive-date=September 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060213/https://www.houstonpublicmedia.org/articles/shows/houston-matters/2021/08/26/406823/vanessa-wyche-takes-the-helm-at-nasas-johnson-space-center-aug-26-2021/ |url-status=live }} [594] => |- [595] => |[[Kennedy Space Center]] [596] => |[[Merritt Island, Florida]] [597] => |Janet Petro{{cite news |title=First Woman to Lead NASA's Kennedy Space Center Is a BU Alum |url=https://www.bu.edu/articles/2021/janet-petro-nasa-kennedy-space-center-director/ |date=July 16, 2021 |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=Bostonia |archive-date=September 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060211/https://www.bu.edu/articles/2021/janet-petro-nasa-kennedy-space-center-director/ |url-status=live }} [598] => [599] => |- [600] => |[[Langley Research Center]] [601] => |[[Hampton, Virginia]] [602] => |Clayton Turner{{cite news |last=Dietrich |first=Tamara |title=NASA Langley gets a new director |url=https://www.dailypress.com/news/dp-nw-nasa-langley-new-director-20190909-itmxmy74anafjnpnm56g3mh4wm-story.html |date=September 9, 2019 |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=Daily Press |archive-date=September 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060214/https://www.dailypress.com/news/dp-nw-nasa-langley-new-director-20190909-itmxmy74anafjnpnm56g3mh4wm-story.html |url-status=live }} [603] => |- [604] => |[[Marshall Space Flight Center]] [605] => |[[Huntsville, Alabama]] [606] => |Jody Singer{{cite news |last=Beck |first=Caroline |title=Jody Singer appointed first female director of Marshall Space Flight Center |url=https://www.aldailynews.com/jody-singer-appointed-first-female-director-of-marshall-space-flight-center/ |work=Alabama Daily News |date=September 14, 2018 |access-date=September 6, 2022 |archive-date=September 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060208/https://www.aldailynews.com/jody-singer-appointed-first-female-director-of-marshall-space-flight-center/ |url-status=live }} [607] => |- [608] => |[[Stennis Space Center]] [609] => |[[Hancock County, Mississippi]] [610] => |Richard J. Gilbrech{{cite news |title=Stennis Space Center Announces New Senior Executive Service Appointment |url=https://www.bizneworleans.com/stennis-space-center-announces-new-senior-executive-service-appointment/ |date=August 26, 2021 |access-date=September 6, 2022 |work=Biz New Orleans |archive-date=September 7, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220907060213/https://www.bizneworleans.com/stennis-space-center-announces-new-senior-executive-service-appointment/ |url-status=live }} [611] => |- [612] => |} [613] => [614] => == Sustainability == [615] => === Environmental impact === [616] => The exhaust gases produced by rocket propulsion systems, both in Earth's atmosphere and in space, can adversely affect the Earth's environment. Some [[hypergolic]] rocket propellants, such as [[hydrazine]], are highly toxic prior to [[combustion]], but decompose into less toxic compounds after burning. Rockets using hydrocarbon fuels, such as [[kerosene]], release carbon dioxide and soot in their exhaust.{{cite web |url=http://www.aerospace.org/2013/07/31/rocket-soot-emissions-and-climate-change/ |title=Rocket Soot Emissions and Climate Change |publisher=The Aerospace Corporation |date=July 31, 2013 |access-date=January 7, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140707034251/http://www.aerospace.org/2013/07/31/rocket-soot-emissions-and-climate-change/ |archive-date=July 7, 2014 }} Carbon dioxide emissions are insignificant compared to those from other sources; on average, the United States consumed {{convert|803|e6USgal|e6m3|abbr=unit|1}} of liquid fuels per day in 2014, while a single [[Falcon 9]] rocket first stage burns around {{convert|25,000|USgal|m3}} of [[kerosene]] fuel per launch.{{cite news |url=http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/steo/pdf/steo_full.pdf |title=Short-Term Energy Outlook |website=U.S. Energy Information Administration |date=February 9, 2016 |quote=U.S. Petroleum and Other Liquids |access-date=February 24, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160318150346/http://www.eia.gov/forecasts/steo/pdf/steo_full.pdf |archive-date=March 18, 2016 |url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=http://www.spaceflightnow.com/falcon9/004/status.html |title=Spaceflight Now – Dragon Mission Report – Mission Status Center |access-date=July 4, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924115830/http://www.spaceflightnow.com/falcon9/004/status.html |archive-date=September 24, 2015 |url-status=live}} Even if a Falcon 9 were launched every single day, it would only represent 0.006% of liquid fuel consumption (and carbon dioxide emissions) for that day. Additionally, the exhaust from [[LOx]]- and [[LH2]]- fueled engines, like the [[SSME]], is almost entirely water vapor.