Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma}} [1] => {{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}} [2] => {{for|the album by [[Blondie (band)|Blondie]]|Pollinator (album)}} [3] => [[File:Eristalinus October 2007-6.jpg|thumb|250px|A syrphid fly (''[[Eristalinus taeniops]]'') pollinating a [[common hawkweed]]]] [4] => [[File:Fine-tuned-Bee-Flower-Coevolutionary-State-Hidden-within-Multiple-Pollination-Interactions-srep03988-s2.ogv|thumb|250px|A [[Andrena|mining bee]] (''Andrena lonicerae'') pollinating a [[honeysuckle]] (''Lonicera gracilipes'').]] [5] => [6] => A '''pollinator''' is an animal that moves [[pollen]] from the male [[anther]] of a [[flower]] to the female [[carpel|stigma]] of a flower.{{Cite web|date=3 February 2021|title=Pollinator|url=https://www.nps.gov/subjects/pollinators/what-is-a-pollinator.htm|website=What is a pollinator?}} This helps to bring about [[fertilization]] of the [[ovule]]s in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains. [7] => [8] => Insects are the major pollinators of most plants, and insect pollinators include all families of [[bees]] and most families of [[Aculeata|aculeate wasps]]; [[ant]]s; many families of [[flies]]; many [[lepidoptera]]ns (both [[butterflies]] and [[moths]]); and many families of [[beetles]]. Vertebrates, mainly bats and birds, but also some non-bat mammals ([[monkey]]s, [[lemur]]s, [[Phalangeriformes|possums]], [[rodent]]s) and some [[lizard]]s pollinate certain plants. Among the pollinating birds are [[hummingbird]]s, [[honeyeaters]] and [[sunbirds]] with long beaks; they pollinate a number of deep-throated flowers. Humans may also carry out [[artificial pollination]]. [9] => [10] => A pollinator is different from a [[pollenizer]], a plant that is a source of pollen for the [[pollination]] process. [11] => [12] => ==Background== [13] => Plants fall into [[pollination syndrome]]s that reflect the type of pollinator being attracted. These are characteristics such as: overall flower size, the depth and width of the corolla, the color (including patterns called [[nectar guides]] that are visible only in [[ultraviolet]] light), the [[odor|scent]], amount of nectar, composition of nectar, etc.{{cite book | vauthors = [[Knut Fægri|Fægri K]], van der Pijl L | date = 1979 | title = The Principles of Pollination Ecology | location = Oxford | publisher = Pergamon }} For example, birds visit red flowers with long, narrow tubes and much nectar, but are not as strongly attracted to wide flowers with little nectar and copious pollen, which are more attractive to beetles. When these characteristics are experimentally modified (altering colour, size, orientation), pollinator visitation may decline.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fulton M, Hodges SA | date = 1999 | title = Floral isolation between ''Aquilegia formosa'' and ''A. pubescens''. | journal = Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, Series B | volume = 266 | issue = 1435 | pages = 2247–2252 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.1999.0915 | pmc = 1690454 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Hodges SA, Whittall JB, Fulton M, Yang JY | title = Genetics of floral traits influencing reproductive isolation between Aquilegia formosa and Aquilegia pubescens | journal = The American Naturalist | volume = 159 | issue = Suppl 3| pages = S51–60 | date = March 2002 | pmid = 18707369 | doi = 10.1086/338372 | s2cid = 3399289 }} [14] => [15] => Although non-bee pollinators have been seen to be less effective at depositing pollen than bee pollinators{{Cite journal |last1=Rader |first1=Romina |last2=Howlett |first2=Bradley G. |last3=Cunningham |first3=Saul A. |last4=Westcott |first4=David A. |last5=Newstrom-Lloyd |first5=Linda E. |last6=Walker |first6=Melanie K. |last7=Teulon |first7=David A.J. |last8=Edwards |first8=Will |date=October 2009 |title=Alternative pollinator taxa are equally efficient but not as effective as the honeybee in a mass flowering crop |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |language=en |volume=46 |issue=5 |pages=1080–1087 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2664.2009.01700.x|doi-access=free |bibcode=2009JApEc..46.1080R }} one study showed that non-bees made more visits than bees resulting in non-bees performing 38% of visits to crop flowers, outweighing the ineffectiveness of their ability to pollinate.{{Cite journal |last1=Rader |first1=Romina |last2=Bartomeus |first2=Ignasi |last3=Garibaldi |first3=Lucas A. |last4=Garratt |first4=Michael P. D. |last5=Howlett |first5=Brad G. |last6=Winfree |first6=Rachael |last7=Cunningham |first7=Saul A. |last8=Mayfield |first8=Margaret M. |last9=Arthur |first9=Anthony D. |last10=Andersson |first10=Georg K. S. |last11=Bommarco |first11=Riccardo |last12=Brittain |first12=Claire |last13=Carvalheiro |first13=Luísa G. |last14=Chacoff |first14=Natacha P. |last15=Entling |first15=Martin H. |date=5 January 2016 |title=Non-bee insects are important contributors to global crop pollination |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=113 |issue=1 |pages=146–151 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1517092112 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=4711867 |pmid=26621730|bibcode=2016PNAS..113..146R |doi-access=free }} [16] => [17] => It has recently been discovered that [[cycad]]s, which are not [[flowering plant]]s, are also pollinated by insects.{{cite book | vauthors = Stevenson DW, Norstog LJ, Fawcett PK |chapter=Pollination Biology Of Cycads | veditors = Owens SJ, Rudall PJ | title = Reproductive Biology |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens | location = Kew |year= 1998 |chapter-url=http://www.plantapalm.com/vce/biology/pollination.htm |access-date=9 December 2014}} In 2016, researchers showed evidence of pollination occurring underwater, which was previously thought not to happen.