Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Imaging by sections or sectioning using a penetrative wave}} [1] => {{distinguish|Topography}} [2] => [[File:TomographyPrinciple Illustration.png|200px|thumb|'''Fig.1''': Basic principle of tomography: superposition free tomographic cross sections S1 and S2 compared with the (not tomographic) projected image P]] [3] => [[File:Sagittal brain MRI.jpg|thumbnail|[[Median plane]] [[Sagittal plane|sagittal]] tomography of the head by [[magnetic resonance imaging]]]] [4] => '''Tomography''' is [[imaging]] by sections or sectioning that uses any kind of penetrating [[wave]]. The method is used in [[radiology]], [[archaeology]], [[biology]], [[atmospheric science]], [[geophysics]], [[oceanography]], [[plasma physics]], [[materials science]], [[cosmochemistry]], [[astrophysics]], [[quantum information]], and other areas of [[science]]. The word ''tomography'' is derived from [[Ancient Greek]] τόμος ''tomos'', "slice, section" and γράφω ''graphō'', "to write" or, in this context as well, "to describe." A device used in tomography is called a '''tomograph''', while the image produced is a '''tomogram'''. [5] => [6] => In many cases, the production of these images is based on the mathematical procedure [[tomographic reconstruction]], such as [[CT scan|X-ray computed tomography]] technically being produced from multiple [[projectional radiograph]]s. Many different [[reconstruction algorithm]]s exist. Most algorithms fall into one of two categories: [[filtered back projection]] (FBP) and [[iterative reconstruction]] (IR). These procedures give inexact results: they represent a compromise between accuracy and computation time required. FBP demands fewer computational resources, while IR generally produces fewer artifacts (errors in the reconstruction) at a higher computing cost.{{cite book |last=Herman |first=Gabor T. |title=Fundamentals of Computerized Tomography: Image Reconstruction from Projections |date=2009 |publisher=Springer |location=Dordrecht |isbn=978-1-84628-723-7 |edition=2nd}} [7] => [8] => Although [[MRI]] (magnetic resonance imaging), [[optical coherence tomography]] and [[ultrasound]] are transmission methods, they typically do not require movement of the transmitter to acquire data from different directions. In MRI, both projections and higher spatial harmonics are sampled by applying spatially-varying magnetic fields; no moving parts are necessary to generate an image. On the other hand, since ultrasound and optical coherence tomography uses time-of-flight to spatially encode the received signal, it is not strictly a tomographic method and does not require multiple image acquisitions. [9] => [10] => ==Types of tomography== [11] => {| class="wikitable sortable" [12] => |- [13] => ! Name [14] => ! Source of data [15] => ! Abbreviation [16] => ! Year of introduction [17] => |- [18] => | [[Aerial tomography]] [19] => | [[Electromagnetic radiation]] [20] => | AT [21] => | 2020 [22] => |- [23] => | Array tomography{{cite journal |last1=Micheva |first1=Kristina D. |last2=Smith |first2=Stephen J |title=Array Tomography: A New Tool for Imaging the Molecular Architecture and Ultrastructure of Neural Circuits |journal=Neuron |date=July 2007 |volume=55 |issue=1 |pages=25–36 |doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2007.06.014|pmid=17610815 |pmc=2080672 }} [24] => | [[Correlative light-electron microscopy|Correlative light and electron microscopy]] [25] => | AT [26] => | 2007 [27] => |- [28] => | [[Atom probe#Atom Probe Tomography (APT)|Atom probe tomography]] [29] => | [[Atom probe]] [30] => | APT [31] => | 1986 [32] => |- [33] => | [[Computed tomography imaging spectrometer]]{{cite journal |last1=Ford |first1=Bridget K. |last2=Volin |first2=Curtis E. |last3=Murphy |first3=Sean M. |last4=Lynch |first4=Ronald M. |last5=Descour |first5=Michael R. |title=Computed Tomography-Based Spectral Imaging For Fluorescence Microscopy |journal=Biophysical Journal |date=February 2001 |volume=80 |issue=2 |pages=986–993 |doi=10.1016/S0006-3495(01)76077-8|pmid=11159465 |pmc=1301296 |bibcode=2001BpJ....80..986F }} [34] => | [[Visible spectrum|Visible light]] [[spectral imaging]] [35] => | CTIS [36] => | 2001 [37] => |- [38] => | Computed tomography of chemiluminescence{{cite journal |last1=Floyd |first1=J. |last2=Geipel |first2=P. |last3=Kempf |first3=A.M. |title=Computed Tomography of Chemiluminescence (CTC): Instantaneous 3D measurements and Phantom studies of a turbulent opposed jet flame |journal=Combustion and Flame |date=February 2011 |volume=158 |issue=2 |pages=376–391 |doi=10.1016/j.combustflame.2010.09.006}}{{cite journal |last1=Mohri |first1=K |last2=Görs |first2=S |last3=Schöler |first3=J |last4=Rittler |first4=A |last5=Dreier |first5=T |last6=Schulz |first6=C |last7=Kempf |first7=A |title=Instantaneous 3D imaging of highly turbulent flames using computed tomography of chemiluminescence. |journal=Applied Optics |date=10 September 2017 |volume=56 |issue=26 |pages=7385–7395 |doi=10.1364/AO.56.007385 |pmid=29048060| bibcode=2017ApOpt..56.7385M }} [39] => | [[Chemiluminescence]] [[Flame]]s [40] => | CTC [41] => | 2009 [42] => |- [43] => | Confocal microscopy ([[Laser scanning confocal microscopy]]) [44] => | [[Laser scanning confocal microscopy]] [45] => | LSCM [46] => | [47] => |- [48] => | [[Cryogenic electron tomography]] [49] => | [[Cryogenic transmission electron microscopy]] [50] => | CryoET [51] => | [52] => |- [53] => | [[Electrical capacitance tomography]] [54] => | [[Electrical capacitance]] [55] => | ECT [56] => | 1988{{Cite journal |first1=S M |last1=Huang |first2=A |last2=Plaskowski |first3=C G |last3=Xie |first4=M S |last4=Beck |title=Capacitance-based tomographic flow imaging system |journal=Electronics Letters |volume=24 |issue=7 |date=1988 |pages=418–19 |doi=10.1049/el:19880283 |bibcode=1988ElL....24..418H |language=en}} [57] => |- [58] => |[[Electrical capacitance volume tomography]] [59] => |[[Electrical capacitance]] [60] => |ECVT [61] => | [62] => |- [63] => | [[Electrical resistivity tomography]] [64] => | [[Electrical resistivity]] [65] => | ERT [66] => | [67] => |- [68] => | [[Electrical impedance tomography]] [69] => | [[Electrical impedance]] [70] => | EIT [71] => | 1984 [72] => |- [73] => |- [74] => | [[Electron tomography]] [75] => | [[Transmission electron microscopy]] [76] => | ET [77] => |1968{{Cite journal|last1=Crowther|first1=R. A.|last2=DeRosier|first2=D. J.|last3=Klug|first3=A.|last4=S|first4=F. R.|date=1970-06-23|title=The reconstruction of a three-dimensional structure from projections and its application to electron microscopy|journal=Proc. R. Soc. Lond. A|language=en|volume=317|issue=1530|pages=319–340|doi=10.1098/rspa.1970.0119|issn=0080-4630|bibcode=1970RSPSA.317..319C|s2cid=122980366}}{{Cite book|title=Electron tomography: methods for three-dimensional visualization of structures in the cell|url=https://archive.org/details/electrontomograp00fran_082|url-access=limited|date=2006|publisher=Springer|isbn=9780387690087| edition=2nd|location=New York|pages=[https://archive.org/details/electrontomograp00fran_082/page/n14 3]|oclc=262685610}} [78] => |- [79] => | [[Focal plane tomography]] [80] => | [[X-ray]] [81] => | [82] => | 1930s [83] => |- [84] => | [[Functional magnetic resonance imaging]] [85] => | [[Nuclear magnetic resonance|Magnetic resonance]] [86] => | fMRI [87] => | 1992 [88] => |- [89] => | [[Semiconductor detector#Radioactive Waste Assay Machines|Gamma-ray emission tomography]] ("Tomographic Gamma Scanning") [90] => | [[Gamma ray]] [91] => | TGS or ECT [92] => | [93] => |- [94] => | [[Industrial radiography#Sealed Radioactive Sources|Gamma-ray transmission tomography]] [95] => | [[Gamma ray]] [96] => | TCT [97] => |- [98] => | [[Hydraulic tomography]] [99] => | [[fluid flow]] [100] => | HT [101] => | 2000 [102] => |- [103] => | Infrared microtomographic imaging{{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=Michael C |last2=Dabat-Blondeau |first2=Charlotte |last3=Unger |first3=Miriam |last4=Sedlmair |first4=Julia |last5=Parkinson |first5=Dilworth Y |last6=Bechtel |first6=Hans A |last7=Illman |first7=Barbara |last8=Castro |first8=Jonathan M |last9=Keiluweit |first9=Marco |last10=Buschke |first10=David |last11=Ogle |first11=Brenda |last12=Nasse |first12=Michael J |last13=Hirschmugl |first13=Carol J |title=3D spectral imaging with synchrotron Fourier transform infrared spectro-microtomography |journal=Nature Methods |date=September 2013 |volume=10 |issue=9 |pages=861–864 |doi=10.1038/nmeth.2596|pmid=23913258 | s2cid=9900276}} [104] => | [[Mid-infrared]] [105] => | [106] => | 2013 [107] => |- [108] => | [[Laser Ablation Tomography]] [109] => | [[Laser ablation|Laser Ablation]] & [[Fluorescence microscopy|Fluorescent Microscopy]] [110] => | LAT [111] => | 2013 [112] => |- [113] => | [[Magnetic induction tomography]] [114] => | [[Electromagnetic induction|Magnetic induction]] [115] => | MIT [116] => | [117] => |- [118] => | [[Magnetic particle imaging]] [119] => | [[Superparamagnetism]] [120] => | MPI [121] => | 2005 [122] => |- [123] => | [[Magnetic resonance imaging]] or [[nuclear magnetic resonance]] tomography [124] => | [[Nuclear magnetic moment]] [125] => | MRI or MRT [126] => | [127] => |- [128] => | [[Multi-source tomography]]Cramer, A., Hecla, J., Wu, D. et al. Stationary Computed Tomography for Space and other Resource-constrained Environments. Sci Rep 8, 14195 (2018). [https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-018-32505-z]V. B. Neculaes, P. M. Edic, M. Frontera, A. Caiafa, G. Wang and B. De Man, "Multisource X-Ray and CT: Lessons Learned and Future Outlook," in IEEE Access, vol. 2, pp. 1568-1585, 2014, doi: 10.1109/ACCESS.2014.2363949.[https://www.researchgate.net/publication/273170153_Multisource_X-Ray_and_CT_Lessons_Learned_and_Future_Outlook] [129] => | [[X-ray]] [130] => | [131] => | [132] => |- [133] => | [[Muon tomography]] [134] => | [[Muon]] [135] => | [136] => | [137] => |- [138] => | [[Microwave tomography]]{{cite journal |last1=Ahadi |first1=Mojtaba |last2=Isa |first2=Maryam |last3=Saripan |first3=M. Iqbal |last4=Hasan |first4=W. Z. W. |title=Three dimensions localization of tumors in confocal microwave imaging for breast cancer detection |journal=Microwave and Optical Technology Letters |date=December 2015 |volume=57 |issue=12 |pages=2917–2929 |doi=10.1002/mop.29470|s2cid=122576324 |url=http://psasir.upm.edu.my/id/eprint/46731/1/Three%20dimensions%20localization%20of%20tumors%20in%20confocal%20microwave%20imaging%20for%20breast%20cancer%20detection.pdf }} [139] => | [[Microwave]] [140] => | [141] => | [142] => |- [143] => | [[Neutron tomography]] [144] => | [[Neutron]] [145] => | [146] => | [147] => |- [148] => | [[Neutron stimulated emission computed tomography]] [149] => | [150] => | [151] => | [152] => |- [153] => | [[Ocean acoustic tomography]] [154] => | [[Sonar]] [155] => | OAT [156] => | [157] => |- [158] => | [[Optical coherence tomography]] [159] => | [[Interferometry]] [160] => | OCT [161] => | [162] => |- [163] => | [[Optical tomography|Optical diffusion tomography]] [164] => | [[Absorption of light]] [165] => | ODT [166] => | [167] => |- [168] => | [[Optical projection tomography]] [169] => | [[Optical microscope]] [170] => | OPT [171] => | [172] => |- [173] => | [[Photoacoustic imaging in biomedicine]] [174] => | [[Photoacoustic spectroscopy]] [175] => | PAT [176] => | [177] => |- [178] => | [[Photoemission Orbital Tomography]] [179] => | [[Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy]] [180] => | POT [181] => | 2009{{cite journal |last1=Puschnig |first1=P. |last2=Berkebile |first2=S. |last3=Fleming |first3=A. J. |last4=Koller |first4=G. |last5=Emtsev |first5=K. |last6=Seyller |first6=T. |last7=Riley |first7=J. D. |last8=Ambrosch-Draxl |first8=C. |last9=Netzer |first9=F. P. |last10=Ramsey |first10=M. G. |title=Reconstruction of Molecular Orbital Densities from Photoemission Data |journal=Science |date=30 October 2009 |volume=326 |issue=5953 |pages=702–706 |doi=10.1126/science.1176105|pmid=19745118 |bibcode=2009Sci...326..702P |s2cid=5476218 }} [182] => |- [183] => | [[Positron emission tomography]] [184] => | [[Positron emission]] [185] => | PET [186] => | [187] => |- [188] => | [[Positron emission tomography - computed tomography]] [189] => | [[Positron emission]] & [[X-ray]] [190] => | PET-CT [191] => | [192] => |- [193] => | [[Quantum tomography]] [194] => | [[Quantum state]] [195] => | QST [196] => | [197] => |- [198] => | [[Single-photon emission computed tomography]] [199] => | [[Gamma ray]] [200] => | SPECT [201] => | [202] => |- [203] => | [[Seismic tomography]] [204] => | [[Seismic waves]] [205] => | [206] => | [207] => |- [208] => | [[Terahertz tomography]] [209] => | [[Terahertz radiation]] [210] => | THz-CT [211] => | [212] => |- [213] => | [[Thermoacoustic imaging]] [214] => | [[Photoacoustic