Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants}} [1] => {{For|the journal|Phytochemistry (journal)}} [2] => {{Biochemistry sidebar}} [3] => {{more medical citations|date=November 2020}} [4] => [5] => '''Phytochemistry''' is the study of [[phytochemical]]s, which are chemicals derived from [[plant]]s. Phytochemists strive to describe the structures of the large number of [[secondary metabolite]]s found in plants, the functions of these compounds in human and plant biology, and the biosynthesis of these compounds. Plants synthesize phytochemicals for many reasons, including to protect themselves against [[insect]] attacks and [[plant disease]]s. The compounds found in plants are of many kinds, but most can be grouped into four major biosynthetic classes: [[alkaloid]]s, [[phenylpropanoid]]s, [[polyketide]]s, and [[terpenoid]]s. [6] => [7] => Phytochemistry can be considered a subfield of [[botany]] or [[chemistry]]. Activities can be led in [[botanical garden]]s or in the wild with the aid of [[ethnobotany]]. Phytochemical studies directed toward human (i.e. drug discovery) use may fall under the discipline of [[pharmacognosy]], whereas phytochemical studies focused on the ecological functions and evolution of phytochemicals likely fall under the discipline of [[chemical ecology]]. Phytochemistry also has relevance to the field of [[plant physiology]]. [8] => [9] => == Techniques == [10] => Techniques commonly used in the field of phytochemistry are [[Extraction (chemistry)|extraction]], isolation, and [[structural elucidation]] ([[Mass spectrometry|MS]],1D and 2D NMR) of [[natural products]], as well as various [[chromatography]] techniques (MPLC, [[High performance liquid chromatography|HPLC]], and LC-MS). [11] => [12] => == Phytochemicals == [13] => [14] => Many plants produce chemical compounds [[Plant defense against herbivory|for defence against herbivores]]. The major classes of pharmacologically active [[phytochemical]]s are described below, with examples of medicinal plants that contain them.{{cite encyclopedia |title=Angiosperms: Division Magnoliophyta: General Features |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] (volume 13, 15th edition) |year=1993 |page=609 }} Human settlements are often surrounded by weeds containing phytochemicals, such as [[Urtica dioica|nettle]], [[dandelion]] and [[chickweed]].{{cite book |author=Meskin, Mark S. |title=Phytochemicals in Nutrition and Health |publisher=CRC Press|year=2002 |isbn=978-1-58716-083-7 |page=123 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cJHsMALUDj0C&pg=PA123}}{{cite book |author1=Springbob, Karen |author2=Kutchan, Toni M. |chapter=Introduction to the different classes of natural products|editor=Lanzotti, Virginia |title=Plant-Derived Natural Products: Synthesis, Function, and Application |publisher=Springer |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-387-85497-7 |page=3 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Y8SpVXEng4QC&pg=PA3}} [15] => [16] => Many phytochemicals, including [[curcumin]], [[epigallocatechin gallate]], [[genistein]], and [[resveratrol]] are [[pan-assay interference compounds]] and are not useful in [[drug discovery]].{{cite journal|last1=Baell|first1=Jonathan|last2=Walters|first2=Michael A.|title=Chemistry: Chemical con artists foil drug discovery|journal=Nature|date=24 September 2014|volume=513|issue=7519|pages=481–483|doi=10.1038/513481a|pmid = 25254460|bibcode=2014Natur.513..481B|doi-access=free}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Dahlin JL, Walters MA | title = The essential roles of chemistry in high-throughput screening triage | journal = [[Future Medicinal Chemistry]] | volume = 6 | issue = 11 | pages = 1265–90 | date = July 2014 | pmid = 25163000 | pmc = 4465542 | doi = 10.4155/fmc.14.60 }} [17] => [18] => ===Alkaloids=== [19] => {{Further|Alkaloids}} [20] => [21] => [[Alkaloids]] are bitter-tasting chemicals, widespread in nature, and often toxic. There are several classes with different modes of action as drugs, both recreational and pharmaceutical. Medicines of different classes include [[atropine]], [[scopolamine]], and [[hyoscyamine]] (all from [[nightshade]]),{{cite web |title=Atropa Belladonna |url=http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Maximum_Residue_Limits_-_Report/2009/11/WC500010731.pdf |publisher=The European Agency for the Evaluation of Medicinal Products |access-date=26 February 2017 |date=1998 |archive-date=17 April 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180417200131/http://www.ema.europa.eu/docs/en_GB/document_library/Maximum_Residue_Limits_-_Report/2009/11/WC500010731.pdf |url-status=dead }} the traditional medicine [[berberine]] (from plants such as ''[[Berberis]]'' and ''[[Mahonia]]''), [[caffeine]] (''[[Coffea]]''), [[cocaine]] (''[[Coca]]''), [[ephedrine]] (''[[Ephedra (plant)|Ephedra]]''), [[morphine]] ([[opium poppy]]), [[nicotine]] ([[tobacco]]), [[reserpine]] (''[[Rauvolfia serpentina]]''), [[quinidine]] and [[quinine]] (''[[Cinchona]]''), [[vincamine]] (''[[Vinca minor]]''), and [[vincristine]] (''[[Catharanthus roseus]]'').