Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Oxide mineral}} [1] => {{About|the mineral|synthetic compounds|Perovskite (structure)|solar cells using perovskite-structured compounds|Perovskite solar cell}} [2] => {{Infobox mineral [3] => | name = Perovskite [4] => | category = [[Oxide minerals]] [5] => | boxwidth = [6] => | boxbgcolor = [7] => | image = Perovskite-155026.jpg [8] => | caption = Crystals of perovskite on matrix
Size: {{cvt|2.3|x|2.1|x|2.0|cm|1}} [9] => | formula = {{chem2|CaTiO3}} [10] => | IMAsymbol = Prv{{Cite journal|last=Warr|first=L.N.|date=2021|title=IMA–CNMNC approved mineral symbols|journal=Mineralogical Magazine|volume=85|issue=3 |pages=291–320|doi=10.1180/mgm.2021.43 |bibcode=2021MinM...85..291W |s2cid=235729616 |doi-access=free}} [11] => | molweight = 135.96 g/mol [12] => | strunz = 4.CC.30 [13] => | system = [[Orthorhombic]] [14] => | class = Dipyramidal (mmm)
[[H-M symbol]]: (2/m 2/m 2/m) [15] => | symmetry = ''Pbnm'' [16] => | color = Black, reddish brown, pale yellow, yellowish orange [17] => | habit = Pseudo cubic – crystals show a cubic outline [18] => | cleavage = [100] good, [010] good, [001] good [19] => | twinning = complex penetration twins [20] => | fracture = Conchoidal [21] => | mohs = 5.0–5.5 [22] => | luster = Adamantine to metallic; may be dull [23] => | refractive = ''n''α = 2.3, ''n''β = 2.34, ''n''γ = 2.38 [24] => | opticalprop = Biaxial (+) [25] => | birefringence = [26] => | pleochroism = [27] => | streak = grayish white [28] => | gravity = 3.98–4.26 [29] => | melt = [30] => | fusibility = [31] => | diagnostic = [32] => | solubility = [33] => | diaphaneity = Transparent to opaque [34] => | other = non-radioactive, non-magnetic [35] => | references = {{cite web|url=https://www.mineralienatlas.de/lexikon/index.php/MineralData?mineral=Prehnite |title=Prehnit (Prehnite) |website=Mineralienatlas.de}}{{cite web|url=http://webmineral.com/data/Perovskite.shtml |title=Perovskite |website=Webmineral}}{{cite encyclopedia|editor1-last=Anthony |editor1-first=John W. |editor2-last=Bideaux |editor2-first=Richard A. |editor3-last=Bladh |editor3-first=Kenneth W. |editor4-last=Nichols |editor4-first=Monte C. |chapter-url=http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/doclib/hom/perovskite.pdf |entry=Perovskite |encyclopedia=Handbook of Mineralogy |publisher=Mineralogical Society of America |location=Chantilly, VA}}{{cite book|last1=Inoue |first1=Naoki |last2=Zou |first2=Yanhui |date=2006 |chapter-url=http://www.trnres.com/ebook/uploads/sakuma/T_1231489278Sakuma%208.pdf |chapter=Physical properties of perovskite-type lithium ionic conductor |editor1-first=Takashi |editor1-last=Sakuma |editor2-first=Haruyuki |editor2-last=Takahashi |title=Physics of Solid State Ionics |pages=247–269 |publisher=Research Signpost |isbn=978-81-308-0070-7}} [36] => }} [37] => '''Perovskite''' (pronunciation: {{IPAc-en|p|ə|'|r|ɒ|v|s|k|aɪ|t}}) is a calcium titanium [[oxide mineral]] composed of [[calcium titanate]] (chemical formula {{chem2|CaTiO3|auto=1}}). Its name is also applied to the class of compounds which have the same type of [[crystal structure]] as {{chem2|CaTiO3}}, known as the [[perovskite (structure)|perovskite structure]], which has a general [[chemical formula]] {{chem2|A(2+)B(4+)(X(2−))3}}.{{cite book |title=Minerals: Their Constitution and Origin |first1=Hans-Rudolf |last1=Wenk |first2=Andrei |last2=Bulakh |publisher=Cambridge University Press|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mjIji8x-N1MC&pg=PA413|page=413 |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-521-52958-7 |location=New York}} Many different [[cations]] can be embedded in this structure, allowing the development of diverse engineered materials.