Array ( [0] => {{short description|Long carbohydrate polymers such as starch, glycogen, cellulose, and chitin}} [1] => {{further|Homopolysaccharide}} [2] => [[Image:Cellulose-Ibeta-from-xtal-2002-3D-balls.png|right|thumb|upright=1.5|3D structure of [[cellulose]], a [[beta-glucan]] polysaccharide]] [3] => [[Image:amylose 3Dprojection.svg|thumb|right|upright=1.5|[[Amylose]] is a linear [[polymer]] of [[glucose]] mainly linked with α(1→4) bonds. It can be made of several thousands of glucose units. It is one of the two components of [[starch]], the other being [[amylopectin]].]] [4] => [5] => '''Polysaccharides''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|p|ɒ|l|i|ˈ|s|æ|k|ə|r|aɪ|d}}), or '''polycarbohydrates''', are the most abundant [[carbohydrate]]s found in [[food]]. They are long-chain [[polymeric]] carbohydrates composed of [[monosaccharide]] units bound together by [[glycosidic bond|glycosidic linkages]]. This carbohydrate can react with water ([[hydrolysis]]) using [[amylase|amylase enzymes]] as catalyst, which produces constituent sugars ([[monosaccharides]], or [[oligosaccharide]]s). They range in structure from linear to highly branched. Examples include storage polysaccharides such as [[starch]], [[glycogen]] and [[galactogen]] and structural polysaccharides such as [[cellulose]] and [[chitin]]. [6] => [7] => Polysaccharides are often quite heterogeneous, containing slight modifications of the repeating unit. Depending on the structure, these [[macromolecule]]s can have distinct properties from their monosaccharide building blocks. They may be [[amorphous]] or even [[insoluble]] in water.{{cite book|vauthors=Varki A, Cummings R, Esko J, Freeze H, Stanley P, Bertozzi C, Hart G, Etzler M|work=Cold Spring Har J|title=Essentials of Glycobiology|publisher=Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press|year=1999|isbn=978-0-87969-560-6|url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK20709/?depth=2}} [8] => [9] => {{anchor|Homopolysaccharide|Heteropolysaccharide}} [10] => When all the monosaccharides in a polysaccharide are the same type, the polysaccharide is called a [[homopolysaccharide]] or homoglycan, but when more than one type of monosaccharide is present, they are called '''heteropolysaccharides''' or '''heteroglycans'''.{{GoldBookRef|title=homopolysaccharide (homoglycan)|file=H02856}}{{GoldBookRef|title=heteropolysaccharide (heteroglycan)|file=H02812}} [11] => [12] => Natural saccharides are generally composed of simple carbohydrates called [[monosaccharide]]s with general formula (CH2O)''n'' where ''n'' is three or more. Examples of monosaccharides are [[glucose]], [[fructose]], and [[glyceraldehyde]].{{cite book | vauthors = Matthews CE, Van Holde KE, Ahern KG | date = 1999 | title = Biochemistry | edition = 3rd | publisher = Benjamin Cummings | isbn = 0-8053-3066-6 }} Polysaccharides, meanwhile, have a general formula of C''x''(H2O)''y'' where ''x'' and ''y'' are usually large numbers between 200 and 2500. When the repeating units in the polymer backbone are [[Hexose|six-carbon monosaccharides]], as is often the case, the general formula simplifies to (C6H10O5)''n'', where typically {{nowrap|40 ≤ ''n'' ≤ 3000}}. [13] => [14] => As a rule of thumb, polysaccharides contain more than ten monosaccharide units, whereas [[oligosaccharide]]s contain three to ten monosaccharide units, but the precise cutoff varies somewhat according to the convention. Polysaccharides are an important class of [[biopolymer|biological polymers]]. Their [[function (biology)|function]] in living organisms is usually either structure- or storage-related. [[Starch]] (a polymer of glucose) is used as a storage polysaccharide in plants, being found in the form of both [[amylose]] and the branched [[amylopectin]]. In animals, the structurally similar glucose polymer is the more densely branched [[glycogen]], sometimes called "animal starch". Glycogen's properties allow it to be metabolized more quickly, which suits the active lives of moving animals. In [[bacteria]], they play an important role in bacterial multicellularity.{{cite journal | vauthors = Islam ST, Vergara Alvarez I, Saïdi F, Guiseppi A, Vinogradov E, Sharma G, Espinosa L, Morrone C, Brasseur G, Guillemot JF, Benarouche A, Bridot JL, Ravicoularamin G, Cagna A, Gauthier C, Singer M, Fierobe HP, Mignot T, Mauriello EM | display-authors = 6 | title = Modulation of bacterial multicellularity via spatio-specific polysaccharide secretion | journal = PLOS Biology | volume = 18 | issue = 6 | pages = e3000728 | date = June 2020 | pmid = 32516311 | pmc = 7310880 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pbio.3000728 | doi-access = free }} [15] => [16] => [[Cellulose]] and [[chitin]] are examples of structural polysaccharides. Cellulose is used in the [[cell wall]]s of plants and other organisms and is said to be the most abundant [[organic molecule]] on Earth.