Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Individual living being}} [1] => {{good article}} [2] => {{pp-move}} [3] => {{Use dmy dates|date=July 2019}} [4] => {{use British English|date=April 2024}} [5] => An '''organism''' is defined in a medical dictionary as any [[life|living]] thing that functions as an [[individual]].{{Cite book |title=Mosby's Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing and Health Professions |publisher=Elsevier |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-3232-2205-1 |edition=10th |location=St. Louis, Missouri |pages=1281}} Such a definition raises more problems than it solves, not least because the concept of an individual is also difficult. Many criteria, few of them widely accepted, have been proposed to define what is an organism. Among the commonest is that an organism has autonomous [[reproduction]], [[Cell growth|growth]], and [[metabolism]]. This would exclude [[virus]]es, despite that fact that they [[evolution|evolve]] like organisms. Other problematic cases include [[colonial organism]]s; a colony of [[eusocial insect]]s is organised adaptively, and has [[Germ-Soma Differentiation|germ-soma specialisation]], with some insects reproducing, others not, like cells in an animal's body. The body of a [[siphonophore]], a jelly-like marine animal, is composed of organism-like [[zooid]]s, but the whole structure looks and functions much like an animal such as a [[jellyfish]], the parts collaborating to provide the functions of the colonial organism. [6] => [7] => The evolutionary biologists [[David C. Queller|David Queller]] and [[Joan E. Strassmann|Joan Strassmann]] state that "organismality", the qualities or attributes that define an entity as an organism, has evolved socially as groups of simpler units (from cells upwards) came to cooperate without conflicts. They propose that cooperation should be used as the "defining trait" of an organism. This would treat many types of collaboration, including the [[fungus]]/[[Algae|alga]] partnership of different species in a [[lichen]], or the permanent sexual partnership of an [[anglerfish]], as an organism. [8] => [9] => == Etymology == [10] => [11] => The term "organism" (from the [[Ancient Greek]] ''{{wiktgrc|ὀργανισμός}}'', derived from {{grc-transl|ὄργανον}}, meaning instrument, implement, tool, organ of sense or apprehension){{LSJ|o)/rganon|ὄργανον|ref}} first appeared in the English language in the 1660s with the now-obsolete meaning of an organic structure or organization.{{cite web |title=organism (n.) |url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/organism |publisher=[[Online Etymology Dictionary]] |access-date=11 April 2024}} It is related to the verb "organize". In his 1790 ''[[Critique of Judgment]]'', [[Immanuel Kant]] defined an organism as "both an organized and a self-organizing being".[[Immanuel Kant|Kant, Immanuel]], ''[[Critique of Judgment]]'': §65, 5:374.{{cite journal |last=Huneman |first=Philippe |title=Kant's Concept of Organism Revisited: A Framework for a Possible Synthesis between Developmentalism and Adaptationism? |journal=The Monist |volume=100 |issue=3 |year=2017 |pages=373–390 |jstor=26370801}} [12] => [13] => == Whether criteria exist, or are needed == [14] => [15] => [[File:Basilikumwurzling.jpg|thumb|upright|One criterion proposes that an organism cannot be divided without losing functionality. This [[basil]] plant [[Cutting (plant)|cutting]] is however developing new adventitious roots from a small bit of [[Plant stem|stem]], forming a new plant.]] [16] => [17] => Among the criteria that have been proposed for being an organism are: [18] => [19] => * autonomous [[reproduction]], [[Cell growth|growth]], and [[metabolism]] [20] => * noncompartmentability – structure cannot be divided without losing functionality.{{Cite journal |last=Rosen |first=Robert |date=September 1958 |title=A relational theory of biological systems |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/BF02478302 |journal=The Bulletin of Mathematical Biophysics |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=245–260 |doi=10.1007/BF02478302 |issn=0007-4985}} [[Richard Dawkins]] stated this as "the quality of being sufficiently heterogeneous in form to be rendered non-functional if cut in half". However, many organisms can be cut into pieces which then grow into whole organisms. [21] => * [[individuality]] – the entity has simultaneous holding of genetic uniqueness, genetic homogeneity and [[autonomy]]{{Cite journal |last=Santelices |first=Bernabé |date=April 1999 |title=How many kinds of individual are there? |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0169534798015195 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=152–155 |doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(98)01519-5 |pmid=10322523 }} [22] => * an [[immune response]], separating self from foreign{{cite journal |last=Pradeu |first=T. |title=What is an organism? An immunological answer |journal=History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences |volume=32 |issue=2–3 |pages=247–267 |year=2010 |pmid=21162370 }} [23] => * "anti-[[entropy]]", the ability to maintain order, a concept first proposed by [[Erwin Schrödinger]];{{cite journal |last=Bailly |first=Francis |last2=Longo |first2=Giuseppe |title=Biological Organization and Anti-entropy |journal=Journal of Biological Systems |volume=17 |issue=01 |date=2009 |issn=0218-3390 |doi=10.1142/S0218339009002715 |pages=63–96 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/247697945_Biological_Organisation_and_Anti-Entropy}} or in another form, that [[Claude Shannon]]'s [[information theory]] can be used to identify organisms as capable of self-maintaining their information content{{Cite journal |last=Piast |first=Radosław W. |date=June 2019 |title=Shannon's information, Bernal's biopoiesis and Bernoulli distribution as pillars for building a definition of life |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0022519319301109 |journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology |volume=470 |pages=101–107 |doi=10.1016/j.jtbi.2019.03.009 |pmid=30876803 |bibcode=2019JThBi.470..101P |s2cid=80625250 }} [24] => [25] => Other scientists think that the concept of the organism is inadequate in biology;{{cite journal |last=Bateson |first=Patrick |title=The return of the whole organism |journal=Journal of Biosciences |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=31–39 |date=February 2005 |pmid=15824439 |doi=10.1007/BF02705148 |s2cid=26656790 }} [26] => that the concept of individuality is problematic;{{Cite journal |last=Clarke |first=E. |title=The problem of biological individuality |journal=Biological Theory |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=312–325 |year=2010 |doi=10.1162/BIOT_a_00068 |s2cid=28501709 }} [27] => and from a philosophical point of view, question whether such a definition is necessary.{{cite journal |last1=Pepper |first1=J.W. |last2=Herron |first2=M.D. |title=Does biology need an organism concept? |journal=Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society |volume=83 |issue=4 |pages=621–627 |date=November 2008 |pmid=18947335 |doi=10.1111/j.1469-185X.2008.00057.x |s2cid=4942890 }}{{Cite journal |last=Wilson |first=R. |title=The biological notion of individual |journal=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |date=2007}}{{Cite journal |pages=301–311 |last=Wilson |first=Jack A. |title=Ontological butchery: organism concepts and biological generalizations |journal=Philosophy of Science |date=2000 |jstor=188676 |volume=67 |doi=10.1086/392827 |s2cid=84168536 }} [28] => [29] => Problematic cases include [[Colony (biology)|colonial organisms]]: for instance, a colony of [[eusocial insects]] fulfills criteria such as adaptive organisation and [[Germ-Soma Differentiation|germ-soma]] specialisation.{{cite journal |last1=Folse |first1=H.J., III |last2=Roughgarden |first2=J. |title=What is an individual organism? A multilevel selection perspective |journal=The Quarterly Review of Biology |volume=85 |issue=4 |pages=447–472 |date=December 2010 |pmid=21243964 |doi=10.1086/656905 |s2cid=19816447 }} If so, the same argument, or a criterion of high co-operation and low conflict, would include some [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualistic]] (e.g. lichens) and sexual partnerships (e.g. [[anglerfish]]) as organisms.{{cite journal |last1=Queller |first1=David C. |last2=Strassmann |first2=Joan E. |title=Beyond society: the evolution of organismality |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences |volume=364 |issue=1533 |pages=3143–3155 |date=November 2009 |pmid=19805423 |pmc=2781869 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2009.0095 }} If [[group selection]] occurs, then a group could be viewed as a [[superorganism]], optimized by group [[adaptation]].