{{Cite web|date=5 October 2016|title=The new underwater world of pollination|url=https://www.conservationmagazine.org/2016/10/new-underwater-world-pollination/|access-date=18 October 2021|website=Conservation|language=en-US}}{{Cite web| vauthors = Benson E |title=Bees of the sea: Tiny crustaceans pollinate underwater plants |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2114930-bees-of-the-sea-tiny-crustaceans-pollinate-underwater-plants/|access-date=18 October 2021| work = New Scientist |language=en-US}} [18] => [19] => ==Types of pollinators== [20] => === Insects === [21] => {{main|Entomophily}} [22] => [23] => ==== Bees ==== [24] => [[File:Lipotriches sp..jpg|thumb|left|''[[Lipotriches]]'' sp. bee pollinating flowers]] [25] => The most recognized pollinators are the various species of [[bee]]s,{{cite journal | vauthors = Klein AM, Vaissière BE, Cane JH, Steffan-Dewenter I, Cunningham SA, Kremen C, Tscharntke T | title = Importance of pollinators in changing landscapes for world crops | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 274 | issue = 1608 | pages = 303–313 | date = February 2007 | pmid = 17164193 | pmc = 1702377 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2006.3721 }} which are plainly adapted to pollination. Bees typically are fuzzy and carry an [[electrostatic]] charge. Both features help pollen grains adhere to their bodies, but they also have specialized pollen-carrying structures; in most bees, this takes the form of a structure known as the [[Scopa (biology)|scopa]], which is on the hind legs of most bees, and/or the lower abdomen (e.g., of [[Megachilidae|megachilid]] bees), made up of thick, plumose [[seta]]e. [[Honey bee]]s, [[bumblebee]]s, and their relatives do not have a scopa, but the hind leg is modified into a structure called the corbicula (also known as the "[[pollen basket]]"). Most bees gather [[nectar]], a concentrated energy source, and pollen, which is high [[protein]] food, to nurture their young, and transfer some among the flowers as they are working.{{cite book| vauthors = Westbrook FE, Bergman PW, Wearne RA |title=Pollination and the Honey Bee|date=1975|publisher=U.S. Government Printing Office|location=Washington D.C.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gWwvAAAAYAAJ&q=bee+pollination|language=en}} [[Euglossini|Euglossine]] bees pollinate orchids, but these are male bees collecting floral scents rather than females gathering nectar or pollen. Female orchid bees act as pollinators, but of flowers other than orchids. [[Eusocial]] bees such as honey bees need an abundant and steady [[pollen source]] to multiply. [26] => [27] => [[File:PrunusCerasifera0.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Honey bee]] pollinating a plum tree. Bees are the most effective insect pollinators.]] [28] => Honey bees travel from flower to flower, collecting nectar (later converted to [[honey]]), and pollen grains. The bee collects the pollen by rubbing against the anthers. The pollen collects on the hind legs, in a structure referred to as a "pollen basket". As the bee flies from flower to flower, some of the pollen grains are transferred onto the stigma of other flowers. Nectar provides the energy for bee [[nutrition]]; pollen provides the [[protein]]. When bees are rearing large quantities of [[brood (honey bee)|brood]] (beekeepers say hives are "building"), bees deliberately gather pollen to meet the nutritional needs of the brood. [29] => [30] => Good pollination management seeks to have bees in a "building" state during the bloom period of the crop, thus requiring them to gather pollen, and making them more efficient pollinators. Thus, the management techniques of a [[beekeeper]] providing pollination services are different from, and to some extent in tension with, those of a beekeeper who is trying to produce honey. Millions of [[Beehive (beekeeping)|hives]] of honey bees are [[contract]]ed out as pollinators by [[beekeeping|beekeepers]], and honey bees are by far the most important commercial pollinating agents, but many other kinds of pollinators, from blue bottle flies, to bumblebees, [[orchard mason bee]]s, and [[Alfalfa leafcutter bee|leaf cutter bees]] are cultured and sold for [[pollination management|managed pollination]]. [31] => [32] => Other species of bees differ in various details of their behavior and pollen-gathering habits, and honey bees are not native to the [[Western Hemisphere]]; all pollination of native plants in the Americas and Australia historically has been performed by various native bees. It has also been found that non-native plants may have positive effects on native bee pollinators while also influencing their foraging patterns and bee–plant networks.{{Cite journal |last1=Seitz |first1=Nicola |last2=vanEngelsdorp |first2=Dennis |last3=Leonhardt |first3=Sara D. |date=2020 |title=Are native and non-native pollinator friendly plants equally valuable for native wild bee communities? |journal=Ecology and Evolution |language=en |volume=10 |issue=23 |pages=12838–12850 |doi=10.1002/ece3.6826 |issn=2045-7758 |pmc=7713930 |pmid=33304497|bibcode=2020EcoEv..1012838S }} [33] => [34] => ==== Butterflies and moths ==== [35] => [[File:Australian painted lady feeding closeup.jpg|thumb|upright|left|An [[Australian painted lady]] feeding on nectar]] [36] => [[Lepidoptera]] ([[butterfly|butterflies]] and [[moth]]s) may also pollinate to various degrees.{{cite web | title = Butterfly Pollination | work = Celebrating Butterflies | publisher = U.S. Forestry Service | url = http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/butterflies.shtml | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110723083314/http://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/butterflies.shtml| archive-date=23 July 2011}} They are not major pollinators of [[food crop]]s, but various moths are important pollinators of other commercial crops such as [[tobacco]]. Pollination by certain moths may be important, however, or even crucial, for some wildflowers mutually adapted to specialist pollinators. Spectacular examples include orchids such as ''[[Angraecum sesquipedale]]'', dependent on a particular [[Sphingidae|hawk moth]], [[Xanthopan morganii|Morgan's sphinx]]. ''[[Yucca]]'' species provide other examples, being fertilised in elaborate ecological interactions with particular species of [[Prodoxidae|yucca moths]]. [37] => [38] => ==== Flies ==== [39] => Many [[Bombyliidae|bee flies]], and some [[Horse-fly|Tabanidae]] and [[Nemestrinidae]] are particularly adapted to pollinating [[fynbos]] and [[Karoo]] plants with narrow, deep [[Petal|corolla tubes]], such as ''[[Lapeirousia]]'' species. Part of the adaptation takes the form of remarkably long probosces. This also applies to empidine dance flies ([[Empidinae]]) that visit a wide range of flowering plants, some species of which can pollinate the [[Geranium sylvaticum|woodland geranium]] ([[Geranium sylvaticum|''Geranium sylvaticum'' L.]]) as effectively as [[bee]]s.