{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/returntoflight/system/system_SSME.html |title=Space Shuttle Main Engines |publisher=NASA |date=July 16, 2009 |access-date=January 20, 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150124033821/http://www.nasa.gov/returntoflight/system/system_SSME.html |archive-date=January 24, 2015 |url-status=live}} NASA addressed environmental concerns with its canceled [[Constellation program]] in accordance with the National Environmental Policy Act in 2011.{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/main/peis.html |title=Constellation Programmatic Environmental Impact Statement |publisher=NASA |date=August 1, 2011 |access-date=June 19, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140808194713/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/constellation/main/peis.html |archive-date=August 8, 2014 |url-status=live}} In contrast, [[ion engines]] use harmless noble gases like [[xenon]] for propulsion.{{cite news |last=Shiga |first=David |title=Next-generation ion engine sets new thrust record |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12709-nextgeneration-ion-engine-sets-new-thrust-record.html |access-date=February 2, 2011 |newspaper=New Scientist |date=September 28, 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110604040324/http://www.newscientist.com/article/dn12709-nextgeneration-ion-engine-sets-new-thrust-record.html |archive-date=June 4, 2011 |url-status=live}}{{Cite journal |last=Goto |first=T |author2=Nakata Y |author3=Morita S |title=Will xenon be a stranger or a friend?: the cost, benefit, and future of xenon anesthesia |journal=Anesthesiology |volume=98 |issue=1 |pages=1–2 |date=2003 |pmid=12502969 |doi=10.1097/00000542-200301000-00002 |doi-access=free }} [617] => [618] => An example of NASA's environmental efforts is the [[NASA Sustainability Base]]. Additionally, the Exploration Sciences Building was awarded the LEED Gold rating in 2010.{{cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/releases/2010/10-010.html |title=NASA – NASA's New Building Awarded the U.S. Green Building Council LEED Gold Rating |website=nasa.gov |access-date=April 12, 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181007011553/https://www.nasa.gov/centers/goddard/news/releases/2010/10-010.html |archive-date=October 7, 2018 |url-status=live}} On May 8, 2003, the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] recognized NASA as the first federal agency to directly use [[landfill gas]] to produce energy at one of its facilities—the [[Goddard Space Flight Center]], Greenbelt, Maryland.{{cite web|author=Michael K. Ewert|date=2006|title=Johnson Space Center's Role in a Sustainable Future|url=http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/TM-2004-212069.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527194012/http://ston.jsc.nasa.gov/collections/TRS/_techrep/TM-2004-212069.pdf|archive-date=May 27, 2008|access-date=April 28, 2008|publisher=NASA}} [619] => [620] => In 2018, NASA along with other companies including Sensor Coating Systems, [[Pratt & Whitney]], Monitor Coating and [[United Technologies Corp|UTRC]] launched the project CAUTION (CoAtings for Ultra High Temperature detectION). This project aims to enhance the temperature range of the [[Thermal history coating|Thermal History Coating]] up to {{cvt|1,500|C}} and beyond. The final goal of this project is improving the safety of jet engines as well as increasing efficiency and reducing CO2 emissions.{{cite web|url=http://www.sensorcoatings.com/sensor-coating-systems-launches-new-national-aerospace-project-together-natep-leading-international-players/|title=Sensor Coating Systems launches new national aerospace project with NATEP and some leading international players|last=SCS|date=August 23, 2018|access-date=October 12, 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181027130341/http://www.sensorcoatings.com/sensor-coating-systems-launches-new-national-aerospace-project-together-natep-leading-international-players/|archive-date=October 27, 2018|url-status=live}} [621] => [622] => === Climate change === [623] => NASA also researches and publishes on [[climate change]].{{cite journal|url=https://climate.nasa.gov/|title=Global Climate Change|journal=Environmental Research Letters |volume=8 |issue=2|publisher=NASA|doi=10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024024|bibcode=2013ERL.....8b4024C |s2cid=155431241 |access-date=March 2, 2019|archive-date=April 11, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190411121502/https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/1748-9326/8/2/024024|url-status=live|last1=Cook |first1=John |last2=Nuccitelli |first2=Dana |last3=Green |first3=Sarah A. |last4=Richardson |first4=Mark |last5=Winkler |first5=Bärbel |last6=Painting |first6=Rob |last7=Way |first7=Robert |last8=Jacobs |first8=Peter |last9=Skuce |first9=Andrew |year=2013 |page=024024 |doi-access=free }} Its statements concur with the global scientific consensus that the global climate is warming.