{{cite journal|doi=10.1126/science.358.6364.732 |pmid=29123058 |title=Natural and engineered perovskites |journal=Science |volume=358 |issue=6364 |pages=732–733 |year=2017 |last1=Szuromi |first1=Phillip |last2=Grocholski |first2=Brent |bibcode=2017Sci...358..732S |doi-access=free }} [38] => [39] => == History == [40] => The mineral was discovered in the [[Ural Mountains]] of [[Russia]] by [[Gustav Rose]] in 1839 and is named after Russian mineralogist [[Lev Perovski]] (1792–1856). Perovskite's notable crystal structure was first described by [[Victor Goldschmidt]] in 1926 in his work on tolerance factors.{{cite journal|author=Golschmidt, V. M.|title=Die Gesetze der Krystallochemie|journal=Die Naturwissenschaften|year=1926|volume=14|pages=477–485|doi=10.1007/BF01507527 |bibcode = 1926NW.....14..477G|issue=21 |s2cid=33792511}} The crystal structure was later published in 1945 from [[X-ray diffraction]] data on [[barium titanate]] by [[Helen Dick Megaw]].{{cite journal|author=Megaw, Helen|title=Crystal Structure of Barium Titanate|journal=Nature|year=1945|volume=155|pages=484–485|doi=10.1038/155484b0|issue=3938|bibcode = 1945Natur.155..484. |s2cid=4096136}} [41] => [42] => == Occurrence == [43] => Found in the Earth's [[Mantle (geology)|mantle]], perovskite's occurrence at [[Khibiny Mountains|Khibina Massif]] is restricted to the silica under-saturated [[ultramafic]] rocks and [[foidolite]]s, due to the instability in a [[paragenesis]] with [[feldspar]]. Perovskite occurs as small [[Euhedral and anhedral|anhedral]] to subhedral crystals filling interstices between the rock-forming silicates.{{cite journal|url=http://rruff.geo.arizona.edu/doclib/cm/vol36/CM36_953.pdf |title=Compositional variation of perovskite-group minerals from the Khibina Complex, Kola Peninsula, Russia|journal=The Canadian Mineralogist|year=1998 |volume=36|pages=953–969|author1=Chakhmouradian, Anton R. |author2=Mitchell, Roger H. }} [44] => [45] => Perovskite is found in [[contact metamorphism#Contact (thermal) metamorphism|contact]] [[Carbonate rock|carbonate]] [[skarn]]s at [[Magnet Cove igneous complex|Magnet Cove]], [[Arkansas]], US, in altered blocks of [[limestone]] ejected from [[Mount Vesuvius]], in [[Chlorite group|chlorite]] and [[talc]] [[schist]] in the [[Urals]] and [[Switzerland]],Palache, Charles, Harry Berman and Clifford Frondel, 1944, ''Dana's System of Mineralogy'' Vol. 1, Wiley, 7th ed. p. 733 and as an accessory mineral in alkaline and [[mafic]] [[igneous rock]]s, [[nepheline syenite]], melilitite, [[kimberlite]]s and rare [[carbonatite]]s. Perovskite is a common mineral in the [[Ca-Al-rich inclusion]]s found in some [[chondrite|chondritic meteorites]]. [46] => [47] => The stability of perovskite in [[igneous rocks]] is limited by its reaction relation with [[sphene]]. In [[volcanic rocks]] perovskite and sphene are not found together, the only exception being an etindite from [[Cameroon]].{{cite journal |last1=Veksler |first1=I. V. |last2=Teptelev |first2=M. P. |year=1990 |title=Conditions for crystallization and concentration of perovskite-type minerals in alkaline magmas |journal=Lithos |volume=26 |issue=1 |pages=177–189 |bibcode=1990Litho..26..177V |doi=10.1016/0024-4937(90)90047-5}} [48] => [49] => A [[rare-earth]]-bearing variety ''knopite'' with the chemical formula {{chem2|(Ca,Ce,Na)(Ti,Fe)O3}} is found in alkali intrusive rocks in the [[Kola Peninsula]] and near [[Alnö#Geology|Alnö]], [[Sweden]]. A [[niobium]]-bearing variety ''dysanalyte'' occurs in carbonatite near Schelingen, [[Kaiserstuhl (Baden-Württemberg)|Kaiserstuhl]], [[Germany]].