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lefebvre V, Daugeron C, Villemant C, Fontaine C | title = Empidine dance flies pollinate the woodland geranium as effectively as bees | journal = Biology Letters | volume = 15 | issue = 7 | pages = 20190230 | date = July 2019 | pmid = 31362609 | pmc = 6684995 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2019.0230 }} [40] => [41] => [[File:Goudoogdaas zijaanzicht 2009 08 23.png|thumb|left|[[Horse-fly|Tabanid]] fly on a [[thistle]] flower]] [42] => Carrion flies and flesh flies in families such as [[Calliphoridae]] and [[Flesh-fly|Sarcophagidae]] are important for some species of plants whose flowers [[Carrion flower|exude a fetid odor]]. The plants' ecological strategy varies; several species of ''[[Stapelia]]'', for example, attract carrion flies that futilely lay their eggs on the flower, where their larvae promptly starve for lack of [[carrion]]. Other species do decay rapidly after ripening, and offer the visiting insects large masses of food, as well as pollen and sometimes seed to carry off when they leave. [43] => [44] => [[Hoverfly|Hoverflies]] are important pollinators of flowering plants worldwide.{{cite journal | vauthors = Larson BM, Kevan PG, Inouye DW |title=Flies and flowers: taxonomic diversity of anthophiles and pollinators. |journal=Canadian Entomologist |year=2001 |volume=133 |issue=4 |pages=439–465 |doi=10.4039/ent133439-4|s2cid=55767580 }} Often hoverflies are considered to be the second most important pollinators after wild bees. Although hoverflies as a whole are generally considered to be nonselective pollinators, some species have more specialized relationships. The orchid species ''Epipactis veratrifolia'' mimics alarm [[pheromones]] of aphids to attract hover flies for pollination.{{cite journal | vauthors = Stökl J, Brodmann J, Dafni A, Ayasse M, Hansson BS | title = Smells like aphids: orchid flowers mimic aphid alarm pheromones to attract hoverflies for pollination | journal = Proceedings. Biological Sciences | volume = 278 | issue = 1709 | pages = 1216–1222 | date = April 2011 | pmid = 20943694 | pmc = 3049078 | doi = 10.1098/rspb.2010.1770 }} Another plant, the [[slipper orchid]] in southwest China, also achieves pollination by deceit by exploiting the [[innate]] yellow colour preference of syrphids.{{cite journal | vauthors = Shi J, Luo YB, Bernhardt P, Ran JC, Liu ZJ, Zhou Q | title = Pollination by deceit in Paphiopedilum barbigerum (Orchidaceae): a staminode exploits the innate colour preferences of hoverflies (Syrphidae) | journal = Plant Biology | volume = 11 | issue = 1 | pages = 17–28 | date = January 2009 | pmid = 19121110 | doi = 10.1111/j.1438-8677.2008.00120.x | bibcode = 2009PlBio..11...17S }} [45] => [46] => Some male [[Dacini|dacine fruit flies]] are exclusive pollinators of some wild ''[[Bulbophyllum]]'' orchids that lack nectar and have a specific chemical attractant and reward (methyl eugenol, raspberry ketone or zingerone) present in their floral fragrances.{{cite journal | vauthors = Tan KH, Nishida R, Toong YC | date = 2002 | title = ''Bulbophyllum cheiri'' floral synomone lures fruit flies to perform pollination. | journal = Journal of Chemical Ecology | volume = 28 | issue = 6 | pages = 1161–1172 | doi = 10.1023/A:1016277500007 | pmid = 12184394 | s2cid = 36621985 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Tan K, Nishida R | title = Synomone or kairomone?-Bulbophyllum apertum flower releases raspberry ketone to attract Bactrocera fruit flies. | journal = Journal of Chemical Ecology | date = 2005 | volume = 31 | issue = 3 | pages = 497–507 | doi = 10.1007/s10886-005-2023-8| pmid = 15898497 | bibcode = 2005JCEco..31..497K | s2cid = 39173699 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Tan KH, Nishida R | title = Zingerone in the floral synomone of ''Bulbophyllum baileyi'' (Orchidaceae) attracts ''Bactrocera'' fruit flies during pollination. | journal = Biochemical Systematics and Ecology | date = June 2007 | volume = 35 | issue = 6 | pages = 334–341 | doi = 10.1016/j.bse.2007.01.013 | bibcode = 2007BioSE..35..334T }} [47] => [48] => ==== Other insects ==== [49] => [[File:Unidentified Scoliidae foraging 2012 02 26 3034s.jpg|thumb|A [[Scoliid wasp]] (''Scolia chrysotricha'') foraging]] [50] => Many insects other than bees accomplish pollination by visiting flowers for nectar or pollen, or commonly both. Many do so adventitiously, but the most important pollinators are specialists for at least parts of their life cycles for at least certain functions. [51] => [52] => Prominent among Hymenoptera other than bees are predatory aculeate wasps (especially [[Crabronidae]], [[Sphecidae]], [[Vespidae]], and [[Pompilidae]]). The term "[[pollen wasp]]s", in particular, is widely applied to the Masarinae, a [[Taxonomic rank|subfamily]] of the Vespidae; they are remarkable among [[hunting wasp|solitary wasp]]s in that they specialise in gathering pollen for feeding their larvae, carried internally and regurgitated into a mud chamber prior to oviposition. Also, males of many species of bees and wasps, though they do not gather pollen, rely on flowers as sources of energy (in the form of nectar) and also as territories for meeting fertile females that visit the flowers. [53] => [54] => Some [[Diptera]] (flies) may be the main pollinators at higher elevations of mountains,{{cite journal | vauthors = Lefebvre V, Fontaine C, Villemant C, Daugeron C | title = Are empidine dance flies major flower visitors in alpine environments? A case study in the Alps, France | journal = Biology Letters | volume = 10 | issue = 11 | pages = 20140742 | date = November 2014 | pmid = 25376804 | pmc = 4261866 | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2014.0742 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Lefebvre V, Villemant C, Fontaine C, Daugeron C | title = Altitudinal, temporal and trophic partitioning of flower-visitors in Alpine communities | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 8 | issue = 1 | pages = 4706 | date = March 2018 | pmid = 29549294 | pmc = 5856740 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-018-23210-y | bibcode = 2018NatSR...8.4706L }} whereas [[bumblebee]] species are typically the only other pollinators in alpine regions at timberline and beyond. [55] => [56] => Some adult [[mosquito]]es, if they feed on nectar, may act as pollinators; ''Aedes communis'', a species found in North America, is known to pollinate ''[[Platanthera obtusata]]'', commonly referred as the blunt-leaved orchid.