{{Cite web |url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/climate-trends-continue-to-break-records |title="2016 Climate Trends Continue to Break Records". NASA, July 19, 2016. |date=July 19, 2016 |access-date=December 14, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161209180954/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/2016/climate-trends-continue-to-break-records/ |archive-date=December 9, 2016 |url-status=live}} [[Robert Smith Walker|Bob Walker]], who has advised US President [[Donald Trump]] on space issues, has advocated that NASA should focus on space exploration and that its climate study operations should be transferred to other agencies such as [[NOAA]]. Former NASA atmospheric scientist [[J. Marshall Shepherd]] countered that Earth science study was built into NASA's mission at [[creation of NASA|its creation]] in the 1958 [[National Aeronautics and Space Act]].{{cite news|author=Jason Samenow|newspaper=[[The Washington Post]]|date=July 23, 2016|title=Trump adviser proposes dismantling NASA climate research|url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2016/11/23/trump-adviser-proposes-dismantling-nasa-climate-research/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161124060832/https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/capital-weather-gang/wp/2016/11/23/trump-adviser-proposes-dismantling-nasa-climate-research/|archive-date=November 24, 2016}} NASA won the [[2020 Webby Award|2020 Webby People's Voice Award for Green]] in the category Web.{{cite web |last1=Kastrenakes |first1=Jacob |title=Here are all the winners of the 2020 Webby Awards |url=https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/20/21263445/2020-webby-awards-winners-lil-nas-x-nasa-jon-krasinski |website=The Verge |access-date=May 22, 2020 |language=en |date=May 20, 2020 |archive-date=May 21, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200521205535/https://www.theverge.com/2020/5/20/21263445/2020-webby-awards-winners-lil-nas-x-nasa-jon-krasinski |url-status=live }} [624] => [625] => === STEM Initiatives === [626] => {{Further|STEM}} [627] => ''[[Educational Launch of Nanosatellites]] (ELaNa)''. Since 2011, the ELaNa program has provided opportunities for NASA to work with university teams to test emerging technologies and commercial-off-the-shelf solutions by providing launch opportunities for developed [[CubeSat]]s using NASA procured launch opportunities.{{cite web |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/07/virgin-orbit-straight-up/ |title=ELaNa: Educational Launch of Nanosatellites |website=NASA.gov |date=July 2022 |access-date=September 5, 2022 |archive-date=July 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702043556/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/07/virgin-orbit-straight-up/ |url-status=live }} By example, two NASA-sponsored [[CubeSats]] launched in June 2022 on a [[Virgin Orbit]] [[LauncherOne]] vehicle as the ELaNa 39 mission.{{cite news |last=Burghardt |first=Thomas |url=https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/07/virgin-orbit-straight-up/ |title=Virgin Orbit launches seven satellites for US Space Force and NASA |website=NASA Spaceflight.com |date=July 1, 2022 |access-date=September 5, 2022 |archive-date=July 2, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220702043556/https://www.nasaspaceflight.com/2022/07/virgin-orbit-straight-up/ |url-status=live }} [628] => [629] => ''Cubes in Space''. NASA started an annual competition in 2014 named "Cubes in Space".{{cite web |url=http://www.cubesinspace.com/index.html |title=Cubes in Space |website=cubesinspace.com |access-date=July 1, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170619225711/http://www.cubesinspace.com/index.html |archive-date=June 19, 2017 }} It is jointly organized by NASA and the global education company ''I Doodle Learning'', with the objective of teaching school students aged 11–18 to design and build scientific experiments to be launched into space on a NASA rocket or balloon. On June 21, 2017, the world's smallest satellite, KalamSAT, was launched.{{Cite web|url=https://futurism.com/a-teen-created-the-worlds-lightest-satellite-nasa-is-going-to-launch-it|title=A Teen Created the World's Lightest Satellite & NASA Is Going to Launch It|website=Futurism|date=May 17, 2017 |language=en|access-date=May 18, 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190518173331/https://futurism.com/a-teen-created-the-worlds-lightest-satellite-nasa-is-going-to-launch-it/|archive-date=May 18, 2019|url-status=live}} [630] => [631] => === Use of the metric system === [632] => US law requires the [[International System of Units]] to be used in all US Government programs, "except where impractical".{{Cite web|last=Administrator|first=NASA|date=June 7, 2013|title=International System of Units – The Metric Measurement System|url=http://www.nasa.gov/offices/oce/functions/standards/isu.html|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108170832/https://www.nasa.gov/offices/oce/functions/standards/isu.html|archive-date=November 8, 2020|access-date=November 2, 2020|website=NASA}} [633] => [634] => In 1969, [[Apollo 11]] landed on the Moon using a mix of [[United States customary units]] and [[Metric system|metric units]]. In the 1980s, NASA started the transition towards the metric system, but was still using both systems in the 1990s.