{{cite book|first1=William Alexander |last1=Deer|first2=Robert Andrew |last2=Howie|first3=J. |last3=Zussman|title=An introduction to the rock-forming minerals|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=GmHgngEACAAJ}}|year=1992|publisher=Longman Scientific Technical|isbn=978-0-582-30094-1}} [50] => [51] => === In stars and brown dwarfs === [52] => In [[star]]s and [[brown dwarf]]s the formation of perovskite grains is responsible for the depletion of [[Titanium(II) oxide|titanium oxide]] in the [[photosphere]]. Stars with a low temperature have dominant bands of TiO in their [[Electromagnetic spectrum|spectrum]]; as the temperature gets lower for stars and brown dwarfs with an even lower mass, {{chem2|CaTiO3}} forms and at temperatures below 2000 [[Kelvin|K]] TiO is undetectable. The presence of TiO is used to define the transition between cool [[M dwarf star|M-dwarf stars]] and the colder [[L dwarf|L-dwarfs]].{{Cite journal|last1=Allard|first1=France|last2=Hauschildt|first2=Peter H.|last3=Alexander|first3=David R.|last4=Tamanai|first4=Akemi|last5=Schweitzer|first5=Andreas|date=July 2001|title=The Limiting Effects of Dust in Brown Dwarf Model Atmospheres|journal=Astrophysical Journal|language=en|volume=556|issue=1|pages=357–372|doi=10.1086/321547|issn=0004-637X|arxiv=astro-ph/0104256|bibcode=2001ApJ...556..357A|s2cid=14944231}}{{Cite journal|last1=Kirkpatrick|first1=J. Davy|last2=Allard|first2=France|last3=Bida|first3=Tom|last4=Zuckerman|first4=Ben|last5=Becklin|first5=E. E.|last6=Chabrier|first6=Gilles|last7=Baraffe|first7=Isabelle|date=July 1999|title=An Improved Optical Spectrum and New Model FITS of the Likely Brown Dwarf GD 165B|journal=Astrophysical Journal|language=en|volume=519|issue=2|pages=834–843|doi=10.1086/307380|bibcode=1999ApJ...519..834K|issn=0004-637X|doi-access=free}} [53] => [54] => == Physical properties == [55] => [[File:Perovskite crystal structure (Yamanaka-Hirai-Komatsu 2002) crystallographic standard alignment.png|thumb|left|Crystal structure of perovskite {{chem2|CaTiO3}}; red=oxygen, grey=titanium, blue=calcium]] [56] => The eponymous Perovskite {{chem2|CaTiO3}} crystallizes in the ''Pbnm'' [[space group]] (No. 62) with [[lattice constant]]s ''a'' = 5.39 [[Angstrom|Å]], b = 5.45 Å and c = 7.65 Å.{{Cite journal |last1=Buttner |first1=R. H. |last2=Maslen |first2=E. N. |date=1992-10-01 |title=Electron difference density and structural parameters in CaTiO3 |url=http://scripts.iucr.org/cgi-bin/paper?S0108768192004592 |journal=Acta Crystallographica Section B: Structural Science |language=en |volume=48 |issue=5 |pages=644–649 |doi=10.1107/S0108768192004592 |bibcode=1992AcCrB..48..644B |issn=0108-7681}} [57] => [58] => Perovskites have a nearly cubic structure with the general formula {{chem2|ABO3}}. In this structure the A-site ion, in the center of the lattice, is usually an alkaline earth or [[rare-earth element]]. B-site ions, on the corners of the lattice, are [[Quantum number#Azimuthal quantum number|3d, 4d, and 5d]] [[transition metal]] elements. The A-site cations are in 12-fold coordination with the anions, while the B-site cations are in 6-fold coordination. A large number of metallic elements are stable in the perovskite structure if the Goldschmidt [[Goldschmidt tolerance factor|tolerance factor]] ''t'' is in the range of 0.75 to 1.0.{{Cite journal [59] => | pmid = 11710238 [60] => | doi = 10.1021/cr980129f [61] => | year = 2001 [62] => | last1 = Peña [63] => | first1 = M. A. [64] => | title = Chemical structures and performance of perovskite oxides [65] => | journal = Chemical Reviews [66] => | volume = 101 [67] => | issue = 7 [68] => | pages = 1981–2017 [69] => | last2 = Fierro [70] => | first2 = J. L. [71] => | url = http://www.theeestory.com/files/Chemical_Structure_of_Perovskite_Oxides_Pen_a.pdf [72] => }}{{Dead link|date=May 2020 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [73] => [74] => : t = \frac{R_{\rm A} + R_{\rm O}}{\sqrt2 \left(R_{\rm B} + R_{\rm O}\right)}, [75] => [76] => where ''R''A, ''R''B and ''R''O are the [[Ionic radius|ionic radii]] of A and B site elements and oxygen, respectively. The stability of perovskites can be characterized with the tolerance and octahedral factors. When conditions are not fulfilled, a layered geometry for edge-sharing or face-sharing octahedra or lower B-site coordination is preferred. These are good structural bounds, but not an empirical prediction.