{{cite book | vauthors = Campbell NA | date = 1996 | title = Biology | edition = 4th | publisher = Benjamin Cummings | location = NY | page = 23 | isbn = 0-8053-1957-3 }} It has many uses such as a significant role in the paper and textile industries and is used as a feedstock for the production of rayon (via the [[viscose]] process), cellulose acetate, celluloid, and nitrocellulose. Chitin has a similar structure but has [[nitrogen]]-containing side branches, increasing its strength. It is found in [[arthropod]] [[exoskeleton]]s and in the cell walls of some [[fungi]]. It also has multiple uses, including [[surgical thread]]s. Polysaccharides also include [[callose]] or [[laminarin]], [[chrysolaminarin]], [[xylan]], [[arabinoxylan]], [[Mannan (polysaccharide)|mannan]], [[fucoidan]] and [[galactomannan]]. [17] => [18] => == Function == [19] => [20] => === Structure === [21] => Nutrition polysaccharides are common sources of energy. Many organisms can easily break down starches into glucose; however, most organisms cannot metabolize cellulose or other polysaccharides like [[cellulose]], [[chitin]], and [[arabinoxylans]]. Some bacteria and protists can metabolize these carbohydrate types. [[Ruminant]]s and [[termite]]s, for example, use microorganisms to process [[cellulose]].{{Cite web|title=Turning Waste Into Food: Cellulose Digestion – Dartmouth Undergraduate Journal of Science|url=https://sites.dartmouth.edu/dujs/2011/02/03/turning-waste-into-food-cellulose-digestion/|access-date=2021-09-18|website=sites.dartmouth.edu}} [22] => [23] => Even though these complex polysaccharides are not very digestible, they provide important dietary elements for humans. Called [[dietary fiber]], these carbohydrates enhance digestion. The main action of dietary fiber is to change the nature of the contents of the [[gastrointestinal tract]] and how other nutrients and chemicals are absorbed.{{cite web| title = Dietary Reference Intakes for Energy, Carbohydrate, Fiber, Fat, Fatty Acids, Cholesterol, Protein, and Amino Acids (Macronutrients) (2005), Chapter 7: Dietary, Functional and Total fiber.| publisher = US Department of Agriculture, National Agricultural Library and National Academy of Sciences, Institute of Medicine, Food and Nutrition Board| url = http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/DRI//DRI_Energy/339-421.pdf| url-status = dead| archive-url = http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20111027050903/http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic/DRI//DRI_Energy/339-421.pdf| archive-date = 2011-10-27}} Soluble fiber binds to [[bile acids]] in the small intestine, making them less likely to enter the body; this, in turn, lowers [[cholesterol]] levels in the blood.{{cite journal | vauthors = Anderson JW, Baird P, Davis RH, Ferreri S, Knudtson M, Koraym A, Waters V, Williams CL | display-authors = 6 | title = Health benefits of dietary fiber | journal = Nutrition Reviews | volume = 67 | issue = 4 | pages = 188–205 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 19335713 | doi = 10.1111/j.1753-4887.2009.00189.x | s2cid = 11762029 | url = http://fibercouncil.com/pdfs/Fiber_Review_Paper.pdf | access-date = 2017-10-25 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20170810235027/http://www.fibercouncil.com/pdfs/Fiber_Review_Paper.pdf | archive-date = 2017-08-10 }} Soluble fiber also attenuates the absorption of sugar, reduces sugar response after eating, normalizes blood lipid levels and, once fermented in the colon, produces [[short-chain fatty acid]]s as byproducts with wide-ranging physiological activities (discussion below). Although insoluble fiber is associated with reduced diabetes risk, the mechanism by which this occurs is unknown.{{cite journal | vauthors = Weickert MO, Pfeiffer AF | title = Metabolic effects of dietary fiber consumption and prevention of diabetes | journal = The Journal of Nutrition | volume = 138 | issue = 3 | pages = 439–42 | date = March 2008 | pmid = 18287346 | doi = 10.1093/jn/138.3.439 | doi-access = free }} [24] => [25] => Not yet formally proposed as an essential macronutrient (as of 2005), dietary fiber is nevertheless regarded as important for the diet, with regulatory authorities in many developed countries recommending increases in fiber intake.