{{cite web |last1=Aberg |first1=J. |title=NASA Technical Memorandum – Metrication in a Global Environment |url=https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19950008505/downloads/19950008505.pdf |publisher=NASA |access-date=August 30, 2021 |date=October 1994 |archive-date=August 30, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210830081102/https://ntrs.nasa.gov/api/citations/19950008505/downloads/19950008505.pdf |url-status=live }}{{Cite web|title=Metric mishap caused loss of NASA orbiter |date=September 30, 1999|url=http://edition.cnn.com/TECH/space/9909/30/mars.metric.02/|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200218113445/http://edition.cnn.com/TECH/space/9909/30/mars.metric.02/|archive-date=February 18, 2020|access-date=February 13, 2020|website=CNN |first1=Robin |last1=Lloyd }} On September 23, 1999, a mixup between NASA's use of SI units and [[Lockheed Martin Space]]'s use of US units resulted in the loss of the [[Mars Climate Orbiter]].{{Cite web|title=Mars Climate Orbiter Failure Board Releases Report|url=https://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msp98/news/mco991110.html|url-status=dead |date=Nov 10, 1999 |website=Mars Polar Lander Official Website |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190130123509/https://mars.jpl.nasa.gov/msp98/news/mco991110.html|archive-date=January 30, 2019|access-date=February 13, 2020}} [635] => [636] => In August 2007, NASA stated that all future missions and explorations of the Moon would be done entirely using the SI system. This was done to improve cooperation with space agencies of other countries that already use the metric system.{{Cite web|website=NASA |date=January 8, 2007 |first1=Patrick L. |last1=Barry |editor-first1=Tony |editor-last1=Phillips |title= Metric Moon|url=https://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2007/08jan_metricMoon.htm|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100316093535/http://science.nasa.gov/headlines/y2007/08jan_metricMoon.htm|archive-date=March 16, 2010}} As of 2007, NASA is predominantly working with SI units, but some projects still use US units, and some, including the International Space Station, use a mix of both.{{cite web|date=January 8, 2007|title=NASA Finally Goes Metric|url=https://www.space.com/3332-nasa-finally-metric.html#:~:text=NASA%20has%20ostensibly%20used%20the,aboard%20the%20International%20Space%20Station.|url-status=live|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820202755/https://www.space.com/3332-nasa-finally-metric.html#:~:text=NASA%20has%20ostensibly%20used%20the,aboard%20the%20International%20Space%20Station.|archive-date=August 20, 2020|access-date=September 4, 2020|website=Space.com}} [637] => [638] => == Media presence == [639] => === NASA TV === [640] => {{Further|NASA TV}} [641] => Approaching 40 years of service, the [[NASA TV]] channel airs content ranging from live coverage of crewed missions to video coverage of significant milestones for operating robotic spacecraft (e.g. rover landings on Mars) and domestic and international launches.{{cite journal |url=http://digitalcontentproducer.com/hdhdv/depth/video_horizon/ |title=The Video Horizon |journal=Digital Content Producer |first=Tom Patrick |last=McAuliffe |date=September 2007 |access-date=December 31, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081015162338/http://digitalcontentproducer.com/hdhdv/depth/video_horizon/ |archive-date=October 15, 2008 }} The channel is delivered by NASA and is broadcast by satellite and over the Internet. The system initially started to capture archival footage of important space events for NASA managers and engineers and expanded as public interest grew. The [[Apollo 8]] Christmas Eve broadcast while in orbit around the Moon was received by more than a billion people.{{cite news|first=Richard|last=Hollingham|title=The Nasa mission that broadcast to a billion people|url=https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20181220-the-nasa-mission-that-broadcast-to-a-billion-people|date=December 21, 2018|access-date=October 8, 2022|publisher=bbc.com|archive-date=October 8, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221008182743/https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20181220-the-nasa-mission-that-broadcast-to-a-billion-people|url-status=live}} NASA's video transmission of the [[Apollo 11]] Moon landing was awarded a [[Primetime Emmy Awards|primetime Emmy]] in commemoration of the 40th anniversary of the landing.{{cite news |url=http://www.space.com/entertainment/090820-nasa-emmy.html |title=NASA Wins Emmy for Apollo 11 Moon Broadcast |work=Space.com |date=August 20, 2009 |access-date=October 8, 2022 |archive-date=September 26, 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090926164715/http://www.space.com/entertainment/090820-nasa-emmy.html |url-status=live }} The channel is a product of the U.S. Government and is widely available across many television and Internet platforms.