{{cite journal | last1 =Gremigni|display-authors=etal| first1=P.| year=2003| title =The interaction of phosphorus and potassium with seed alkaloid concentrations, yield and mineral content in narrow-leafed lupin (Lupinus angustifolius L.) | journal=[[Plant and Soil]] | volume=253| issue=2 | pages =413–427 | publisher=Springer | location=Heidelberg | jstor=24121197|doi=10.1023/A:1024828131581|s2cid=25434984}} [22] => [23] => [24] => File:Opium poppy.jpg|The opium poppy ''[[Papaver somniferum]]'' is the source of the [[alkaloids]] [[morphine]] and [[codeine]]. [25] => File:Nicotine.svg|The alkaloid [[nicotine]] from [[tobacco]] binds directly to the body's [[Nicotinic acetylcholine receptor]]s, accounting for its pharmacological effects.{{cite web |title=Nicotinic acetylcholine receptors: Introduction |url=http://www.iuphar-db.org/DATABASE/FamilyIntroductionForward?familyId=76&familyType=IC |website=IUPHAR Database |publisher=International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology |access-date=26 February 2017 |archive-date=29 June 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629235725/http://www.iuphar-db.org/DATABASE/FamilyIntroductionForward?familyId=76&familyType=IC |url-status=dead }} [26] => File:Koeh-018.jpg|[[Deadly nightshade]], ''Atropa belladonna'', yields [[tropane alkaloid]]s including [[atropine]], [[scopolamine]] and [[hyoscyamine]]. [27] => File:DMT.svg|N,N-Dimethyltryptamine ([[N,N-Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]]) a powerful [[Psychedelic drug|psychedelic]] compound which is present in several plant species found across the globe, commonly found in [[Mimosa]] and [[Acacia]] species but has also been discovered in grasses such as [[Phalaris aquatica|Philaris Aquatica]]. [28] => [29] => [30] => ===Glycosides=== [31] => {{Further|Glycosides}} [32] => [33] => [[Anthraquinone]] [[glycosides]] are found in [[senna (herb)|senna]],{{cite journal |author1=Hietala, P. |author2=Marvola, M. |author3=Parviainen, T. |author4=Lainonen, H. | title=Laxative potency and acute toxicity of some anthraquinone derivatives, senna extracts and fractions of senna extracts | volume=61 | issue=2 | pages=153–6 | journal=Pharmacology & Toxicology | pmid=3671329 |date=August 1987 | doi=10.1111/j.1600-0773.1987.tb01794.x }} [[rhubarb]], and ''[[Aloe]]''.{{cite book |title = Phytochemistry of Medicinal Plants |author1=John T. Arnason |author2=Rachel Mata |author3=John T. Romeo |date = 2013-11-11 |publisher = Springer Science & Business Media |isbn = 9781489917782 }} [34] => [35] => The [[cardiac glycoside]]s are phytochemicals from plants including [[foxglove]] and [[lily of the valley]]. They include [[digoxin]] and [[digitoxin]] which act as [[diuretic]]s.{{cite web|title=Active Plant Ingredients Used for Medicinal Purposes |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/ethnobotany/medicinal/ingredients.shtml|publisher=United States Department of Agriculture|access-date=18 February 2017}} [36] => [37] => [38] => File:Senna alexandrina Mill.-Cassia angustifolia L. (Senna Plant).jpg|''[[Senna alexandrina]]'', containing [[Senna glycosides|anthraquinone glycosides]], has been used as a [[laxative]] for millennia. [39] => Digitalis purpurea2.jpg|The [[foxglove]], ''Digitalis purpurea'', contains [[digoxin]], a [[cardiac glycoside]]. The plant was used to treat heart conditions long before the glycoside was identified.{{cite web |title=Digitalis purpurea. Cardiac Glycoside |url=http://botany.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/Wilson/481/medbot/bot2.htm |publisher=Texas A&M University |access-date=26 February 2017 |quote=The man credited with the introduction of digitalis into the practice of medicine was [[William Withering]]. |archive-date=2 July 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180702064956/http://botany.csdl.tamu.edu/FLORA/Wilson/481/medbot/bot2.htm |url-status=dead }} [40] => File:Digoxin.svg|[[Digoxin]] is used to treat [[atrial fibrillation]], [[atrial flutter]] and sometimes [[heart failure]]. [41] => [42] => [43] => ===Polyphenols=== [44] => {{Further|Polyphenol}} [45] => [46] => [[Polyphenol]]s of several classes are widespread in plants, including [[anthocyanin]]s, [[phytoestrogen]]s, and [[tannin]]s.