{{cite journal |last1=Filip |first1=Marina |last2=Giustino |first2=Feliciano |title=The Geometric Blueprint of Perovskites |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |year=2018 |volume=115 |issue=21 |pages=5397–5402 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1719179115|pmid=29735683 |pmc=6003477 |arxiv=1805.08250 |bibcode=2018PNAS..115.5397F |doi-access=free }} [77] => [78] => Perovskites have sub-metallic to [[metal]]lic [[Lustre (mineralogy)|luster]], colorless [[Streak (mineralogy)|streak]], and cube-like structure along with imperfect [[Cleavage (crystal)|cleavage]] and brittle tenacity. Colors include black, brown, gray, orange to yellow. Perovskite crystals may appear to have the [[cubic crystal]] form, but are often ''pseudocubic'' and actually crystallize in the [[orthorhombic]] system, as is the case for {{chem2|CaTiO3}} ([[strontium titanate]], with the larger [[strontium]] cation in the A-site, is cubic). Perovskite crystals have been mistaken for [[galena]]; however, galena has a better metallic luster, greater density, perfect cleavage and true cubic symmetry.{{cite journal|doi=10.1007/s10973-008-9329-z|url=http://www.akademiai.com/content/3640137983447pt3/fulltext.pdf|title=Study of Perovskite|year=2008|last1=Luxová|first1=Jana|last2=Šulcová|first2=Petra|last3=Trojan|first3=M.|journal=Journal of Thermal Analysis and Calorimetry|volume=93|issue=3|pages=823–827|s2cid=97682597}}{{Dead link|date=April 2024 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [79] => [80] => == Perovskite derivatives == [81] => === Double perovskites === [82] => A double perovskite has a formula of {{chem2|A'A"B'B"O6}} and replaces half the B sites with B{{prime}}, where A are alkaline or rare earth metals and B are transition metals. The cation arrangement will differ based on charge, coordination geometry, and the ratio between A cation and B cation radii. The B and B{{prime}} cations lead to different ordering schemes. These ordering schemes are rock salt, columnar, and layered structures.{{cite journal |last1=Saha-Dasgupta |first1=Tanusri |title=Double perovskites with 3d and 4d/5d transition metals: compounds with promises |journal=Materials Research Express |date=2001 |volume=101 |issue=7 |pages=1981–2017 |doi=10.1088/2053-1591/ab6293|s2cid=214470882 |doi-access=free }} [83] => Rock salt is an alternating, three-dimensional checkerboard of B and B' polyhedra. This structure is the most common from an electrostatic point of view, as the B sites will have different valence states. Columnar arrangement can be viewed as sheets of B-cation polyhedral viewed from the [111] direction. Layered structures are seen as sheets of B{{prime}} and B polyhedra. [84] => [85] => === Lower dimensional perovskites === [86] => 3D perovskites form when there is a smaller cation in the A site so {{chem2|BX6}} octahedra can be corner shared. 