{{cite journal |last1=Gardner |first1=A. |last2=Grafen |first2=A. |title=Capturing the superorganism: a formal theory of group adaptation |journal=Journal of Evolutionary Biology |volume=22 |issue=4 |pages=659–671 |date=April 2009 |pmid=19210588 |doi=10.1111/j.1420-9101.2008.01681.x |s2cid=8413751 |doi-access=free }} [30] => [31] => Another view is that attributes like autonomy, genetic homogeneity and genetic uniqueness should be examined separately rather than demanding that an organism should have all of them; if so, there are multiple dimensions to biological individuality, resulting in several types of organism.{{cite journal |last=Santelices |first=B. |title=How many kinds of individual are there? |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=152–155 |date=April 1999 |pmid=10322523 |doi=10.1016/s0169-5347(98)01519-5 }} [32] => [33] => == Organisms at differing levels of biological organisation == [34] => [35] => [[File:Lichen cross section – heteromeric thallus unlabelled.svg|thumb|upright=0.8|A [[lichen]] consists of a body formed mainly by [[fungi]], with unicellular [[algae]] or [[cyanobacteria]] (green) interspersed within the structure, and a bacterial [[microbiome]]. The [[species]] are mutually interdependent, like cells within a multicellular organism.]] [36] => [37] => A [[unicellular organism]] is a [[microorganism]] such as a [[protist]], [[bacterium]], or [[archaea]]n, composed of a single [[Cell (biology)|cell]], which may contain functional structures called [[organelle]]s.{{cite book |last=Hine |first=R.S. |title=A Dictionary of Biology |year=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-19-920462-5 |page=461 |edition=6th}} [38] => [39] => A [[multicellular organism]] such as an [[animal]], [[plant]], [[fungus]], or [[alga]] is composed of many cells, often specialised. [40] => [41] => A [[Colony (biology)|colonial organism]] such as a [[siphonophore]] is a being which functions as an individual but is composed of communicating individuals. [42] => [43] => A [[superorganism]] is a colony, such as of [[ant]]s, consisting of many individuals working together as a single functional or [[social unit]].{{cite book |last=Kelly |first=Kevin |title=Out of control: the new biology of machines, social systems and the economic world |publisher=Addison-Wesley |location=Boston |year=1994 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/outofcontrolnewb00kell/page/98 98] |isbn=978-0-201-48340-6 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/outofcontrolnewb00kell}} [44] => [45] => A [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualism]] is a partnership of two or more [[species]] which each provide some of the needs of the other. A [[lichen]] consists of [[Fungus|fungi]] and [[algae]] or [[cyanobacteria]], with a bacterial [[microbiome]]; together, they are able to flourish as a kind of organism, the components having different functions, in habitats such as dry rocks where neither could grow alone.{{cite journal |last=Lücking |first=Robert |last2=Leavitt |first2=Steven D. |last3=Hawksworth |first3=David L. |title=Species in lichen-forming fungi: balancing between conceptual and practical considerations, and between phenotype and phylogenomics |journal=Fungal Diversity |volume=109 |issue=1 |date=2021 |issn=1560-2745 |doi=10.1007/s13225-021-00477-7 |pages=99–154}} [46] => [47] => The evolutionary biologists [[David C. Queller|David Queller]] and [[Joan E. Strassmann|Joan Strassmann]] state that "organismality" has evolved socially, as groups of simpler units (from cells upwards) came to cooperate without conflicts. They propose that cooperation should be used as the "defining trait" of an organism. [48] => [49] => {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto;" [50] => |+ Queller and Strassmann's view of organisms as cooperating entities at differing levels of biological organisation [51] => |- [52] => ! Level !! Example !! Composition !! Metabolism,
growth,
reproduction !! Co-operation [53] => |- [54] => | [[Virus]] || [[Tobacco mosaic virus]] || [[Nucleic acid]], [[protein]] || No || No metabolism, so not living, not an organism, say many biologists; but they evolve, their genes collaborating to manipulate the host [55] => |- [56] => | [[Unicellular organism]] || ''[[Paramecium]]'' || One [[Cell (biology)|cell]], with [[organelle]]s e.g. [[Cilium|cilia]] for specific functions || Yes || Inter-cellular (inter-organismal) [[cell signaling|signalling]] [57] => |- [58] => | Swarming [[protist|protistan]] || ''[[Dictyostelium]]'' (cellular slime mould) || Unicellular [[amoeba]]e || Yes || Free-living unicellular amoebae for most of lifetime; swarm and aggregate to a multicellular slug, cells specialising to