{{cite journal | vauthors = Eastwood M, Kritchevsky D | title = Dietary fiber: how did we get where we are? | journal = Annual Review of Nutrition | volume = 25 | pages = 1–8 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16011456 | doi = 10.1146/annurev.nutr.25.121304.131658 | author-link2 = David Kritchevsky }}{{cite journal|title=Scientific Opinion on Dietary Reference Values for carbohydrates and dietary fibre|journal=EFSA Journal|date=March 25, 2010|volume=8|issue=3|pages=1462|doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2010.1462|url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/1462|doi-access=free}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Jones PJ, Varady KA | title = Are functional foods redefining nutritional requirements? | journal = Applied Physiology, Nutrition, and Metabolism | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = 118–23 | date = February 2008 | pmid = 18347661 | doi = 10.1139/H07-134 | url = http://article.pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ppv/RPViewDoc?issn=1715-5312&volume=33&issue=1&startPage=118 | url-status = dead | format = PDF | archive-url = http://archive.wikiwix.com/cache/20111013080027/http://article.pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ppv/RPViewDoc?issn%3D1715%2D5312%26volume%3D33%26issue%3D1%26startPage%3D118 | archive-date = 2011-10-13 }} [26] => [27] => ==Storage polysaccharides== [28] => [29] => === Starch === [30] => {{main|Starch}} [31] => [[Starch]] is a [[glucose]] polymer in which [[glucopyranose]] units are bonded by ''alpha''-linkages. It is made up of a mixture of [[amylose]] (15–20%) and [[amylopectin]] (80–85%). Amylose consists of a linear chain of several hundred glucose molecules, and Amylopectin is a branched molecule made of several thousand glucose units (every chain of 24–30 glucose units is one unit of Amylopectin). Starches are [[insoluble]] in [[water]]. They can be digested by breaking the ''alpha''-linkages (glycosidic bonds). Both humans and other animals have amylases so that they can digest starches. [[Potato]], [[rice]], [[wheat]], and [[maize]] are major sources of starch in the human diet. The formations of starches are the ways that plants store [[glucose]].{{Cite journal |last=Pfister |first=Barbara |last2=Zeeman |first2=Samuel C. |date=July 2016 |title=Formation of starch in plant cells |url=http://link.springer.com/10.1007/s00018-016-2250-x |journal=Cellular and Molecular Life Sciences |language=en |volume=73 |issue=14 |pages=2781–2807 |doi=10.1007/s00018-016-2250-x |issn=1420-682X|pmc=4919380 }} [32] => [33] => ===Glycogen=== [34] => {{main|Glycogen}} [35] => [36] => Glycogen serves as the secondary long-term energy storage in [[animal]] and [[fungi|fungal]] cells, with the primary energy stores being held in [[adipose tissue]]. Glycogen is made primarily by the [[liver]], and the [[muscle]]s but can also be made by [[glycogenesis]] within the [[brain]] and [[stomach]].{{cite book | title = Anatomy and Physiology | vauthors = Saladin KS | publisher = McGraw-Hill | date = 2007 }} [37] => [38] => Glycogen is analogous to [[starch]], a glucose polymer in [[plant]]s, and is sometimes referred to as ''animal starch'',{{cite encyclopedia | url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/medical/animal%20starch | title=Animal starch | dictionary=Merriam Webster | access-date=May 11, 2014}} having a similar structure to [[amylopectin]] but more extensively branched and compact than starch. Glycogen is a polymer of α(1→4) glycosidic bonds linked with α(1→6)-linked branches. Glycogen is found in the form of granules in the [[cytosol]]/cytoplasm in many [[cell (biology)|cell]] types and plays an important role in the [[glucose cycle]]. Glycogen forms an [[energy]] reserve that can be quickly mobilized to meet a sudden need for glucose, but one that is less compact and more immediately available as an energy reserve than [[triglycerides]] (lipids).{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}} [39] => [40] => In the liver [[hepatocyte]]s, glycogen can compose up to 8 percent (100–120 grams in an adult) of the fresh weight soon after a meal.