Array ( [0] => {{short description|Type of cyclic particle accelerator}} [1] => {{about|the synchrotron, a [[particle accelerator]]|accelerators designed specifically to make use of [[synchrotron radiation]] |synchrotron light source}} [2] => [3] => [[File:University of Michigan synchrotron.jpg|thumb|The first synchrotron to use the "racetrack" design with straight sections, a 300 MeV electron synchrotron at [[University of Michigan]] in 1949, designed by [[H. Richard Crane|Dick Crane]].]] [4] => A '''synchrotron''' is a particular type of cyclic [[particle accelerator]], descended from the [[cyclotron]], in which the accelerating particle beam travels around a fixed closed-loop path. The [[magnetic field]] which bends the particle beam into its closed path increases with time during the accelerating process, being ''synchronized'' to the increasing [[kinetic energy]] of the particles.{{cite book | editor1-last=Chao | editor1-first=A. W. | editor2-last=Mess | editor2-first=K. H. | editor3-last=Tigner | editor3-first=M. |display-editors = 3 | editor4-last=Zimmermann | editor4-first=F. | year=2013 | title=Handbook of Accelerator Physics and Engineering | edition=2nd | publisher=World Scientific | isbn=978-981-4417-17-4 | doi=10.1142/8543| s2cid=108427390 | url=https://cds.cern.ch/record/384825 }} The synchrotron is one of the first accelerator concepts to enable the construction of large-scale facilities, since bending, beam focusing and acceleration can be separated into different components. The most powerful modern particle accelerators use versions of the synchrotron design. The largest synchrotron-type accelerator, also the largest particle accelerator in the world, is the {{convert|27|km|mi|adj=mid|-circumference}} [[Large Hadron Collider]] (LHC) near Geneva, Switzerland, built in 2008 by the [[European Organization for Nuclear Research]] (CERN).{{Cite web |date=2023-12-15 |title=The Large Hadron Collider |url=https://home.web.cern.ch/science/accelerators/large-hadron-collider |access-date=2024-01-15 |website=CERN |language=en}} It can accelerate beams of protons to an energy of 7 tera [[electron volt|electronvolts]] (TeV or 1012 eV). [5] => [6] => The synchrotron principle was invented by [[Vladimir Veksler]] in 1944. [7] => {{Cite journal |first=V. I. |last=Veksler |title=A new method of accelerating relativistic particles |journal=[[Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences de l'URSS]] |volume=43 |number=8 |year=1944 |pages=346–348 |url = http://lhe.jinr.ru/rus/veksler/wv0/publikacii/1944Veksler.pdf}} [[Edwin McMillan]] constructed the first electron synchrotron in 1945, arriving at the idea independently, having missed Veksler's publication (which was only available in a [[Soviet Union|Soviet]] journal, although in English).{{cite web|last=J. David Jackson and W.K.H. Panofsky|title=EDWIN MATTISON MCMILLAN: A Biographical Memoir |url=http://www.nasonline.org/publications/biographical-memoirs/memoir-pdfs/mcmillan-edwin.pdf | publisher= [[National Academy of Sciences]] |year=1996}}{{cite web|last=Wilson|title=Fifty Years of Synchrotrons|url=http://accelconf.web.cern.ch/accelconf/e96/PAPERS/ORALS/FRX04A.PDF|publisher=[[CERN]]|access-date=2012-01-15}} [8] => {{cite web|last=Zinovyeva|first=Larisa|title=On the question about the autophasing discovery authorship|url=http://www.larisa-zinovyeva.com/%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE-%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BA%D1%80%D1%8B%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F-%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BA%D0%B8/ |access-date=2015-06-29}} [9] => The first proton synchrotron was designed by [[Mark Oliphant|Sir Marcus Oliphant]]{{cite journal|last=Rotblat|first=Joseph|title=Obituary: Mark Oliphant (1901–2000)|journal=Nature|volume=407|issue=6803|pages=468|year=2000 |doi=10.1038/35035202 |pmid=11028988|doi-access=free}} and built in 1952. [10] => [11] => == Types == [12] => {{Unreferenced section|date=January 2021}} [13] => Several specialized types of synchrotron machines are used today: [14] => *A [[storage ring]] is a special type of synchrotron in which the kinetic energy of the particles is kept constant. [15] => *A [[synchrotron light source]] is a combination of different electron accelerator types, including a storage ring in which the desired electromagnetic radiation is generated. This radiation is then used in experimental stations located on different [[beamline]]s. In addition to the storage ring, a synchrotron