form a dead stalk and [[sorocarp|a fruiting body]] [59] => |- [60] => | [[Multicellular organism]] || [[Mushroom]]-forming fungus || Cells, grouped into organs for specific functions (e.g. reproduction) || Yes || Cell specialisation, communication [61] => |- [62] => | Permanent sexual partnership || [[Anglerfish]] || Male and female permanently fastened together || Yes || Male provides male [[gamete]]s; female provides all other functions [63] => |- [64] => | [[Mutualism (biology)|Mutualism]] || [[Lichen]] || Organisms of different [[species]] || Yes || [[Fungus]] provides structure, absorbs water and minerals; [[Algae|alga]] photosynthesises [65] => |- [66] => | Joined [[Colony (biology)|colony]] || [[Siphonophore]] || [[Zooid]]s joined together || Yes || Organism specialisation; inter-organism signalling [67] => |- [68] => | [[Superorganism]] || [[Ant]] colony || Individuals living together || Yes || Organism specialisation (many ants do not reproduce); [[Chemical communication in insects|inter-organism signalling]] [69] => |} [70] => [71] => Samuel Díaz‐Muñoz and colleagues (2016) accept Queller and Strassmann's view that organismality can be measured wholly by degrees of cooperation and of conflict. They state that this situates organisms in evolutionary time, so that organismality is context dependent. They suggest that highly integrated life forms, which are not context dependent, may evolve through context-dependent stages towards complete unification.{{cite journal |last=Díaz‐Muñoz |first=Samuel L. |last2=Boddy |first2=Amy M. |last3=Dantas |first3=Gautam |last4=Waters |first4=Christopher M. |last5=Bronstein |first5=Judith L. |title=Contextual organismality: Beyond pattern to process in the emergence of organisms |journal=Evolution |volume=70 |issue=12 |year=2016 |issn=0014-3820 |pmid=27704542 |pmc=5132100 |doi=10.1111/evo.13078 |pages=2669–2677}} [72] => [73] => == Boundary cases == [74] => [75] => === Viruses === [76] => [77] => {{main|Virus}} [78] => [79] => [[File:TMV structure simple.png|thumb|A virus such as [[tobacco mosaic virus]] is not a cell; it contains only its genetic material, and a protein coat.]] [80] => [81] => [[Virus]]es are not typically considered to be organisms, because they are incapable of autonomous [[reproduction]], [[Cell growth|growth]], [[metabolism]], or [[homeostasis]]. Although viruses have a few [[enzyme]]s and molecules like those in living organisms, they have no metabolism of their own; they cannot synthesize the organic compounds from which they are formed. In this sense, they are similar to inanimate matter.{{cite journal |last1=Moreira |first1=D. |last2=López-García |first2=P.N. |title=Ten reasons to exclude viruses from the tree of life |journal=Nature Reviews. Microbiology |volume=7 |issue=4 |pages=306–311 |date=April 2009 |pmid=19270719 |doi=10.1038/nrmicro2108 |s2cid=3907750 }} Viruses have their own [[gene]]s, and they [[evolution|evolve]]. Thus, an argument that viruses should be classed as living organisms is their ability to undergo evolution and replicate through self-assembly. However, some scientists argue that viruses neither evolve nor self-reproduce. Instead, viruses are evolved by their host cells, meaning that there was co-evolution of viruses and host cells. If host cells did not exist, viral evolution would be impossible. As for reproduction, viruses rely on hosts' machinery to replicate. The discovery of viruses with genes coding for energy metabolism and protein synthesis fuelled the debate about whether viruses are living organisms, but the genes have a cellular origin. Most likely, they were acquired through [[horizontal gene transfer]] from viral hosts. [82] => [83] => Radosław Piast compares viruses to cellular organisms. He comments that whereas in 1983, Claudiu Bandea claimed that a virus "shows the major physiological properties of other organisms: metabolism, growth, and reproduction. Therefore, life is an effective presence",{{cite journal |last=Bandea |first=Claudiu I. |title=A new theory on the origin and the nature of viruses |journal=Journal of Theoretical Biology |volume=105 |issue=4 |date=1983 |doi=10.1016/0022-5193(83)90221-7 |pages=591–602}} viruses do not possess these capabilities but rely exclusively on their hosts for all such cellular processes. [84] => [85] => {|class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto;" [86] => |+ Radosław Piast's comparison of cellular organisms and viruses [87] => |- [88] => ! Capability !! [[Cell (biology)|Cell]]ular organism !! [[Virus]] [89] => |- [90] => |[[Metabolism]] ||Yes ||No, rely entirely on host cell [91] => |- [92] => |[[Cell growth|Growth]] ||Yes ||No, just [[self-assembly]] [93] => |- [94] => |[[Reproduction]] ||Yes ||No, rely entirely on host cell [95] => |- [96] => |Store [[genetic information]] about themselves ||[[DNA]] ||DNA or [[RNA]] [97] => |- [98] => |Able to [[evolution|evolve]] ||[[Evolution|Yes]]: [[mutation]], [[Recombination (biology)|recombination]], [[natural selection]] ||[[Viral evolution|Yes]]: high mutation rate, natural selection [99] => |} [100] => [101] => === Organism-like colonies === [102] => [103] => [[File:Apolemia sp.