{{cite book | vauthors = Campbell NA, Williamson B, Heyden RJ | title = Biology: Exploring Life | publisher = Pearson Prentice Hall | year = 2006 | location = Boston, Massachusetts | url = http://www.phschool.com/el_marketing.html | isbn = 978-0-13-250882-7 }} Only the glycogen stored in the liver can be made accessible to other organs. In the [[muscle]]s, glycogen is found in a low [[concentration]] of one to two percent of the muscle mass. The amount of glycogen stored in the body—especially within the [[muscles]], [[liver]], and [[red blood cells]]{{cite journal | vauthors = Moses SW, Bashan N, Gutman A | title = Glycogen metabolism in the normal red blood cell | journal = Blood | volume = 40 | issue = 6 | pages = 836–43 | date = December 1972 | pmid = 5083874 | doi = 10.1182/blood.V40.6.836.836 | url = http://www.bloodjournal.org/cgi/pmidlookup?view=long&pmid=5083874 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal| vauthors = Ingermann RL, Virgin GL |title=Glycogen Content and Release of Glucose from Red blood cells of the Sipunculan Worm Themiste Dyscrita|url=http://jeb.biologists.org/cgi/reprint/129/1/141.pdf|journal=Journal of Experimental Biology|access-date=July 21, 2017|date=January 20, 1987|volume=129|pages=141–149|doi=10.1242/jeb.129.1.141}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Miwa I, Suzuki S | title = An improved quantitative assay of glycogen in erythrocytes | journal = Annals of Clinical Biochemistry | volume = 39 | issue = Pt 6 | pages = 612–3 | date = November 2002 | pmid = 12564847 | doi = 10.1258/000456302760413432 }}—varies with physical activity, [[basal metabolic rate]], and eating habits such as [[intermittent fasting]]. Small amounts of glycogen are found in the [[kidney]]s and even smaller amounts in certain [[glial]] cells in the [[brain]] and [[white blood cells]]. The [[uterus]] also stores glycogen during pregnancy to nourish the embryo. [41] => [42] => Glycogen is composed of a branched chain of glucose residues. It is primarily stored in the liver and muscles.{{Cite journal |last=Ørtenblad |first=N. |last2=Nielsen |first2=J. |date=2015 |title=Muscle glycogen and cell function – Location, location, location |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/sms.12599 |journal=Scandinavian Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports |language=en |volume=25 |issue=S4 |pages=34–40 |doi=10.1111/sms.12599 |issn=0905-7188}} [43] => * It is an energy reserve for animals. [44] => * It is the chief form of carbohydrate stored in animal organisms. [45] => * It is insoluble in water. It turns brown-red when mixed with iodine. [46] => * It also yields glucose on [[hydrolysis]]. [47] => [48] => [49] => File:Glycogen structure.svg|Schematic 2-D cross-sectional view of glycogen. A core protein of [[glycogenin]] is surrounded by branches of [[glucose]] units. The entire globular granule may contain approximately 30,000 glucose units.{{cite book | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=SRptlOx7yj4C | page = 12 | title = Exercise physiology: energy, nutrition, and human performance | vauthors = McArdle WD, Katch FI, Katch VL | edition = 6th | publisher = Lippincott Williams & Wilkins | date = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-7817-4990-9 }} [50] => File:Glycogen spacefilling model.jpg|A view of the [[atom]]ic structure of a single branched strand of [[glucose]] units in a glycogen [[molecule]]. [51] => [52] => [53] => === Galactogen === [54] => '''Galactogen''' is a polysaccharide of [[galactose]] that functions as energy storage in [[Pulmonata|pulmonate]] snails and some [[Caenogastropoda]].{{cite book | vauthors = Goudsmit EM | date = 1972 | chapter = Carbohydrates and carbohydrate metabolism in Mollusca | veditors = Florkin M, Scheer BT | title = Chemical Zoology | volume = VII Mollusca | publisher = Academic Press | location = New York | pages = 219–244 }} This polysaccharide is exclusive of the reproduction and is only found in the albumen gland from the female snail reproductive system and in the [[perivitelline fluid]] of eggs.{{cite journal | last1=May | first1=F | last2=Weinland | first2=H | title=Glycogen formation in the galactogen-containing eggs of Helix pomatia during embryonal period. | url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/13078807/ | journal=Zeitschrift für Biologie | year=1953 | volume=105 | issue=5 | pages=339–347 | pmid=13078807 }} Furthermore, galactogen serves as an energy reserve for developing embryos and hatchlings, which is later replaced by [[glycogen]] in juveniles and adults.{{cite journal | vauthors = May F | date = 1932 | title = Beitrag zur Kenntnis des Glykogen und Galaktogengehaltes bei Helix pomatia. | journal = Z. Biol. | volume = 92 | pages = 319–324 }} [55] => [56] => Formed by crosslinking polysaccharide-based [[nanoparticle]]s and functional polymers, galactogens have applications within hydrogel structures. These hydrogel structures can be designed to release particular nanoparticle pharmaceuticals and/or encapsulated therapeutics over time or in response to environmental stimuli.