{{cite web |title=Year of Pollination: Mosquitoes as Pollinators |url=https://awkwardbotany.com/2015/07/08/year-of-pollination-mosquitoes-as-pollinators/ |website=awkward botany |access-date=28 July 2017 |date=8 July 2015}}{{cite web | vauthors = Statman-Weil Z |title=''Aedes communis'': The Pollinating Mosquito |url=https://www.fs.fed.us/wildflowers/pollinators/pollinator-of-the-month/aedes_communis.shtml |website=[[United States Forest Service]] |access-date=28 July 2017}} [57] => [58] => [[Beetle]]s of species that specialise in eating pollen, nectar, or flowers themselves, may be important cross-pollinators of some plants such as members of the [[Araceae]] and [[Zamiaceae]], that produce prodigious amounts of pollen. Others, for example the [[Hopliini]], specialise on flowers of [[Asteraceae]] and [[Aizoaceae]]. [59] => [60] => Minute [[midge]]s and flower-[[thrips]] can occur in vast numbers, moving between flowers and plant individuals, enabling some species to contribute to the pollination of tree-crops such as cacao, ''[[Theobroma cacao]]''{{cite journal |last1=Arnold |first1=S.E.J. |last2=Forbes |first2=S.J. |last3=Hall |first3=D.R. |last4=Farman |first4=D.I. |last5=Bridgemohan |first5=P. |last6=Spinelli |first6=G.R. |last7=Bray |first7=D.P. |last8=Perry |first8=G.B. |last9=Grey |first9=L. |last10=Belmain |first10=S.R. |last11=Stevenson |first11=P.C. |title=Floral Odors and the Interaction between Pollinating Ceratopogonid Midges and Cacao |journal=Journal of Chemical Ecology |year=2019 |volume=45 |issue=10 |pages=869–878 |doi=10.1007/s10886-019-01118-9|pmid=31741191 |s2cid=208086796 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019JCEco..45..869A }} L. (Malvaceae) and elderflower ''[[Sambucus nigra]]'' L. (Adoxaceae).{{cite journal |last1=Scott-Brown |first1=A.S. |last2=Arnold |first2=S.E.J. |last3=Kite |first3=G.C. |last4=Farrell |first4=I.F. |last5=Collins |first5=D.W. |last6=Stevenson |first6=P.C. |title=Mechanisms in mutualisms: A chemically mediated thrips pollination strategy in common elder |journal=Planta |year=2019 |volume=250 |issue=1 |pages=367–379 |doi=10.1007/s00425-019-03176-5|pmid=31069523 |s2cid=253886497 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2019Plant.250..367S }} [[Ant]]s also pollinate some kinds of flowers, but for the most part they are parasites, consuming nectar and/or pollen without conveying useful amounts of pollen to a stigma. Other insect orders are rarely pollinators, and then typically only incidentally (e.g., [[Hemiptera]] such as [[Anthocoridae]] and [[Miridae]]). [61] => [62] => A strategy of great biological interest is that of sexual deception, where plants, generally [[Orchidaceae#Pollination|orchids, produce remarkably complex combinations of pheromonal attractants and physical mimicry]] that induce male [[Apidae|bees]] or [[Tiphiidae|wasps]] to attempt to mate with them, conveying [[Pollinium|pollinia]] in the process. Examples are known from all continents apart from [[Antarctica]], though Australia appears to be exceptionally rich in examples.{{cite journal | vauthors = Mant JG, Schiestl FP, Peakall R, Weston PH | title = A phylogenetic study of pollinator conservatism among sexually deceptive orchids | journal = Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution | volume = 56 | issue = 5 | pages = 888–98 | date = May 2002 | pmid = 12093025 | doi = 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2002.tb01402.x | s2cid = 42724740 | doi-access = free }} [63] => [64] => Whole groups of plants, such as certain [[fynbos]] ''[[Moraea]]'' and ''[[Erica (plant)|Erica]]'' species produce flowers on sticky [[Peduncle (botany)|peduncles]] or with sticky [[Petal|corolla]] tubes that only permit access to flying pollinators, whether bird, bat, or insect. [65] => [66] => === Other invertebrates === [67] => Experimental evidence has shown invertebrates (mostly small [[crustacean]]s) acting as pollinators in underwater environments. Beds of [[seagrass]] have been shown to reproduce this way in the absence of currents. It is not yet known how important invertebrate pollinators might be for other species.{{cite journal | vauthors = van Tussenbroek BI, Villamil N, Márquez-Guzmán J, Wong R, Monroy-Velázquez LV, Solis-Weiss V | title = Experimental evidence of pollination in marine flowers by invertebrate fauna | journal = Nature Communications | volume = 7 | issue = 1 | pages = 12980 | date = September 2016 | pmid = 27680661 | pmc = 5056424 | doi = 10.1038/ncomms12980 | bibcode = 2016NatCo...712980V }} Later, ''[[Idotea balthica]]'' was discovered to help ''[[Gracilaria]] gracilis'' reproduce – the first known case of an animal helping [[algae]] reproduce.{{cite news | vauthors = Roth A |title=Like Bees of the Seas, These Crustaceans Pollinate Seaweed |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/07/28/science/pollination-algae-crustacean.html |access-date=21 August 2022 |work=The New York Times |date=28 July 2022}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Lavaut E, Guillemin ML, Colin S, Faure A, Coudret J, Destombe C, Valero M | title = Pollinators of the sea: A discovery of animal-mediated fertilization in seaweed | journal = Science | volume = 377 | issue = 6605 | pages = 528–530 | date = July 2022 | pmid = 35901149 | doi = 10.1126/science.abo6661 | bibcode = 2022Sci...377..528L | s2cid = 251159505 | url = https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-03740649/file/Lavaut_Science_2022_version%20Hal.pdf }} [68] => [69] => ===Vertebrates=== [70] => [[File:Tacca chantrieri172799839.jpg|thumb|Tropical flowers like ''[[Tacca chantrieri]]'' are [[bat]]-pollinated.]] [71] => [[File:Colibri thalassinus Curicancha 02.jpg|thumb|[[Green violetear]] with pollen on bill, [[Curi Cancha Wildlife Refuge]], Costa Rica]] [72] => [[Bat]]s are important pollinators of some tropical flowers, visiting to take nectar.