light source usually contains a [[linear accelerator]] (linac) and another synchrotron which is sometimes called a ''booster'' in this context. The linac and the booster are used to successively accelerate the electrons to their final energy before they are magnetically "kicked" into the storage ring. Synchrotron light sources in their entirety are sometimes called "synchrotrons", although this is technically incorrect. [16] => *A cyclic [[collider]] is also a combination of different accelerator types, including two intersecting storage rings and the respective pre-accelerators. [17] => [18] => == Principle of operation == [19] => The synchrotron evolved from the [[cyclotron]], the first cyclic particle accelerator. While a classical [[cyclotron]] uses both a constant guiding [[magnetic field]] and a constant-frequency [[electromagnetic field]] (and is working in [[classical mechanics|classical approximation]]), its successor, the [[isochronous cyclotron]], works by local variations of the guiding magnetic field, adapting to the increasing [[relativistic mass]] of particles during acceleration.{{Cite journal |last=McMillan |first=Edwin M. |date=February 1984 |title=A history of the synchrotron |url=http://physicstoday.scitation.org/doi/10.1063/1.2916080 |journal=Physics Today |language=en |volume=37 |issue=2 |pages=31–37 |doi=10.1063/1.2916080 |s2cid=121370125 |issn=0031-9228}} [20] => [21] => [[File:Cosmotron (PSF).png|thumb|A drawing of the Cosmotron]] [22] => In a synchrotron, this adaptation is done by variation of the magnetic field strength in time, rather than in space. For particles that are not close to the speed of [[light]], the frequency of the applied electromagnetic field may also change to follow their non-constant circulation time. By increasing these [[parameter]]s accordingly as the particles gain energy, their circulation path can be held constant as they are accelerated. This allows the vacuum chamber for the particles to be a large thin [[torus]], rather than a disk as in previous, compact accelerator designs. Also, the thin profile of the vacuum chamber allowed for a more efficient use of magnetic fields than in a cyclotron, enabling the cost-effective construction of larger synchrotrons.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [23] => [24] => While the first synchrotrons and storage rings like the [[Cosmotron]] and [[Anello Di Accumulazione|ADA]] strictly used the toroid shape, the [[strong focusing]] principle independently discovered by [[Ernest Courant]] et al.{{Cite journal | last1 = Courant | first1 = E. D. | author-link1 = Ernest Courant| last2 = Livingston | first2 = M. S. | author-link2 = Milton Stanley Livingston| last3 = Snyder | first3 = H. S. | author-link3 = Hartland Sweet Snyder| doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.88.1190 | bibcode = 1952PhRv...88.1190C| title = The Strong-Focusing Synchrotron—A New High Energy Accelerator | journal = [[Physical Review]] | volume = 88 | issue = 5 | pages = 1190–1196| year = 1952 | hdl = 2027/mdp.39015086454124 | hdl-access = free }}{{Cite journal | last1 = Blewett | first1 = J. P.| title = Radial Focusing in the Linear Accelerator | doi = 10.1103/PhysRev.88.1197 | bibcode = 1952PhRv...88.1197B| journal = [[Physical Review]] | volume = 88 | issue = 5 | pages = 1197–1199| year = 1952 }} and [[Nicholas Christofilos]]{{US patent reference | number = 2736799 | y = 1956 | m = 02 | d = 28 | inventor = [[Nicholas Christofilos]] | title = [https://www.google.com/patents?vid=2736799 Focussing System for Ions and Electrons] }} allowed the complete separation of the accelerator into components with specialized functions along the particle path, shaping the path into a round-cornered polygon. Some important components are given by [[RF cavity|radio frequency cavities]] for direct acceleration, [[dipole magnet]]s (''bending magnets'') for deflection of particles (to close the path), and [[quadrupole magnet|quadrupole]] / [[sextupole magnet]]s for beam focusing.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [25] => [26] => [[File:Aust.