{{cite journal | last1=Hoare | first1=Todd | last2=Babar | first2=Ali | title=In situ gelling polysaccharide-based nanoparticle hydrogel compositions, and methods of use thereof | url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/patent/US-2021361570-A1 | journal=PubChem | volume=1 | issue=1 }} [57] => [58] => Galactogens are polysaccharides with binding affinity for [[bioanalytes]]. With this, by end-point attaching galactogens to other polysaccharides constituting the surface of medical devices, galactogens have use as a method of capturing bioanalytes (e.g., CTC's), a method for releasing the captured bioanalytes and an analysis method.{{cite journal | last1=Wiegman | first1=Peter | last2=Mulder | first2=Hans | title=A process for applying a coating comprising one or more polysaccharides with binding affinity for bioanalytes onto the surface of a medical sampling device, and the medical sampling device for capture of bioanalytes provided with the coating | url=https://pubchem.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/patent/WO-2022034027-A1 | journal=PubChem | volume=1 | issue=1 | pages = 101–104 }} [59] => [60] => === Inulin === [61] => {{main|Inulin}} [62] => [63] => [[Inulin]] is a naturally occurring polysaccharide [[complex carbohydrate]] composed of [[fructose]], a plant-derived food that human digestive enzymes cannot completely break down. The inulins belong to a class of [[dietary fiber]]s known as [[fructan]]s. Inulin is used by some plants as a means of storing energy and is typically found in [[root]]s or [[rhizome]]s. Most plants that synthesize and store inulin do not store other forms of carbohydrates such as [[starch]]. In the United States in 2018, the [[Food and Drug Administration]] approved inulin as a dietary fiber ingredient used to improve the [[nutrition]]al value of manufactured food products.{{Cite web |date=14 June 2018 |title=The Declaration of Certain Isolated or Synthetic Non-Digestible Carbohydrates as Dietary Fiber on Nutrition and Supplement Facts Labels: Guidance for Industry |publisher=U.S. [[Food and Drug Administration]] |url=https://www.fda.gov/downloads/Food/GuidanceRegulation/GuidanceDocumentsRegulatoryInformation/UCM610144.pdf}} [64] => [65] => ==Structural polysaccharides== [66] => [[File:Structural polysaccharides.png|thumb|upright=1.25|Some important natural structural polysaccharides]] [67] => [68] => === Arabinoxylans === [69] => [[Arabinoxylan]]s are found in both the primary and secondary cell walls of plants and are the copolymers of two sugars: [[arabinose]] and [[xylose]]. They may also have beneficial effects on human health.{{cite journal | title = Arabinoxylans and human health | vauthors = Mendis M, Simsek S | journal = Food Hydrocolloids | volume = 42 | pages = 239–243 | date = 15 December 2014 | doi = 10.1016/j.foodhyd.2013.07.022 }} [70] => [71] => === Cellulose === [72] => The structural components of [[plant]]s are formed primarily from [[cellulose]]. Wood is largely cellulose and [[lignin]], while [[paper]] and [[cotton]] are nearly pure cellulose. Cellulose is a [[polymer]] made with repeated glucose units bonded together by ''beta''-linkages. Humans and many animals lack an enzyme to break the ''beta''-linkages, so they do not digest cellulose. Certain animals, such as [[termite]]s can digest cellulose, because bacteria possessing the enzyme are present in their gut. Cellulose is insoluble in water. It does not change color when mixed with iodine. On hydrolysis, it yields glucose. It is the most abundant carbohydrate in nature.{{Cite book |last1=Bhardwaj |first1=Uma |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=93yeKr9W9TwC |title=Biochemistry for Nurses |last2=Bhardwaj |first2=Ravindra |publisher=Pearson Education India |isbn=978-81-317-9528-6 |language=en}} [73] => [74] => === Chitin === [75] => [[Chitin]] is one of many naturally occurring [[polymers]]. It forms a structural component of many animals, such as [[exoskeleton]]s. Over time it is [[biodegradation|bio-degradable]] in the natural environment. Its breakdown may be catalyzed by [[enzyme]]s called [[chitinase]]s, secreted by microorganisms such as [[bacteria]] and [[fungi]] and produced by some plants. Some of these microorganisms have [[Chemoreceptors|receptors]] to simple [[sugars]] from the decomposition of chitin. If chitin is detected, they then produce [[enzyme]]s to digest it by cleaving the [[glycosidic bond]]s in order to convert it to simple sugars and [[ammonia]]{{Citation needed|date=February 2021}}. [76] => [77] => Chemically, chitin is closely related to [[chitosan]] (a more water-soluble derivative of chitin). It is also closely related to [[cellulose]] in that it is a long unbranched chain of [[glucose]] derivatives. Both materials contribute structure and strength, protecting the organism.