{{Cite journal | vauthors = Stewart AB, Dudash MR |date=1 January 2018 |title=Foraging strategies of generalist and specialist Old World nectar bats in response to temporally variable floral resources |journal=Biotropica |volume=50 |issue=1 |pages=98–105 |doi=10.1111/btp.12492|bibcode=2018Biotr..50...98S |s2cid=90515964 }} Birds, particularly [[hummingbird]]s, [[honeyeaters]] and [[sunbirds]] also accomplish much pollination, especially of deep-throated flowers. Other [[vertebrates]], such as [[kinkajou]]s, [[monkey]]s, [[lemur]]s, [[Phalangeriformes|possums]], [[rodent]]s and [[lizard]]s{{cite journal | vauthors = Olesen JM, Valido A | title = Lizards as pollinators and seed dispersers: an island phenomenon. | journal = Trends in Ecology & Evolution | date = April 2003 | volume = 18 | issue = 4 | pages = 177–181 | doi = 10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00004-1 }}]{{cite journal | vauthors = Baeckens S, Van Damme R | title = The island syndrome | journal = Current Biology | volume = 30 | issue = 8 | pages = R338–R339 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32315628 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2020.03.029 | doi-access = free | bibcode = 2020CBio...30.R338B }} have been recorded pollinating some plants. [73] => [74] => Humans can be pollinators, as many [[gardener]]s have discovered that they must [[hand pollination|hand pollinate]] garden [[vegetable]]s, whether because of [[pollinator decline]] or simply to keep a strain genetically pure. This can involve using a small brush or [[cotton]] swab to move pollen, or to simply tap or shake [[tomato]] blossoms to release the pollen for the [[self-pollinating]] flowers. Tomato blossoms are self-fertile, but (with the exception of potato-leaf varieties) have the pollen inside the [[anther]], and the flower requires shaking to release the pollen through [[Wiktionary: pore|pores]]. This can be done by wind, by humans, or by a [[Buzz pollination|sonicating]] bee (one that vibrates its wing muscles while perched on the flower), such as a bumblebee. Sonicating bees are extremely efficient pollinators of tomatoes, and colonies of bumblebees are quickly replacing humans as the primary pollinators for [[greenhouse]] tomatoes. [75] => [76] => == Floral and non-floral resources == [77] => Pollinators require a variety of resources. Most native bees in North America are solitary, ground-nesting species that collect a variety of natural resources including pollen, nectar, leaves, petals and resins to be used as sources of food, supplies for their larva, or nest linings.Kopec, K & Burd, L.A. (2017). "Pollinators in Peril: A systematic status review of North American and Hawaiian native bees." Center for Biological Diversity. See: https://www.biologicaldiversity.org/campaigns/native_pollinators/pdfs/Pollinators_in_Peril.pdf Floral diet diversity has been seen to increase immunocompetence levels in honeybees (Apis mellifera) where diets that consisted of a wide variety of flowering species induced higher glucose oxidase activity, which honeybees' produce to sterilize their colony.{{Cite journal |last1=Alaux |first1=Cédric |last2=Ducloz |first2=François |last3=Crauser |first3=Didier |last4=Le Conte |first4=Yves |date=23 August 2010 |title=Diet effects on honeybee immunocompetence |journal=Biology Letters |language=en |volume=6 |issue=4 |pages=562–565 |doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.0986 |issn=1744-9561 |pmc=2936196 |pmid=20089536}} More than 30% of global bee species depend on non-floral resources for nest building, protection, health, pest resistance, and alternative food sources.{{Cite journal |last1=Requier |first1=Fabrice |last2=Leonhardt |first2=Sara D. |date=February 2020 |title=Beyond flowers: including non-floral resources in bee conservation schemes |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s10841-019-00206-1 |journal=Journal of Insect Conservation |language=en |volume=24 |issue=1 |pages=5–16 |doi=10.1007/s10841-019-00206-1 |s2cid=254600870 |issn=1366-638X}} Non-floral resources include leaves, soil, plant resins and secretions, and are often provided by woody-vegetation. [78] => [79] => ==Pollinator population declines and conservation== [80] => {{main|Pollinator decline}} [81] => [82] => Pollinators provide a key [[ecosystem services|ecosystem service]] vital to the maintenance of both wild and agricultural plant communities. In 1999 the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] issued the São Paulo Declaration on Pollinators, recognizing the critical role that these species play in supporting and maintaining terrestrial productivity as well as the survival challenges they face due to anthropogenic change. Today pollinators are considered to be in a state of decline;{{cite web | title = Predicting the collapse of pollinators | date = 23 March 2012 |url=http://www.comsdev.canterbury.ac.nz/rss/news/?feed=news&articleId=349 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121124084352/http://www.comsdev.canterbury.ac.nz/rss/news/?feed=news&articleId=349 | archive-date = 24 November 2012 | work = News - Communications | publisher = University of Canterbury | location = New Zealand |access-date=2 April 2012}} some species, such as Franklin's bumble bee (''[[Bombus franklini]]'') have been red-listed and are in danger of extinction. Although managed bee hives are increasing worldwide, these can not compensate for the loss of wild pollinators in many locations. [83] => [84] => A 2017 report done for the Center of Biological Diversity utilized data documented in the United States on native bee species and found that nearly 1 in 4 (347 species of 1,437 species) is imperiled and at increasing risk of extinction. More than half of the native bee species is in decline and 40% of global insect pollinators (primarily native bees) are highly threatened. [85] => [86] => Declines in the health and population of pollinators pose what could be a significant threat to the integrity of biodiversity, to global food webs, and to human health. At least 80% of our world's crop species require pollination to set seed. A 2021 study estimated that without pollinators, fertility would be reduced by 80% in half all wild plant species and one-third of all wild plant species would fail to produce any seeds at all.