{{cite web|first=Brian|last=Dunbar|title=How to Stream NASA TV|url=https://www.nasa.gov/feature/how-to-stream-nasa-tv-and-launch-america/|date=September 8, 2020|access-date=October 8, 2022|publisher=nasa.gov|archive-date=September 14, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220914125501/https://www.nasa.gov/feature/how-to-stream-nasa-tv-and-launch-america/|url-status=live}} [642] => [643] => === NASAcast === [644] => NASAcast is the official audio and video [[podcast]] of the NASA website. Created in late 2005, the podcast service contains the latest audio and video features from the NASA web site, including [[NASA TV]]'s ''This Week at NASA'' and educational materials produced by NASA. Additional NASA podcasts, such as Science@NASA, are also featured and give subscribers an in-depth look at content by subject matter.{{cite news|title=Blast off with these 7 space-centric podcasts in honor of the 64th anniversary of NASA|url=https://podsauce.com/articles/blast-off-with-these-space-podcasts-from-nasa/|date=July 26, 2022|access-date=October 10, 2022|publisher=Podsauce |archive-date=October 11, 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221011021139/https://podsauce.com/articles/blast-off-with-these-space-podcasts-from-nasa/|url-status=live}} [645] => [646] => === NASA EDGE === [647] => [[File:NASA EDGE Orion Pad Abort 1 White Sands Missile Range.jpg|thumb|NASA EDGE broadcasting live from [[White Sands Missile Range]] in 2010]] [648] => [649] => NASA EDGE is a [[video podcast]] which explores different missions, technologies and projects developed by NASA. The program was released by NASA on March 18, 2007, and, {{as of|2020|08|lc=on}}, there have been 200 vodcasts produced. It is a [[public outreach]] vodcast sponsored by NASA's Exploration Systems Mission Directorate and based out of the Exploration and Space Operations Directorate at [[Langley Research Center]] in [[Hampton, Virginia|Hampton]], Virginia. The NASA EDGE team takes an insider's look at current projects and technologies from NASA facilities around the United States, and it is depicted through personal interviews, on-scene broadcasts, [[computer animation]]s, and personal interviews with top scientists and engineers at NASA.{{refn|group= note|''NASA EDGE'' Cast and Crew: Chris Giersch (Host); Blair Allen (Co-host and senior producer); Franklin Fitzgerald ([[News anchor]] and "everyman"); Jaqueline Mirielle Cortez (Special co-host); Ron Beard (Director and "set [[therapist]]"); and Don Morrison (Audio/[[video engineer]]){{cite web |last=Atkinson |first=Joe |date=May 23, 2016 |title=After 10 Years, NASA EDGE Is Still Carving Its Own Path |url=http://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/after-10-years-nasa-edge-is-still-carving-its-own-path |access-date=July 2, 2020 |website=NASA.gov |archive-date=October 1, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161001153744/http://www.nasa.gov/feature/langley/after-10-years-nasa-edge-is-still-carving-its-own-path/ |url-status=live }}}} [650] => [651] => The show explores the contributions NASA has made to society as well as the progress of current projects in materials and [[space exploration]]. NASA EDGE vodcasts can be downloaded from the NASA website and from [[iTunes]]. [652] => [653] => In its first year of production, the show was downloaded over 450,000 times. {{As of|2010|02|post=,}} the average download rate is more than 420,000 per month, with over one million downloads in December 2009 and January 2010.{{cite news|url=http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/researchernews/rn_NASAEdge10.html|title=Going Where No NASA Show Has Gone Before|work=The Researcher News|location=Langley Research Center|first=Denise|last=Lineberry|date=February 11, 2010|access-date=September 23, 2021|archive-date=March 3, 2016|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303222142/http://www.nasa.gov/centers/langley/news/researchernews/rn_NASAEdge10.html|url-status=live}} [654] => [655] => NASA and the NASA EDGE have also developed interactive programs designed to complement the vodcast. The Lunar Electric Rover App allows users to drive a simulated [[Lunar Electric Rover]] between objectives, and it provides information about and images of the vehicle.{{cite web|url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/podcasting/nasaedge/iphone.html|title=NASA Lunar Electric Rover App for iPhone and iPod Touch|work=NASA.gov|first=Bob|last=Allen|date=February 26, 2010|access-date=June 9, 2010|archive-date=June 10, 2010|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100610010720/http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/podcasting/nasaedge/iphone.html|url-status=live}} The NASA EDGE Widget provides a [[graphical user interface]] for accessing NASA EDGE vodcasts, image galleries, and the program's Twitter feed, as well as a live NASA news feed.