2D perovskites form when the A-site cation is larger so octahedra sheets are formed. In 1D perovskites, a chain of octahedra is formed{{cite journal |last1=Trifiletti |first1=Vanira |title=Quasi-Zero dimensional Halide Perovskite Derivatives: Synthesis, Status, and Opportunity |journal=Frontiers in Electronics |date=2021 |volume=2 |doi=10.3389/felec.2021.758603|doi-access=free |hdl=10281/352629 |hdl-access=free }} [87] => while in 0D perovskites, individual octahedra are separated from each other. Both 1D and 0D perovskites lead to quantum confinement{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Zhipeng |title=Metal Halide Perovskite/2D Material Heterostructures: Syntheses and Applications |journal=Materials Research Express |date=2021 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=e2000937 |doi=10.1002/smtd.202000937|pmid=34927847 |s2cid=234172920 }} and are investigated for lead-free [[perovskite solar cell]] materials.{{cite journal |last1=Gao |first1=Yuting |title=Lead-free halide perovskites: a review of the structure–property relationship and applications in light emitting devices and radiation detectors |journal=Journal of Materials Chemistry A |year=2021 |volume=9 |issue=20 |pages=11931–11943 |doi=10.1039/d1ta01737c|s2cid=236391984 }} [88] => [89] => == See also == [90] => * [[Haber process#Process|Haber process]] [91] => * [[Post-perovskite]] [92] => * [[Silicate perovskite]] [93] => * [[Perovskite solar cell]] [94] => [95] => == References == [96] => {{Reflist}} [97] => [98] => == External links == [99] => * {{Cite EB1911|wstitle=Perovskite|short=x}} [100] => * {{commons category-inline|Perovskite}} [101] => [102] => {{Titanium minerals}} [103] => {{Titanium compounds}} [104] => {{Calcium compounds}} [105] => {{Authority control}} [106] => [107] => [[Category:Calcium minerals]] [108] => [[Category:Titanium minerals]] [109] => [[Category:Oxide minerals]] [110] => [[Category:Orthorhombic minerals]] [111] => [[Category:Minerals in space group 62]] [112] => [[Category:Perovskites]] [113] => [[Category:Minerals described in 1839]] [] => )
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Perovskite

Perovskite is a mineral that was first discovered in the Ural Mountains of Russia in the 19th century. It is named after Russian mineralogist Lev Perovski, who studied the mineral in detail.

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It is named after Russian mineralogist Lev Perovski, who studied the mineral in detail. Perovskite is a complex oxide mineral with the chemical formula ABX3, where A and B represent cations and X represents an anion. In recent years, perovskite has gained significant attention due to its unique properties and potential applications in various fields. It has been extensively studied for its promising electronic, optical, and catalytic properties. Perovskite materials have shown excellent performance in solar cells, with conversion efficiencies surpassing those of traditional silicon-based solar cells. The structure of perovskite allows for easy modification and tuning of its properties by changing the composition of the cations and anions. This flexibility has made perovskite materials highly versatile and suitable for a wide range of applications, including light-emitting diodes (LEDs), photodetectors, sensors, and fuel cells. Despite its potential, the commercialization of perovskite-based devices has been hindered by various challenges. One major issue is the instability and degradation of perovskite materials under certain environmental conditions, such as moisture and heat. Researchers are actively working towards improving the stability and durability of perovskite materials to make them commercially viable. Overall, perovskite has emerged as a promising material for various technological applications. Ongoing research and development efforts aim to address the challenges associated with its commercialization and unlock its full potential in the fields of energy, electronics, and beyond.

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