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Apolemia]]'', a colonial [[Siphonophorae|siphonophore]] that functions as a single individual]] [104] => [105] => The philosopher Jack A. Wilson examines some boundary cases to demonstrate that the concept of organism is not sharply defined. In his view, [[sponge]]s, [[lichen]]s, [[Siphonophorae|siphonophore]]s, [[Slime mold|slime mould]]s, and [[Eusociality|eusocial]] colonies such as of [[ant]]s or [[Naked mole-rat|naked molerat]]s, all lie in the boundary zone between being definite colonies and definite organisms (or superorganisms). [106] => [107] => {| class="wikitable" style="margin: 1em auto;" [108] => |+ Jack A. Wilson's analysis of the similar organism-like nature of siphonophores and jellyfish [109] => |- [110] => ! Function !! Colonial [[Siphonophorae|siphonophore]] !! [[Jellyfish]] [111] => |- [112] => | Buoyancy || Top of [[Colony (biology)|colony]] is gas-filled || Jelly [113] => |- [114] => | Propulsion || [[Nectophore]]s co-ordinate to pump water || Body pulsates to pump water [115] => |- [116] => | Feeding || [[Palpon]]s and [[gastrozooid]]s ingest prey, feed other zooids || Tentacles trap prey, pass it to mouth [117] => |- [118] => | Functional structure || Single functional individual || Single functional individual [119] => |- [120] => | Composition || Many [[zooid]]s, possibly individuals || Many [[Cell (biology)|cell]]s [121] => |}{{-}} [122] => [123] => === Synthetic organisms === [124] => [125] => [[File:Insect cyborg.jpg|thumb|Insect [[cyborg]] ]] [126] => [127] => Scientists and bio-engineers are experimenting with different types of [[Synthetic biology|synthetic organism]], from [[Chimera (genetics)|chimaera]]s composed of cells from two or more species, [[cyborg]]s including [[electromechanics|electromechanical]] limbs, [[hybrot]]s containing both electronic and biological elements, and other combinations of systems that have variously evolved and been designed.{{cite journal |last1=Clawson |first1=Wesley P. |last2=Levin |first2=Michael |title=Endless forms most beautiful 2.0: teleonomy and the bioengineering of chimaeric and synthetic organisms |journal=Biological Journal of the Linnean Society |volume=138 |issue=1 |date=2023-01-01 |issn=0024-4066 |doi=10.1093/biolinnean/blac116 |pages=141–141|doi-access=free }} [128] => [129] => An evolved organism takes its form by the partially understood mechanisms of [[evolutionary developmental biology]], in which the [[genome]] directs an elaborated series of interactions to produce successively more elaborate structures. The existence of chimaeras and hybrids demonstrates that these mechanisms are "intelligently" robust in the face of radically altered circumstances at all levels from molecular to organismal. [130] => [131] => Synthetic organisms already take diverse forms, and their diversity will increase. What they all have in common is a [[Teleonomy|teleonomic]] or goal-seeking behaviour that enables them to correct errors of many kinds so as to achieve whatever result they are designed for. Such behaviour is reminiscent of intelligent action by organisms; intelligence is seen as an embodied form of [[cognition]]. [132] => [133] => == References == [134] => [135] => {{reflist}} [136] => [137] => == External links == [138] => [139] => * {{cite web |work=Tree of Life Web Project |url=http://tolweb.org/tree/phylogeny.html |title=The Tree of Life }} [140] => * {{cite web |url=http://www.species2000.org/ |work=Species 2000 |title=Indexing the world's known species }} aims to enumerate all known species. [141] => [142] => {{Nature nav}} [143] => {{Composition (Biology)}} [144] => {{Self-replicating organic structures}} [145] => [146] => {{Authority control}} [147] => [148] => [[Category:Organisms|Organisms]] [149] => [150] => [[ceb:Organismo]] [] => )
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Organism