{{Cite journal |last1=Rodger |first1=James G. |last2=Bennett |first2=Joanne M. |last3=Razanajatovo |first3=Mialy |last4=Knight |first4=Tiffany M. |last5=van Kleunen |first5=Mark |last6=Ashman |first6=Tia-Lynn |last7=Steets |first7=Janette A. |last8=Hui |first8=Cang |last9=Arceo-Gómez |first9=Gerardo |last10=Burd |first10=Martin |last11=Burkle |first11=Laura A. |last12=Burns |first12=Jean H. |last13=Durka |first13=Walter |last14=Freitas |first14=Leandro |last15=Kemp |first15=Jurene E. |date=15 October 2021 |title=Widespread vulnerability of flowering plant seed production to pollinator declines |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=7 |issue=42 |pages=eabd3524 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abd3524 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=8514087 |pmid=34644118|bibcode=2021SciA....7.3524R }} [87] => [88] => An estimated one out of every three bites of food comes to us through the work of animal pollinators. The quality of pollinator service has declined over time and this had led to concerns that pollination will be less resistant to extinction in the future. [89] => [90] => A 2022 study concludes that the decline of pollinator populations is responsible for 500,000 early human deaths per year by reducing the supply of healthy foods. A decline of pollinators has caused 3-5% loss of fruits, vegetables and nuts. Lower consumption of these healthy foods translates to 1% of all deaths, according to the authors.{{Cite web |date=9 January 2023| vauthors = Carrington D |title=Global pollinator losses causing 500,000 early deaths a year – study |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2023/jan/09/global-pollinator-losses-causing-500000-early-deaths-a-year-study |access-date=9 January 2023 | work = the Guardian |language=en}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Smith MR, Mueller ND, Springmann M, Sulser TB, Garibaldi LA, Gerber J, Wiebe K, Myers SS | title = Pollinator Deficits, Food Consumption, and Consequences for Human Health: A Modeling Study | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 130 | issue = 12 | pages = 127003 | date = December 2022 | pmid = 36515549 | pmc = 9749483 | doi = 10.1289/EHP10947 }} [91] => [92] => === Pesticide usage === [93] => Neonicotinoids (Neonics) are a class of synthetic insecticides that are the most widely applied pesticides today due to its water solubility and ability to treat a wide variety of pests. Neonics are highly environmentally persistent, and may contaminate terrestrial and aquatic habitats for as much as six years. Exposed honeybees' (Apis mellifera) have been seen to have lower reproductive output, reduction in nest building or failed to build nests, reduced foraging abilities, and weakened immunity.{{Cite journal |last1=Wood |first1=Thomas James |last2=Goulson |first2=Dave |date=7 June 2017|title=The environmental risks of neonicotinoid pesticides: a review of the evidence post 2013 |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s11356-017-9240-x |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |volume=24 |issue=21 |pages=17285–17325 |doi=10.1007/s11356-017-9240-x |pmid=28593544 |pmc=5533829 |bibcode=2017ESPR...2417285W |issn=0944-1344}} [94] => [95] => ===Strategy=== [96] => {{Globalize|section|USA|2name=the United States|date=May 2019}} [97] => [98] => Researchers are still trying to determine how to scientifically best restore and maintain the diverse pollinator habitats found around the world. Many studies conclude that restoration and conservation are key to maintaining biodiversity and pollinator populations. According to the Kansas National Park Service, native tallgrass prairie was widespread through North America and home to over 300 species of flowering plants. This habitat is crucial to wild pollinators and now only covers 4% of its original 170-million acre range.{{Cite web |last1=City |first1=Mailing Address: 2480B KS Hwy 177 Strong |last2=Us |first2=KS 66869 Phone: 620 273-8494 x270 Contact |title=Tallgrass Prairie National Preserve (U.S. National Park Service) |url=https://www.nps.gov/tapr/index.htm |access-date=22 February 2023|website=www.nps.gov |language=en}} By restoring wild pollinators natural habitat and maintaining Earth's biodiversity, populations are assumed to increase. In recent times, environmental groups have put pressure on the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency|Environmental Protection Agency]] to ban [[neonicotinoids]], a type of insecticide. [99] => [100] => On June 20, 2014, President [[Barack Obama]] issued a presidential memorandum entitled "Creating a Federal Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The President's memorandum established a Pollinator Health Task Force, to be co-chaired by the [[United States Secretary of Agriculture|Secretary of Agriculture]] and the [[Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency]]. The memorandum stated: [101] => [102] => {{blockquote|Pollinators contribute substantially to the economy of the United States and are vital to keeping fruits, nuts, and vegetables in our diets. Honey bee pollination alone adds more than $15 billion in value to agricultural crops each year in the United States. Over the past few decades, there has been a significant loss of pollinators, including honey bees, native bees, birds, bats, and butterflies, from the environment. The problem is serious and requires immediate attention to ensure the sustainability of our food production systems, avoid additional economic impact on the agricultural sector, and protect the health of the environment.