-Synchrotron-Interior-Panorama,-14.06.2007.jpg|thumb|right|320px|The interior of the [[Australian Synchrotron]] facility, a [[synchrotron light source]]. Dominating the image is the [[storage ring]], showing a [[Beamline#Synchrotron radiation beamline|beamline]] at front right. The storage ring's interior includes a synchrotron and a [[Linear accelerator|linac]].]] [27] => The combination of time-dependent guiding magnetic fields and the strong focusing principle enabled the design and operation of modern large-scale accelerator facilities like [[collider]]s and [[synchrotron light source]]s. The straight sections along the closed path in such facilities are not only required for radio frequency cavities, but also for [[particle detector]]s (in colliders) and photon generation devices such as [[Wiggler (synchrotron)|wigglers]] and [[undulator]]s (in third generation synchrotron light sources).{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [28] => [29] => The maximum energy that a cyclic accelerator can impart is typically limited by the maximum strength of the magnetic fields and the minimum radius (maximum [[curvature]]) of the particle path. Thus one method for increasing the energy limit is to use [[superconducting magnet]]s, these not being limited by [[magnetic saturation]]. [[Electron]]/[[positron]] accelerators may also be limited by the emission of [[synchrotron radiation]], resulting in a partial loss of the particle beam's kinetic energy. The limiting beam energy is reached when the energy lost to the lateral acceleration required to maintain the beam path in a circle equals the energy added each cycle.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [30] => [31] => More powerful accelerators are built by using large radius paths and by using more numerous and more powerful microwave cavities. Lighter particles (such as electrons) lose a larger fraction of their energy when deflected. Practically speaking, the energy of [[electron]]/[[positron]] accelerators is limited by this radiation loss, while this does not play a significant role in the dynamics of [[proton]] or [[ion]] accelerators. The energy of such accelerators is limited strictly by the strength of magnets and by the cost.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [32] => [33] => === Injection procedure === [34] => Unlike in a cyclotron, synchrotrons are unable to accelerate particles from zero kinetic energy; one of the obvious reasons for this is that its closed particle path would be cut by a device that emits particles. Thus, schemes were developed to inject pre-accelerated [[particle beam]]s into a synchrotron. The pre-acceleration can be realized by a chain of other accelerator structures like a [[linac]], a [[microtron]] or another synchrotron; all of these in turn need to be fed by a particle source comprising a simple high voltage power supply, typically a [[Cockcroft-Walton generator]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [35] => [36] => Starting from an appropriate initial value determined by the injection energy, the field strength of the [[dipole magnet]]s is then increased. If the high energy particles are emitted at the end of the acceleration procedure, e.g. to a target or to another accelerator, the field strength is again decreased to injection level, starting a new ''injection cycle''. Depending on the method of magnet control used, the time interval for one cycle can vary substantially between different installations.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [37] => [38] => == In large-scale facilities == [39] => {{See also|List of accelerators in particle physics}} [40] => [[File:SOLEIL le 01 juin 2005.jpg|thumb|300px|right|Modern industrial-scale synchrotrons can be very large (here, [[Soleil (synchrotron)|Soleil]] near [[Paris]])]] [41] => One of the early large synchrotrons, now retired, is the [[Bevatron]], constructed in 1950 at the [[Lawrence Berkeley Laboratory]]. The name of this [[proton]] accelerator comes from its power, in the range of 6.3 [[GeV]] (then called BeV for billion [[electron volt]]s; the name predates the adoption of the [[SI prefix]] [[giga-]]). A number of [[transuranium elements]], unseen in the natural world, were first created with this machine. This site is also the location of one of the first large [[bubble chamber]]s used to examine the results of the atomic collisions produced here.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [42] => [43] => Another early large synchrotron is the [[Cosmotron]] built at [[Brookhaven National Laboratory]] which reached 3.3 GeV in 1953.[http://www.bnl.gov/bnlweb/history/cosmotron.asp The Cosmotron] [44] => [45] => Among the few synchrotrons around the world, 16 are located in the United States. Many of them belong to national laboratories; few are located in universities.