{{cite web |url=http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/podcasting/nasaedge/widget.html |title=NASA EDGE Widget |website=NASA.gov |first=Bob |last=Allen |date=March 23, 2010 |access-date=June 9, 2010 |archive-date=June 7, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100607171056/http://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/podcasting/nasaedge/widget.html |url-status=live }} [656] => [657] => === Astronomy Picture of the Day === [658] => {{excerpt|Astronomy_Picture_of_the_Day|paragraph=1-2}} [659] => [660] => === NASA+ === [661] => {{Main article|NASA+}} [662] => In July 2023, NASA announced a new [[streaming service]] known as NASA+. It launched on November 8, 2023, and has live coverage of launches, documentaries and original programs. According to NASA, it will be free of ads and subscription fees. It will be a part of the NASA app on [[iOS]], [[Android (operating system)|Android]], [[Amazon Fire TV]], [[Roku]] and [[Apple TV]] as well as on the web on desktop and mobile devices.{{Cite web |last=Shakir |first=Umar |date=July 28, 2023 |title=NASA Plus is the latest streaming competitor |url=https://www.theverge.com/2023/7/28/23811235/nasa-plus-streaming-service-announce |access-date=August 12, 2023 |website=The Verge |language=en-US |archive-date=August 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812024314/https://www.theverge.com/2023/7/28/23811235/nasa-plus-streaming-service-announce |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=NASA Plus Streaming Service Is Coming Soon |url=https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/nasa-plus-streaming-service-is-coming-soon/ |access-date=August 12, 2023 |website=CNET |language=en |archive-date=August 12, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230812024319/https://www.cnet.com/tech/services-and-software/nasa-plus-streaming-service-is-coming-soon/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |title=NASA Launches Beta Site; On-Demand Streaming, App Update Coming Soon - NASA |url=https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-launches-beta-site-on-demand-streaming-app-update-coming-soon/ |access-date=2023-11-06 |language=en-US |archive-date=November 6, 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231106172943/https://www.nasa.gov/news-release/nasa-launches-beta-site-on-demand-streaming-app-update-coming-soon/ |url-status=live }} [663] => [664] => == Gallery == [665] => {{Gallery [666] => |title=NASA spacecraft observations of the Solar System [667] => |align=center |noborder=yes |whitebg=no |height=120 |width=120 |perrow=5 |mode=packed [668] => |The Sun by the Atmospheric Imaging Assembly of NASA's Solar Dynamics Observatory - 20100819.jpg|[[Sun]] image by [[Solar Dynamics Observatory]], 2010 [669] => |File:Mercury in true color.jpg |[[Mercury (planet)|Planet Mercury]] image by ''[[MESSENGER]]'', 2008 [670] => |File:Venus from Mariner 10.jpg | [[Venus|Planet Venus]] image by ''[[Mariner 10]]'', 1974 [671] => |File:The Blue Marble (remastered).jpg | [[Earth|Planet Earth]] image by [[Apollo 17]] crew, 1972 [672] => |File:Apollo 8 Image of the Moon (AS08-14-2506).jpg| [[Moon]] image by [[Apollo 8]] crew, 1968 [673] => |File:Mars Valles Marineris.jpeg | [[Mars|Planet Mars]] image by ''[[Viking 1]]'', 1976 [674] => |File:Eros - PIA02923 (color).jpg | [[Asteroid 433 Eros]] image by ''[[NEAR Shoemaker]]'', 2000 [675] => |File:PIA18920-Ceres-DwarfPlanet-20150219.jpg|[[Ceres (dwarf planet)|Dwarf planet Ceres]] image by ''[[Dawn (spacecraft)|Dawn]]'', 2015 [676] => |File:PIA22946-Jupiter-RedSpot-JunoSpacecraft-20190212.jpg |[[Jupiter|Planet Jupiter]] image by ''[[Juno (spacecraft)|Juno]]'', 2019 [677] => |File:Io highest resolution true color.jpg | [[Io (moon)|Moon Io (Jupiter)]] image by ''[[Galileo (spacecraft)|Galileo]]'', 1999 [678] => |File:Saturn Storm.jpg|[[Saturn|Planet Saturn]] image by ''[[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]]'', 2016 [679] => |File:Mimas Cassini.jpg |[[Mimas (moon)|Moon Mimas (Saturn)]] image by ''[[Cassini–Huygens|Cassini]]'', 2010 [680] => |File:Uranus Voyager2 color calibrated.png| [[Uranus|Planet Uranus]] by ''[[Voyager 2]]'', 1986 [681] => |File:Miranda_mosaic_in_color_-_Voyager_2.png| [[Miranda (moon)|Moon Miranda (Uranus)]] image by ''[[Voyager 2]]'', 1986 [682] => |File:Neptune Voyager2 color calibrated.png| [[Neptune|Planet Neptune]] image by ''[[Voyager 2]]'', 1989 [683] => |File:Pluto_in_True_Color_-_High-Res.jpg| [[Pluto|Dwarf planet Pluto]] image by ''[[New Horizons]]'', 2015 [684] => |File:Charon_in_True_Color_-_High-Res.jpg| [[Charon (moon)|Moon Charon (Pluto)]] image by ''[[New Horizons]]'', 2015 [685] => }} [686] => {{Gallery [687] => |title=NASA Great Observatory images [688] => |align=center |noborder=yes |whitebg=no |height=120 |width=120 |mode=packed [689] => |File:Comets Kick up Dust in Helix Nebula (PIA09178).jpg|[[Helix Nebula]] by [[Spitzer Space Telescope]], 2007 [690] => |File:GKPersei-MiniSuperNova-20150316.jpg|1901 GK Persei supernova by [[Chandra X-ray Observatory]], 2015 [691] => |File:HH 901 and HH 902 in the Carina nebula (captured by the Hubble Space Telescope).jpg|[[Carina Nebula]] by [[Hubble Space Telescope]], 2010 [692] => |File:Stephan's Quintet taken by James Webb Space Telescope.jpg|[[Stephan's Quintet|Stephens quintet]] by [[James Webb Space Telescope]], Jul 2022 [693] => }} [694] => {{Gallery [695] => |title=NASA spacecraft [696] => |align=center |noborder=yes |whitebg=no |height=120 |width=120 |perrow=5 |mode=packed [697] => |File:NASA spacecraft comparison.jpg|Comparison of [[Apollo (spacecraft)|Apollo]], [[Gemini (spacecraft)|Gemini]], and [[Project Mercury|Mercury]] systems{{refn|group= note|From left to right: Launch vehicle of Apollo (Saturn 5), Gemini (Titan 2) and Mercury (Atlas). Left, top-down: Spacecraft of Apollo, Gemini and Mercury. The [[Saturn IB]] and [[Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle|Mercury-Redstone]] launch vehicles are left out.