Pollinator losses have been severe. The number of migrating [[Monarch butterfly|Monarch butterflies]] sank to the lowest recorded population level in 2013-14, and there is an imminent risk of failed migration. The continued loss of commercial honey bee colonies poses a threat to the economic stability of commercial beekeeping and pollination operations in the United States, which could have profound implications for agriculture and food. Severe yearly declines create concern that bee colony losses could reach a point from which the commercial pollination industry would not be able to adequately recover. The loss of native bees, which also play a key role in pollination of crops, is much less studied, but many native bee species are believed to be in decline. Scientists believe that bee losses are likely caused by a combination of stressors, including poor bee nutrition, loss of forage lands, parasites, pathogens, lack of genetic diversity, and exposure to pesticides.{{cite web|last=Obama|first=President Barack|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/the-press-office/2014/06/20/presidential-memorandum-creating-federal-strategy-promote-health-honey-b|title=Presidential Memorandum – Creating a Federal Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators|date=20 June 2014 |work=Office of the Press Secretary|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=[[White House|The White House]]|access-date=5 February 2018}}}} [103] => [104] => In May 2015, the Pollinator Health Task Force issued a "National Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators". The national strategy outlined a comprehensive approach to tackling and reducing the impact of multiple stressors on pollinator health, including pests and pathogens, reduced habitat, lack of nutritional resources, and exposure to pesticides.{{cite web|author=Pollinator Health Task Force|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/Pollinator%20Health%20Strategy%202015.pdf|title=National Strategy to Promote the Health of Honey Bees and Other Pollinators|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=[[The White House]]|date=19 May 2015 |access-date=2 May 2018}}{{cite news|author=EP News Wire Reports|title=New U.S. pollinator strategy emphasizes science, industry collaboration |url=http://epnewswire.com/stories/510545740-new-u-s-pollinator-strategy-emphasizes-science-industry-collaboration |work=EPNewswire |date=19 May 2015|access-date=5 January 2024|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150930154848/http://epnewswire.com/stories/510545740-new-u-s-pollinator-strategy-emphasizes-science-industry-collaboration|archive-date=30 September 2015|url-status=live}} [105] => [106] => The national strategy laid out federal actions to achieve three goals: [107] => [108] => {{blockquote| [109] => * Honey Bees: Reduce honey bee colony losses during winter (overwintering mortality) to no more than 15% within 10 years. [110] => * Monarch Butterflies: Increase the Eastern population of the monarch butterfly to 225 million butterflies occupying an area of approximately 15 acres (6 hectares) in the overwintering grounds in Mexico, through domestic/international actions and public-private partnerships, by 2020. [111] => * Pollinator Habitat Acreage: Restore or enhance 7 million acres of land for pollinators over the next 5 years through Federal actions and public/private partnerships.}} [112] => [113] => Many of the priority projects that the national strategy identified focused on the [[Interstate 35|I-35]] corridor, which extends for {{convert|1,500|mi|km}} from Texas to Minnesota. The area through which that highway travels provides spring and summer breeding habitats in the United States' key monarch migration corridor. [114] => [115] => The Pollinator Health Task Force simultaneously issued a "Pollinator Research Action Plan". The Plan outlined five main action areas, covered in ten subject-specific chapters. The action areas were: (1) Setting a Baseline; (2) Assessing Environmental Stressors; (3) Restoring Habitat; (4) Understanding and Supporting Stakeholders; (5) Curating and Sharing Knowledge.{{cite web|author=Pollinator Health Task Force|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/default/files/microsites/ostp/Pollinator%20Research%20Action%20Plan%202015.pdf|title=Pollinator Research Action Plan|location=Washington, D.C.|pages=1–3|publisher=[[The White House]]|date=19 May 2015|access-date=5 January 2024}} [116] => [117] => In June 2016, the Task Force issued a "Pollinator Partnership Action Plan". That Plan provided examples of past, ongoing, and possible future collaborations between the federal government and non-federal institutions to support pollinator health under each of the national strategy's goals.{{cite web|author=Pollinator Health Task Force|url=https://obamawhitehouse.archives.gov/sites/whitehouse.gov/files/images/Blog/PPAP_2016.pdf|title=Pollinator Partnership Action Plan|location=Washington, D.C.|publisher=[[The White House]]|date=22 June 2016 |access-date=5 January 2024}} [118] => [119] => ==== North America ==== [120] => The North American Pollinator Protection Campaign (NAPPC) aims to promote pollinator health across the North America and has organized annual conferences since 1997, creates task forces to implement specific objectives that includes public education and policy research, and is developing strategic plans for conservation that looks to establish partnership between government entities. 11 pollinator-protection agreements have been signed between NAPCC and federal government agencies, responsible for more than 1.5 billion acres of land protections and management.{{Cite web |title=NAPPC |url=https://www.pollinator.org/nappc |access-date=5 January 2024|website=Pollinator.org |language=en-US}} [121] => [122] => ==== Europe ==== [123] => Along with the [[European Green Deal]], which contains initiatives that support pollinator populations, the European Union has implemented the EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 which includes the EU Pollinators Initiative that sets long-term objectives to reverse pollinator decline in diversity and numbers by 2030. This initiative includes: (1) improving knowledge of pollinator decline, its causes and consequences; (2) tackling the causes of pollinator decline; and (3) raising awareness, engaging society-at-large and promoting collaboration.{{Cite web |title=Pollinators |url=https://environment.ec.europa.eu/topics/nature-and-biodiversity/pollinators_en |access-date=20 February 2023 |website=European Commission}} [124] => [125] => ==== South America ==== [126] => The Healthy Hives Latin America 2020 (Salud Apícola 2020 Latinoamérica) program is a collaboration between the Bayer Bee Care Center and the Fraunhofer Chile Research Foundation, that works alongside local researchers at universities and beekeepers' associations. The program focuses on increasing the number of healthy worker bees and their colonies by monitoring honey bee health and the contributing factors. This includes educating beekeepers and research collaborations to jointly work on honey bee health. Founded in 2015 with a preliminary project in Chile, the program has expanded to Colombia, Argentina, and Costa Rica.