An organism is a living entity that exhibits all the characteristics of life. It can be a single-celled microscopic organism like bacteria or a complex multicellular organism like a human being.

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It can be a single-celled microscopic organism like bacteria or a complex multicellular organism like a human being. Organisms undergo various processes like metabolism, reproduction, and adaptation to their environment. They are classified into different kingdoms based on their structures, functions, and evolutionary relationships. Organisms play a crucial role in ecosystems as they interact with other organisms and their environment. This Wikipedia page provides a comprehensive overview of organisms, their classification, characteristics, and importance in the study of biology.

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The Wikipedia page on "Animal" provides a comprehensive overview of the kingdom Animalia, which includes all multicellular organisms that are not part of the plant, fungus, or bacteria kingdoms.

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DNA, also known as deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.

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Entropy

Entropy is a concept in thermodynamics and information theory that measures the randomness or disorder in a system.

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Evolution is a process that describes how living organisms have adapted and changed over time.

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Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that belong to the kingdom Fungi.

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A gamete is a haploid cell that is involved in sexual reproduction.

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Gene is a widely recognized online encyclopedia that provides information on a wide range of topics, including biology, genetics, and other related fields.

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The Wikipedia page for "Genome" provides a comprehensive overview of what a genome is, its structure, function, and significance.

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Homeostasis is the ability of living organisms to maintain a stable internal environment despite changes in their external surroundings.

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Microorganism

A microorganism is a living organism that is too small to be seen by the naked eye.

Organelle

An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function.

Plant

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