{{cite web |title=Flavonoids |url=https://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/flavonoids |publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University |access-date=11 October 2023 |date=1 February 2016}} Polyphenols are secondary metabolites produced by almost every part of plants, including fruits, flowers, leaves and bark. [47] => [48] => [49] => File:Angelica sylvestris 3.jpg|[[Angelica sylvestris|Angelica]], containing [[phytoestrogen]]s [50] => File:Phytoestrogens2.png|[[Polyphenol]]s include [[phytoestrogen]]s (top and middle) [51] => File:Figure 1 Chemical structures of the three main types of anthocyanins.jpg|[[Anthocyanin|Anthocyanins]] are a class of polyphenol that contributes to the color of many plants. [52] => File:Tannic acid.svg|[[Tannic acid|Tannic acids]] are one example of many complex polyphenolic structures produced by plants. [53] => [54] => [55] => ===Terpenes=== [56] => {{Further|Terpenes}} [57] => [58] => [[Terpenes]] and [[terpenoids]] of many kinds are found in [[resin]]ous plants such as the [[conifers]]. They are aromatic and serve to repel herbivores. Their scent makes them useful in [[essential oils]], whether for [[perfume]]s such as [[rose]] and [[lavender]], or for [[aromatherapy]].{{cite journal | last1 = Tchen| first1 = T. T.| year = 1965| title = Reviewed Work: ''The Biosynthesis of Steroids, Terpenes & Acetogenins'' | journal = [[American Scientist]] | volume = 53| issue = 4 | pages = 499A–500A | publisher = Sigma Xi, The Scientific Research Society | location =Research Triangle Park, NC | jstor = 27836252}}{{cite journal | last1 = Singsaas| first1 = Eric L.| year = 2000 | title = Terpenes and the Thermotolerance of Photosynthesis | journal = [[New Phytologist]] | volume = 146| issue = 1 | pages = 1–2 | publisher = Wiley | location = New York | jstor = 2588737 | doi=10.1046/j.1469-8137.2000.00626.x| doi-access = free }} Some have had medicinal uses: [[thymol]] is an antiseptic and was once used as a [[vermifuge]] (anti-worm medicine).{{Cite journal|last=Roy|first=Kuhu|date=2015-09-01|title=Tinospora cordifolia stem supplementation in diabetic dyslipidemia: an open labelled randomized controlled trial|url=https://www.ffhdj.com/index.php/ffhd/article/view/208|journal=Functional Foods in Health and Disease|language=en|volume=5|issue=8|pages=265–274|doi=10.31989/ffhd.v5i8.208|issn=2160-3855|doi-access=free}} [59] => [60] => [61] => File:Thymian.jpg|The [[essential oil]] of [[common thyme]] (''Thymus vulgaris''), contains the [[monoterpene]] [[thymol]], an [[antiseptic]] and [[Antifungal medication|antifungal]].{{cite web|title=Thymol (CID=6989)|url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/compound/thymol|publisher=NIH|access-date=26 February 2017|quote=THYMOL is a phenol obtained from thyme oil or other volatile oils used as a stabilizer in pharmaceutical preparations, and as an antiseptic (antibacterial or antifungal) agent. It was formerly used as a vermifuge.}} [62] => File:Thymol2.svg|Thymol is one of many [[terpene]]s found in plants. [63] => File:Isoprene Structural Formulae V.1.svg|Terpenes are polymer of [[isoprene]] [64] => [65] => [66] => ==Genetics== [67] => Contrary to bacteria and fungi, most plant [[metabolic pathway]]s are not grouped into [[biosynthetic gene cluster]]s, but instead are scattered as individual genes. Some exceptions have been discovered: [[steroidal glycoalkaloid]]s in ''[[Solanum]]'', [[polyketide]]s in [[Pooideae]], benzoxazinoids in ''[[Zea mays]]'', [[triterpene]]s in ''[[Avena sativa]]'', [[Cucurbitaceae]], ''[[Arabidopsis thaliana|Arabidopsis]]'', and momilactone diterpenes in ''[[Oryza sativa]]''.{{cite journal | last1=Lacchini | first1=Elia | last2=Goossens | first2=Alain | title=Combinatorial Control of Plant Specialized Metabolism: Mechanisms, Functions, and Consequences | journal=[[Annual Review of Cell and Developmental Biology]] | publisher=[[Annual Reviews (publisher)|Annual Reviews]] | volume=36 | issue=1 | date=2020-10-06 | issn=1081-0706 | doi=10.1146/annurev-cellbio-011620-031429 | pages=291–313| pmid=32559387 | s2cid=219947907 }} [68] => [69] => == References == [70] => {{Reflist}} [71] => [72] => {{botany}} [73] => {{Branches of chemistry}} [74] => {{Authority control}} [75] => [76] => [[Category:Phytochemicals]] [77] => [[Category:Biochemistry]] [78] => [[Category:Chemistry]] [79] => [[Category:Botany]] [80] => [[Category:Herbalism]] [81] => [[Category:Branches of botany]] [82] => [[Category:Pharmacognosy]] [] => )
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Phytochemistry

Phytochemistry is the study of phytochemicals, which are chemicals derived from plants. Phytochemists strive to describe the structures of the large number of secondary metabolites found in plants, the functions of these compounds in human and plant biology, and the biosynthesis of these compounds.

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