{{Cite web |title=Salud Apicola 2020 |url=https://en.saludapicola.com/ |access-date=22 February 2023 |website=Salud Apicola 2020 |language=en-US}} [127] => [128] => ==== Global ==== [129] => The ‘Coalition of the Willing on Pollinators' (Promote Pollinators) was initiated in 2016 during the Convention on Biological Diversity's Conference of the Parties (CBD COP13) and is a growing alliance of countries and observers who support the notion that country-led politics can lead to policy measures and innovative action to protect pollinators'. Their supporters are growing steadily, in which 30 countries currently participate.{{Cite web |title=Home {{!}} Promote Pollinators |url=https://promotepollinators.org/ |access-date=21 February 2023|website=promotepollinators.org}} [130] => [131] => == Structure of plant-pollinator networks == [132] => {{main|Pollination syndrome|List of crop plants pollinated by bees}} [133] => [134] => Wild pollinators often visit many plant species and plants are visited by many pollinator species. All these relations together form a network of interactions between plants and pollinators. Surprising similarities were found in the structure of networks consisting out of the interactions between plants and pollinators. This structure was found to be similar in very different ecosystems on different continents, consisting of entirely different species.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bascompte J, Jordano P, Melián CJ, Olesen JM | title = The nested assembly of plant-animal mutualistic networks | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 100 | issue = 16 | pages = 9383–7 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12881488 | pmc = 170927 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1633576100 | bibcode = 2003PNAS..100.9383B | doi-access = free }} [135] => [136] => The structure of plant-pollinator networks may have large consequences for the way in which pollinator communities respond to increasingly harsh conditions. Mathematical models, examining the consequences of this network structure for the stability of pollinator communities suggest that the specific way in which plant-pollinator networks are organized minimizes competition between pollinators{{cite journal | vauthors = Bastolla U, Fortuna MA, Pascual-García A, Ferrera A, Luque B, Bascompte J | title = The architecture of mutualistic networks minimizes competition and increases biodiversity | journal = Nature | volume = 458 | issue = 7241 | pages = 1018–20 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19396144 | doi = 10.1038/nature07950 | bibcode = 2009Natur.458.1018B | s2cid = 4395634 }} and may even lead to strong indirect facilitation between pollinators when conditions are harsh.{{cite journal | vauthors = Lever JJ, van Nes EH, Scheffer M, Bascompte J | title = The sudden collapse of pollinator communities | journal = Ecology Letters | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 350–9 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24386999 | doi = 10.1111/ele.12236 | bibcode = 2014EcolL..17..350L | hdl = 10261/91808 | url = | hdl-access = free }} This allows pollinator species to survive together under harsh conditions. But it also means that pollinator species collapse simultaneously when conditions pass a critical point. This simultaneous collapse occurs, because pollinator species depend on each other when surviving under difficult conditions. [137] => [138] => Such a community-wide collapse, involving many pollinator species, can occur suddenly when increasingly harsh conditions pass a critical point and recovery from such a collapse might not be easy. The improvement in conditions needed for pollinators to recover, could be substantially larger than the improvement needed to return to conditions at which the pollinator community collapsed. [139] => [140] => == See also == [141] => *[[Self-pollination]] [142] => *[[Pollinator Partnership]] [143] => *[[Polli:Nation]] [144] => [145] => == References == [146] => {{Reflist}} [147] => [148] => ==Bibliography== [149] => {{refbegin}} [150] => * {{cite book | vauthors = [[Christian Konrad Sprengel|Sprengel CK]] | title = Das entdeckte Geheimnis der Natur im Bau und in der Befruchtung der Blumen | trans-title = The discovered secret of nature in the construction and fertilization of flowers | language = de | location = Berlin | date = 1793 }} [151] => * {{cite book | vauthors = [[Knut Fægri|Fægri K]], van der Pijl L | title = The Principles of Pollination Ecology | location = New York | publisher = Pergamon Press | date = 1979 }} [152] => * {{cite book | vauthors = Percival MS | title = Floral Biology | location = New York | publisher = Pergamon Press | date = 1965 }} [153] => * {{cite book | vauthors = Real L | title = Pollination Biology | location = New York | publisher = Academic Press | date = 1983 }} [154] => * {{cite journal | vauthors = Bascompte J, Jordano P, Melián CJ, Olesen JM | title = The nested assembly of plant-animal mutualistic networks | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 100 | issue = 16 | pages = 9383–7 | date = August 2003 | pmid = 12881488 | pmc = 170927 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1633576100 | bibcode = 2003PNAS..100.9383B | doi-access = free }} [155] => * {{cite journal | vauthors = Bastolla U, Fortuna MA, Pascual-García A, Ferrera A, Luque B, Bascompte J | title = The architecture of mutualistic networks minimizes competition and increases biodiversity | journal = Nature | volume = 458 | issue = 7241 | pages = 1018–20 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19396144 | doi = 10.1038/nature07950 | bibcode = 2009Natur.458.1018B | s2cid = 4395634 }} [156] => * {{cite journal | vauthors = Lever JJ, van Nes EH, Scheffer M, Bascompte J | title = The sudden collapse of pollinator communities | journal = Ecology Letters | volume = 17 | issue = 3 | pages = 350–9 | date = March 2014 | pmid = 24386999| doi = 10.1111/ele.12236 | bibcode = 2014EcolL..17..350L | hdl = 10261/91808 | hdl-access = free }} [157] => {{refend}} [158] => [159] => == External links == [160] => {{commons category|Pollination}} [161] => *[http://pollinator.org/ Pollinator Partnership] [162] => *[https://regeneration.org/nexus/pollinators Pollinators] Project Regeneration [163] => *[http://www.orchidsrepbiol.de/cgi-bin/img_db/img_display.pl?db=vwpollinator&tit=Pollinator_Visitor Pollinator & Visitor Image Database] [164] => *[http://nas-sites.org/pollinators/ Resources on Pollinators] from the [[National Academies]] [165] => [166] => {{botany}} [167] => [168] => [[Category:Pollination]] [169] => [[Category:Symbiosis]] [170] => [[Category:Beekeeping]] [171] => [[Category:Insect ecology]] [] => )
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Pollinator

A pollinator is an animal that moves pollen from the male anther of a flower to the female stigma of a flower. This helps to bring about fertilization of the ovules in the flower by the male gametes from the pollen grains.

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