{{Cite journal |last1=Merzendorfer |first1=Hans |last2=Zimoch |first2=Lars |date=December 2003 |title=Chitin metabolism in insects: structure, function and regulation of chitin synthases and chitinases |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/14610026/#:~:text=Chitin%20is%20one%20of%20the,matrices%20lining%20the%20gut%20epithelium. |journal=The Journal of Experimental Biology |volume=206 |issue=Pt 24 |pages=4393–4412 |doi=10.1242/jeb.00709 |issn=0022-0949 |pmid=14610026|s2cid=27291096 }} [78] => [79] => === Pectins === [80] => [[Pectin]]s are a family of complex polysaccharides that contain 1,4-linked α-{{sc|D}}-galactosyl uronic acid residues. They are present in most primary cell walls and in the nonwoody parts of terrestrial plants.{{Cite journal |last=MOHNEN |first=D |date=2008 |title=Pectin structure and biosynthesis |url= |journal=Current Opinion in Plant Biology |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=266–277 |doi=10.1016/j.pbi.2008.03.006 |pmid=18486536 |issn=1369-5266}} [81] => [82] => == Acidic polysaccharides == [83] => [84] => Acidic polysaccharides are polysaccharides that contain [[carboxyl group]]s, phosphate groups and/or [[Organosulfate|sulfuric ester]] groups.Mohammed, A.S.A., Naveed, M. & Jost, N. Polysaccharides; Classification, Chemical Properties, and Future Perspective Applications in Fields of Pharmacology and Biological Medicine (A Review of Current Applications and Upcoming Potentialities). J Polym Environ 29, 2359–2371 (2021). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10924-021-02052-2 [85] => [86] => Polysaccharides containing sulfate groups can be isolated from [[algae]]Cunha L, Grenha A. Sulfated Seaweed Polysaccharides as Multifunctional Materials in Drug Delivery Applications. Mar Drugs. 2016;14(3):42. doi: 10.3390/md14030042 or obtained by chemical modification.Kazachenko A.S., Akman F., Malyar Y.N., ISSAOUI N., Vasilieva N.Y., Karacharov A.A. Synthesis optimization, DFT and physicochemical study of chitosan sulfates [87] => (2021) Journal of Molecular Structure, 1245, art. no. 131083. DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2021.131083 [88] => [89] => Polysaccharides are major classes of biomolecules. They are long chains of carbohydrate molecules, composed of several smaller monosaccharides. These complex bio-macromolecules functions as an important source of energy in '''animal cell''' and form a structural component of a plant cell. It can be a homopolysaccharide or a heteropolysaccharide depending upon the type of the monosaccharides. [90] => [91] => Polysaccharides can be a straight chain of monosaccharides known as linear polysaccharides, or it can be branched known as a branched polysaccharide. [92] => [93] => ==Bacterial polysaccharides== [94] => {{More citations needed section|date=February 2021}} [95] => [[Pathogenic bacteria]] commonly produce a [[bacterial capsule]], a thick, mucous-like, layer of polysaccharide. The capsule cloaks [[antigen]]ic [[protein]]s on the bacterial surface that would otherwise provoke an immune response and thereby lead to the destruction of the bacteria. Capsular polysaccharides are water-soluble, commonly acidic, and have [[molecular weight]]s on the order of 100,000 to 2,000,000 [[atomic mass unit|daltons]]. They are linear and consist of regularly repeating subunits of one to six [[monosaccharide]]s. There is enormous structural diversity; nearly two hundred different polysaccharides are produced by ''[[Escherichia coli|E. coli]]'' alone. Mixtures of capsular polysaccharides, either [[conjugate vaccine|conjugated]] or native, are used as [[vaccine]]s.