}} [698] => |File:Apollo12ConradSurveyor.jpg|[[Surveyor 3]], [[Pete Conrad]], and [[Apollo 12]] on the Moon, 1969 [699] => |File:STS-123 Dextre&Kibo ELM-PS in orbit (cropped).jpg|[[Space Shuttle]] ''[[Space Shuttle Endeavour|Endeavor]]'' in orbit, 2008 [700] => |File:HST-SM4.jpeg|[[Hubble Space Telescope]] released in orbit after servicing, 2009. [701] => |File:James Webb Space Telescope 2009 top.jpg|[[James Webb Space Telescope]] now in orbit, 2022. [702] => |File:NASA Mars Rover.jpg|''[[Opportunity (rover)|Opportunity]]'' rover on surface of Mars (rendering), 2003 [703] => |File:MSL Sol 3070 - MAHLI (Version 2) (51084526931).jpg|''[[Curiosity (rover)|Curiosity]]'' rover self-portrait on Mars, 2021 [704] => |File:Perseverance Landing Skycrane (cropped).jpg|''[[Perseverance (rover)|Perseverance]]'' rover during Mars skycrane landing, February 2021 [705] => |File:Voyager spacecraft.jpg|''[[Voyager 2]]'', now 19.5 billion kilometers from the Earth, July 2022 [706] => |File:Artemis I Orion October 12, 2020.jpg|[[Orion (spacecraft)|''Orion'' spacecraft]] and [[European Service Module]] testing, 2020 [707] => }} [708] => {{Gallery [709] => |title=NASA space launch systems [710] => |align=center |noborder=yes |whitebg=no |height=160 |width=120 |mode=packed [711] => |File:Apollo 11 Launch - GPN-2000-000630.jpg|[[Saturn V]] and [[Apollo 11]] at launch, Jul 1969 [712] => |File:Titan 3E Centaur launches Voyager 2.jpg|[[Titan IIIE|Titan III/Centaur]] launching ''[[Voyager 2]]'' spacecraft, Jul 1977 [713] => |File:Lancement Spirit fusee Delta IIs 10062003.jpg |[[Delta II]] launching ''[[Spirit (rover)|Spirit]]'' rover, Jun 2003 [714] => |File:STS-124 launch closeup.jpg|[[Space Shuttle]] ([[STS-124]]) during launch, May 2008 [715] => |File:Launch_of_Artemis_1_(KSC-20221116-PH-KED03_0011).jpg|[[Space Launch System]] and [[Artemis 1]] at launch, Nov 2022 [716] => }} [717] => {{Gallery [718] => |title=Concepts and plans [719] => |align=center |noborder=yes |whitebg=no |height=90 |width=120|perrow=4 |mode=packed [720] => |File:Cargo transport from Space Shuttle with the space tug to Nuclear shuttle.jpg|Concept of space tug cargo transport to a Nuclear Shuttle, 1960s [721] => |File:Space tug module for astronauts.jpg|Space Tug concept, 1970s [722] => |File:Interstellar Probe (2020s).png|NASA Interstellar probe concept, 2022 [723] => |File:Mars Ice Home concept.jpg|Langley's Mars Ice Dome design for a Mars habitat, 2010s [724] => |File:GATEWAY (Moon Space Station).jpg|[[Lunar Gateway]] space station, 2020 [725] => |File:Entering a Lunar Outpost.jpg|[[NASA lunar outpost concepts|NASA lunar outpost concept]], 2006 [726] => |File:NASA Cloud City on Venus.jpg|NASA concept for crewed floating outpost on Venus, 2014 [727] => |File:NanoSail-D in orbit (artist depiction).jpg|NASA concept for 2069 Alpha Centauri solar sail mission [728] => }} [729] => [730] => == See also == [731] => {{Portal|United States|Politics|Spaceflight|Rocketry}} [732] => * [[List of crewed spacecraft]] [733] => * [[List of NASA aircraft]] [734] => * [[List of space disasters]] [735] => * {{annotated link|List of United States rockets}} [736] => * [[:Category: NASA people]] [737] => * {{annotated link|NASA Advanced Space Transportation Program}} [738] => * {{annotated link|NASA Art Program}} [739] => * {{annotated link|NASA Clean Air Study}} [740] => * {{annotated link|NASA Research Park}} [741] => * {{annotated link|TechPort (NASA)}} [742] => *[[NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts]] [743] => [744] => == Explanatory notes == [745] => [746] => {{reflist|group=note}} [747] => [748] => == References == [749] => {{reflist}} [750] => [751] => == Further reading == [752] => {{Library resources box}} [753] => * Alexander, Joseph K. ''Science Advice to NASA: Conflict, Consensus, Partnership, Leadership'' (2019) [https://www.amazon.com/Science-Advice-NASA-Partnership-Leadership-ebook/dp/B07RF7Q5HF/ excerpt] [754] => * Bizony, Piers et al. ''The NASA Archives. 