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [46] => [47] => === As part of colliders === [48] => Until August 2008, the highest energy collider in the world was the [[Tevatron]], at the [[Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory]], in the [[United States]]. It accelerated [[protons]] and [[antiprotons]] to slightly less than 1 [[TeV]] of kinetic energy and collided them together. The [[Large Hadron Collider]] (LHC), which has been built at the European Laboratory for High Energy Physics ([[CERN]]), has roughly seven times this energy (so proton-proton collisions occur at roughly 14 TeV). It is housed in the 27 km tunnel which formerly housed the Large Electron Positron ([[LEP]]) collider, so it will maintain the claim as the largest scientific device ever built. The LHC will also accelerate heavy ions (such as [[lead]]) up to an energy of 1.15 [[PeV]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [49] => [50] => The largest device of this type seriously proposed was the [[Superconducting Super Collider]] (SSC), which was to be built in the [[United States]]. This design, like others, used [[superconducting magnet]]s which allow more intense magnetic fields to be created without the limitations of core saturation. While construction was begun, the project was cancelled in 1994, citing excessive [[cost overrun|budget overruns]] — this was due to naïve cost estimation and economic management issues rather than any basic engineering flaws. It can also be argued that the end of the [[Cold War]] resulted in a change of scientific funding priorities that contributed to its ultimate cancellation. However, the tunnel built for its placement still remains, although empty. [51] => While there is still potential for yet more powerful proton and heavy particle cyclic accelerators, it appears that the next step up in electron beam energy must avoid losses due to [[synchrotron radiation]]. This will require a return to the [[Linear particle accelerator|linear accelerator]], but with devices significantly longer than those currently in use. There is at present a major effort to design and build the [[International Linear Collider]] (ILC), which will consist of two opposing [[linear accelerators]], one for electrons and one for positrons. These will collide at a total [[center of mass]] energy of 0.5 [[TeV]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [52] => [53] => === As part of synchrotron light sources === [54] => {{See also|List of synchrotron radiation facilities}} [55] => Synchrotron radiation also has a wide range of applications (see [[synchrotron light]]) and many 2nd and 3rd generation synchrotrons have been built especially to harness it. The largest of those 3rd generation synchrotron light sources are the [[European Synchrotron Radiation Facility]] (ESRF) in [[Grenoble]], France, the Advanced Photon Source ([[Advanced Photon Source|APS]]) near Chicago, United States, and [[SPring-8]] in [[Japan]], accelerating electrons up to 6, 7 and 8 [[GeV]], respectively.{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [56] => [57] => Synchrotrons which are useful for cutting edge research are large machines, costing tens or hundreds of millions of dollars to construct, and each beamline (there may be 20 to 50 at a large synchrotron) costs another two or three million dollars on average. These installations are mostly built by the science funding agencies of governments of developed countries, or by collaborations between several countries in a region, and operated as infrastructure facilities available to scientists from universities and research organisations throughout the country, region, or world. More compact models, however, have been developed, such as the [[Synchrotron light source#Compact synchrotron light sources|Compact Light Source]].{{Citation needed|date=January 2021}} [58] => [59] => ==Applications== [60] => * Life sciences: [[protein]] and large-molecule [[crystallography]] [61] => * [[LIGA]] based microfabrication [62] => * [[pharmaceutical|Drug discovery and research]] [63] => * [[X-ray lithography]] [64] => [66] => [67] => * [[X-ray microtomography]] [68] => * [[Spectroscopy|Analysing]] [[X-ray crystallography|chemicals]] to determine their composition [69] => * Observing the reaction of living cells to drugs [70] => * Inorganic material crystallography and microanalysis [71] => * [[Fluorescence]] studies [72] => * [[Semiconductor]] material analysis and structural studies [73] => * [[Geology|Geological]] material analysis [74] => * [[Medical imaging]] [75] => * [[Particle therapy]] to treat some forms of [[cancer]] [76] => * [[Radiometry]]: calibration of detectors and radiometric standards [77] => [78] => ==See also== [79] => {{Portal|Electronics|Physics}} [80] => * [[List of synchrotron radiation facilities]] [81] => * [[Synchrotron radiation]] [82] => * [[Cyclotron radiation]] [83] => * [[Synchrotron X-ray tomographic microscopy|Computed X-ray tomography]] [84] => * [[Energy amplifier]] [85] => * [[Superconducting radio frequency]] [86] => * [[Coherent diffraction imaging]] [87] => [88] => ==References== [89] => {{reflist|2}} [90] => [91] => ==External links== [92] => {{Commons category|Synchrotrons}} [93] => *[http://www.esrf.eu ESRF (European Synchrotron Radiation Facility)] [94] => *[https://www.nsrrc.org.tw/english/index.aspx National Synchrotron Radiation Research Center (NSRRC) in Taiwan] [95] => *[http://www.elettra.eu/ Elettra Sincrotrone Trieste - Elettra and Fermi lightsources] [96] => *[http://www.lightsource.ca Canadian Light Source] [97] => *[http://www.synchrotron.org.au Australian Synchrotron] [98] => *[http://www.synchrotron-soleil.fr/ French synchrotron Soleil] [99] => *[http://www.diamond.ac.uk Diamond UK Synchrotron] [100] => *[https://web.archive.org/web/20050530041410/http://www.lightsources.org/cms/ Lightsources.org] [101] => *[https://nucleus.iaea.org/sites/accelerators/Pages/synchrotron.aspx IAEA database of electron synchrotron and storage rings] [102] => *[http://lhc-new-homepage.web.cern.ch/lhc-new-homepage CERN Large Hadron Collider] [103] => *[http://www-als.lbl.gov/als/synchrotron_sources.html Synchrotron Light Sources of the World] [104] => *[http://www.technologyreview.com/Biotech/20149/ A Miniature Synchrotron:] room-size synchrotron offers scientists a new way to perform high-quality x-ray experiments in their own labs, ''Technology Review'', February 4, 2008 [105] => *[http://lnls.cnpem.br/ Brazilian Synchrotron Light Laboratory] [106] => *[http://omegataupodcast.net/11-synchrotron-radiation-science-at-esrf/ Podcast interview] with a scientist at the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility [107] => *[http://www.cat.gov.in/index.html Indian SRS] [108] => *[http://www.cells.es Spanish ALBA Light Source] [109] => *[http://www.photon-production.co.jp/ The tabletop synchrotron MIRRORCLE] [110] => *[https://synchrotron.uj.edu.pl/en_GB/ SOLARIS synchrotron in Poland] [111] => [112] => {{Authority control}} [113] => [114] => [[Category:Accelerator physics]] [115] => [[Category:Synchrotron-related techniques]] [116] => [[Category:Particle accelerators]] [] => )
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Synchrotron

A synchrotron is a type of particle accelerator that is used to generate beams of high-energy particles for various scientific and industrial applications. It consists of a circular ring or storage ring, in which charged particles, such as electrons or protons, are accelerated to very high speeds using electromagnetic fields.

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It consists of a circular ring or storage ring, in which charged particles, such as electrons or protons, are accelerated to very high speeds using electromagnetic fields. These accelerated particles emit a form of electromagnetic radiation, known as synchrotron radiation, which spans a wide range of wavelengths from infrared to X-rays. Synchrotron radiation is highly intense and coherent, making it immensely valuable in a range of scientific disciplines, including physics, chemistry, biology, and materials science. It is used to study the structure and properties of matter at atomic and molecular scales, enabling researchers to gain insights into fundamental processes, develop new materials, and advance various technologies. In addition to their scientific applications, synchrotron facilities also offer a range of industrial services, such as testing and analysis of materials, imaging techniques, and radiation therapy. These facilities are usually large, collaborative endeavors involving international partnerships, as they require significant financial investment and expertise. The first synchrotron was built in the 1940s, and since then, numerous synchrotron facilities have been established worldwide. These facilities have revolutionized scientific research and have contributed to significant advancements in various fields. The Wikipedia page on synchrotrons provides comprehensive information on the history, technology, applications, and notable synchrotron facilities around the world.

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