{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} [96] => [97] => Bacteria and many other microbes, including [[fungi]] and [[algae]], often secrete polysaccharides to help them adhere to surfaces and to prevent them from drying out. Humans have developed some of these polysaccharides into useful products, including [[xanthan gum]], [[dextran]], [[welan gum]], [[gellan gum]], diutan gum and [[pullulan]]. [98] => [99] => Most of these polysaccharides exhibit useful [[visco-elastic]] properties when dissolved in water at very low levels.Viscosity of Welan Gum vs. Concentration in Water. {{cite web |url=http://www.xydatasource.com/xy-showdatasetpage.php?datasetcode=345115&dsid=80 |title=XYdatasource - Fundamental Research Data at Your Fingertips |access-date=2009-10-02 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110718132921/http://www.xydatasource.com/xy-showdatasetpage.php?datasetcode=345115&dsid=80 |archive-date=2011-07-18 }} This makes various liquids used in everyday life, such as some foods, lotions, cleaners, and paints, viscous when stationary, but much more free-flowing when even slight shear is applied by stirring or shaking, pouring, wiping, or brushing. This property is named pseudoplasticity or [[shear thinning]]; the study of such matters is called [[rheology]].{{citation needed|date=May 2023}} [100] => [101] => :{| class="wikitable" style="text-align:right;" [102] => |+ '''[https://web.archive.org/web/20110718133252/http://www.xydatasource.com/xy-showdatasetpage.php?datasetcode=45615&dsid=76&searchtext=polysaccharide Viscosity of Welan gum]''' [103] => |- [104] => ! Shear rate (rpm) [105] => ! Viscosity ([[centipoise|cP]] or mPa⋅s) [106] => |- [107] => | 0.3 [108] => | 23330 [109] => |- [110] => | 0.5 [111] => | 16000 [112] => |- [113] => | 1 [114] => | 11000 [115] => |- [116] => | 2 [117] => | 5500 [118] => |- [119] => | 4 [120] => | 3250 [121] => |- [122] => | 5 [123] => | 2900 [124] => |- [125] => | 10 [126] => | 1700 [127] => |- [128] => | 20 [129] => | 900 [130] => |- [131] => | 50 [132] => | 520 [133] => |- [134] => | 100 [135] => | 310 [136] => |} [137] => [138] => Aqueous solutions of the polysaccharide alone have a curious behavior when stirred: after stirring ceases, the solution initially continues to swirl due to momentum, then slows to a standstill due to viscosity and reverses direction briefly before stopping. This recoil is due to the elastic effect of the polysaccharide chains, previously stretched in solution, returning to their relaxed state. [139] => [140] => Cell-surface polysaccharides play diverse roles in bacterial [[ecology]] and [[physiology]]. They serve as a barrier between the [[cell wall]] and the environment, mediate host-pathogen interactions. Polysaccharides also play an important role in formation of [[biofilm]]s and the structuring of complex life forms in bacteria like ''[[Myxococcus xanthus]]''''.'' [141] => [142] => These polysaccharides are synthesized from [[nucleotide]]-activated precursors (called [[nucleotide sugar]]s) and, in most cases, all the enzymes necessary for biosynthesis, assembly and transport of the completed polymer are encoded by genes organized in dedicated clusters within the genome of the [[organism]]. [[Lipopolysaccharide]] is one of the most important cell-surface polysaccharides, as it plays a key structural role in outer membrane integrity, as well as being an important mediator of host-pathogen interactions. [143] => [144] => The enzymes that make the ''A-band'' (homopolymeric) and ''B-band'' (heteropolymeric) O-antigens have been identified and the [[metabolic pathway]]s defined.{{cite journal | vauthors = Guo H, Yi W, Song JK, Wang PG | title = Current understanding on biosynthesis of microbial polysaccharides | journal = Current Topics in Medicinal Chemistry | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 141–51 | year = 2008 | pmid = 18289083 | doi = 10.2174/156802608783378873 }} The exopolysaccharide alginate is a linear copolymer of β-1,4-linked {{sc|D}}-mannuronic acid and {{sc|L}}-guluronic acid residues, and is responsible for the mucoid phenotype of late-stage cystic fibrosis disease. The ''pel'' and ''psl'' loci are two recently discovered gene clusters that also encode [[exopolysaccharide]]s found to be important for biofilm formation. [[Rhamnolipid]] is a biosurfactant whose production is tightly regulated at the [[Transcription (genetics)|transcription]]al level, but the precise role that it plays in disease is not well understood at present. Protein [[glycosylation]], particularly of [[pilin]] and [[flagellin]], became a focus of research by several groups from about 2007, and has been shown to be important for adhesion and invasion during bacterial infection.