60 Years in Space'' (2019) [755] => * Brady, Kevin M. "NASA Launches Houston into Orbit How America's Space Program Contributed to Southeast Texas's Economic Growth, Scientific Development, and Modernization during the Late Twentieth Century." ''Journal of the West'' (2018) 57#4 pp 13–54. [756] => * Bromberg, Joan Lisa. ''NASA and the Space Industry'' (Johns Hopkins UP, 1999). [757] => * Clemons, Jack. ''Safely to Earth: The Men and Women Who Brought the Astronauts Home'' (2018) [https://www.amazon.com/Safely-Earth-Women-Brought-Astronauts/dp/0813056020/ excerpt] [758] => * Dick, Steven J., and Roger D. Launius, eds. ''Critical Issues in the History of Spaceflight'' (NASA, 2006) [759] => * Launius, Roger D. "Eisenhower, Sputnik, and the Creation of NASA." ''Prologue-Quarterly of the National Archives'' 28.2 (1996): 127–143. [760] => * Pyle, Rod. ''Space 2.0: How Private Spaceflight, a Resurgent NASA, and International Partners are Creating a New Space Age'' (2019), overview of space exploration [https://www.amazon.com/dp/1944648453/ excerpt] [761] => * Spencer, Brett. "The Book and the Rocket: The Symbiotic Relationship between American Public Libraries and the Space Program, 1950–2015", ''Information & Culture'' 51, no. 4 (2016): 550–82. [762] => * Weinzierl, Matthew. "Space, the final economic frontier." ''Journal of Economic Perspectives'' 32.2 (2018): 173–92. [https://scholar.google.com/scholar?output=instlink&q=info:YffWC2o6lYsJ:scholar.google.com/&hl=en&as_sdt=1,27&as_ylo=2017&scillfp=8711858111903232899&oi=lle online] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211231054235/https://scholar.google.com/scholar?output=instlink&q=info%3AYffWC2o6lYsJ%3Ascholar.google.com%2F&hl=en&as_sdt=1%2C27&as_ylo=2017&scillfp=8711858111903232899&oi=lle |date=December 31, 2021 }}, review of economics literature [763] => [764] => == External links == [765] => {{Commons category|NASA}} [766] => {{Wikiquote}} [767] => {{Wikisource|National Aeronautics and Space Act}} [768] => {{Wikisource author}} [769] => {{Wikiversity|NASA}} [770] => {{Spoken Wikipedia|En-NASA.ogg|date=September 1, 2005}} [771] => * {{Official website}} [772] => ** [https://www.nasa.gov/offices/nesc/home/index.html NASA Engineering and Safety Center] [773] => ** [https://web.archive.org/web/20000302040519/http://history.nasa.gov/ NASA History Division] (archived March 2, 2000) [774] => ** [https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/thismonth/this_month_main.html Monthly look at Exploration events] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308184001/https://www.nasa.gov/exploration/thismonth/this_month_main.html |date=March 8, 2021 }} [775] => ** [https://nodis3.gsfc.nasa.gov/ NODIS: NASA Online Directives Information System] [776] => ** [https://ntrs.nasa.gov/ NTRS: NASA Technical Reports Server] [777] => ** [https://history.nasa.gov/launiuspharticle.pdf NASA History and the Challenge of Keeping the Contemporary Past] [778] => ** [https://www.nasa.gov/multimedia/podcasting/ NASA podcasts] [779] => * [http://www.nasawatch.com/ NASA Watch, an agency watchdog site] [780] => * {{Internet Archive author |search=("National Aeronautics and Space Administration" OR "NASA")}} [781] => * [http://science.howstuffworks.com/nasa.htm How NASA works] on [[howstuffworks.com]] [782] => [783] => {{NASA space program|state=collapsed}} [784] => {{NASA centers}} [785] => {{Navboxes [786] => |title = Major NASA space missions and programs [787] => |state = collapsed [788] => |list1 = [789] => {{Project Mercury}} [790] => {{Gemini program}} [791] => {{Project Apollo}} [792] => {{Skylab}} [793] => {{Space Shuttle}} [794] => {{Artemis program}} [795] => {{Hubble Space Telescope}} [796] => {{James Webb Space Telescope}} [797] => {{Planetary Missions Program Office}} [798] => }} [799] => {{US research agencies}} [800] => {{Public sector space agencies}} [801] => {{Dwight D. Eisenhower}} [802] => {{Authority control}} [803] => [804] => [[Category:NASA| ]] [805] => [[Category:1958 establishments in Washington, D.C.]] [806] => [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [807] => [[Category:Collier Trophy recipients]] [808] => [[Category:Government agencies established in 1958]] [809] => [[Category:Independent agencies of the United States government]] [810] => [[Category:Organizations based in Washington, D.C.]] [811] => [[Category:Webby Award winners]] [] => )
good wiki

NASA

NASA (National Aeronautics and Space Administration) is an independent agency of the United States federal government responsible for the country's civilian space program and for aeronautics and aerospace research. Established in 1958, NASA conducts activities in space exploration, scientific research, and technological innovation.

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About

Established in 1958, NASA conducts activities in space exploration, scientific research, and technological innovation. The agency's goal is to push the boundaries of human knowledge and understanding of the universe, and to improve life on Earth through the advancement of technology. NASA is renowned for its successful manned missions to the Moon, development of the Space Shuttle program, and its ongoing efforts in space exploration, including the study of Mars and beyond. It also undertakes various Earth science missions to study our planet's climate and environment. NASA has been instrumental in numerous technological advancements, ranging from satellite technology and communications to medical innovations and materials science. With its headquarters in Washington, D. C. , NASA operates ten field centers across the United States. Through collaborations with international partners and private industry, NASA continues to pioneer discoveries and explore new frontiers in space.

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