{{cite book | veditors = Cornelis P | title = Pseudomonas: Genomics and Molecular Biology | edition = 1st | publisher = Caister Academic Press | year = 2008 | url=http://www.horizonpress.com/pseudo | isbn = 978-1-904455-19-6}} [145] => [146] => ==Chemical identification tests for polysaccharides== [147] => [148] => ===Periodic acid-Schiff stain (PAS)=== [149] => [150] => Polysaccharides with unprotected [[Diol#Vicinal diols|vicinal diols]] or amino sugars (where some [[hydroxyl]] groups are replaced with [[amine]]s) give a positive [[periodic acid-Schiff stain]] (PAS). The list of polysaccharides that stain with PAS is long. Although [[mucin]]s of epithelial origins stain with PAS, mucins of connective tissue origin have so many acidic substitutions that they do not have enough glycol or amino-alcohol groups left to react with PAS.{{citation needed|date=April 2023}} [151] => [152] => == Derivatives == [153] => By chemical modifications certain properties of polysaccharides can be improved. Various ligands can be covalently attached to their hydroxyl groups. Due to the covalent attachment of methyl-, hydroxyethyl- or carboxymethyl- groups on [[cellulose]], for instance, high swelling properties in aqueous media can be introduced.{{cite journal |last1=Doelker |first1=E | title= Swelling Behavior of Water-Soluble Cellulose Derivatives|journal=Studies in Polymer Science |date=1990 |volume=8 |issue=3 |pages=125–145|doi=10.1016/B978-0-444-88654-5.50011-X|isbn=9780444886545 }} Another example are thiolated polysaccharides ( see [[thiomer]]s).{{cite journal |last1=Leichner |first1=C |last2=Jelkmann |first2=M |last3=Bernkop-Schnürch |first3=A |title=Thiolated polymers: Bioinspired polymers utilizing one of the most important bridging structures in nature |journal=Adv Drug Deliv Rev |date=2019 |volume=151–152 |pages=191–221 |doi=10.1016/j.addr.2019.04.007 |pmid=31028759|s2cid=135464452}} Thiol groups are covalently attached to polysaccharides such as [[hyaluronic acid]] or [[chitosan]].{{cite journal |last1=Griesser |first1=J |last2=Hetényi |first2=G |last3=Bernkop-Schnürch |first3=A |title=Thiolated Hyaluronic Acid as Versatile Mucoadhesive Polymer: From the Chemistry Behind to Product Developments-What Are the Capabilities? |journal=Polymers |date=2018 |volume=10 |issue=3 |page=243 |doi=10.3390/polym10030243 |pmid=30966278|pmc=6414859 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Federer |first1=C |last2=Kurpiers |first2=M |last3=Bernkop-Schnürch |first3=A |title=Thiolated Chitosans: A Multi-talented Class of Polymers for Various Applications |journal=Biomacromolecules |date=2021 |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=24–56 |doi=10.1021/acs.biomac.0c00663 |pmid=32567846|pmc=7805012}} As thiolated polysaccharides can crosslink via disulfide bond formation, they form stable three-dimensional networks. Furthermore, they can bind to cysteine subunits of proteins via disulfide bonds. Because of these bonds polysaccharides can be covalently attached to endogenous proteins such as mucins or keratins. [154] => [155] => == See also == [156] => * [[Glycan]] [157] => * [[Oligosaccharide nomenclature]] [158] => * [[Polysaccharide encapsulated bacteria]] [159] => [160] => == References == [161] => {{Reflist|30em}} [162] => [163] => == External links == [164] => {{commons category|Polysaccharides}} [165] => * [http://employees.csbsju.edu/hjakubowski/classes/ch331/cho/complexoligosacch.htm Polysaccharide Structure] [166] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20190712094758/https://www.epnoe.eu/ European Polysaccharide Network of Excellence] [167] => [168] => {{Carbohydrates}} [169] => {{Authority control}} [170] => [171] => [[Category:Polysaccharides| ]] [172] => [[Category:Carbohydrate chemistry]] [] => )
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Polysaccharide

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharide units. They play crucial roles in various biological processes such as energy storage, structural support, and cell recognition.

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They play crucial roles in various biological processes such as energy storage, structural support, and cell recognition. This Wikipedia page provides an overview of polysaccharides, including their classification, examples, and functions. It also discusses their utilization in industries such as food, pharmaceuticals, and materials. Further sections explore the methods of polysaccharide synthesis, characterization, and analysis. The page also highlights the importance of polysaccharides in diseases like diabetes and their potential applications in drug delivery systems. Overall, the Wikipedia page on polysaccharides offers comprehensive information on these fundamental biomolecules that are essential for understanding many biological processes and their relevance to various fields.

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