spectroscopy]] [215] => | TAT [216] => | [217] => |- [218] => | [[Ultrasound-modulated optical tomography]] [219] => | [[Ultrasound]] [220] => | UOT [221] => | [222] => |- [223] => | [[Ultrasound computer tomography]] [224] => | [[Ultrasound]] [225] => | USCT [226] => | [227] => |- [228] => | [[Ultrasound transmission tomography]] [229] => | [[Ultrasound]] [230] => | [231] => | [232] => |- [233] => | [[CT scan|X-ray computed tomography]] [234] => | [[X-ray]] [235] => | CT, CATScan [236] => | 1971 [237] => |- [238] => | [[X-ray microtomography]] [239] => | [[X-ray]] [240] => | microCT [241] => | [242] => |- [243] => | [[Zeeman-Doppler imaging]] [244] => | [[Zeeman effect]] [245] => | [246] => | [247] => |} [248] => [249] => Some recent advances rely on using simultaneously integrated physical phenomena, e.g. X-rays for both [[computed tomography|CT]] and [[angiography]], combined [[computed tomography|CT]]/[[MRI]] and combined [[computed tomography|CT]]/[[Positron Emission Tomography|PET]]. [250] => [251] => [[Discrete tomography]] and [[Geometric tomography]], on the other hand, are research areas{{citation needed|date=January 2013}} that deal with the reconstruction of objects that are discrete (such as crystals) or homogeneous. They are concerned with reconstruction methods, and as such they are not restricted to any of the particular (experimental) tomography methods listed above. [252] => [253] => ===Synchrotron X-ray tomographic microscopy=== [254] => A new technique called synchrotron X-ray tomographic microscopy ([[CT scan|SRXTM]]) allows for detailed three-dimensional scanning of fossils.{{cite journal |last1=Donoghue |first1=PC |last2=Bengtson |first2=S |last3=Dong |first3=XP |last4=Gostling |first4=NJ |last5=Huldtgren |first5=T |last6=Cunningham |first6=JA |last7=Yin |first7=C |last8=Yue |first8=Z |last9=Peng |first9=F |last10=Stampanoni |first10=M |title=Synchrotron X-ray tomographic microscopy of fossil embryos. |journal=Nature |date=10 August 2006 |volume=442 |issue=7103 |pages=680–3 |doi=10.1038/nature04890 |pmid=16900198|bibcode = 2006Natur.442..680D | s2cid=4411929}}{{Cite book|chapter-url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110589771-004|doi=10.1515/9783110589771-004|chapter=Contributors to Volume 21|title=Metals, Microbes, and Minerals - the Biogeochemical Side of Life|year=2021|pages=xix-xxii|publisher=De Gruyter|isbn=9783110588903|s2cid=243434346}} [255] => [256] => The construction of third-generation [[Synchrotron light source|synchrotron sources]] combined with the tremendous improvement of detector technology, data storage and processing [257] => capabilities since the 1990s has led to a boost of high-end synchrotron tomography in materials research with a wide range of different applications, e.g. [258] => the visualization and quantitative analysis of differently absorbing phases, microporosities, cracks, precipitates or grains in a specimen. [259] => Synchrotron radiation is created by accelerating free particles in high vacuum. By the laws of electrodynamics this acceleration leads to the emission of electromagnetic radiation (Jackson, 1975). Linear particle acceleration is one possibility, but apart from the very high electric fields one would need it is more practical to hold the charged particles on a [260] => closed trajectory in order to obtain a source of continuous radiation. Magnetic fields are used to force the particles onto the desired orbit and prevent them from flying in a straight line. The radial acceleration associated with the change of direction then generates radiation.Banhart, John, ed. Advanced Tomographic Methods in Materials Research and Engineering. Monographs on the Physics and Chemistry of Materials. Oxford ; New York: Oxford University Press, 2008. [261] => [262] => ==Volume rendering== [263] => {{Main|Volume rendering}} [264] => [[File:Image of 3D volumetric QCT scan.jpg|thumb|Multiple X-ray [[CT scan|computed tomographs]] (with [[Quantitative computed tomography|quantitative mineral density calibration]]) stacked to form a 3D model]] [265] => Volume rendering is a set of techniques used to display a 2D projection of a 3D discretely [[Sampling (signal processing)|sampled]] [[data set]], typically a 3D [[scalar field]]. A typical 3D data set is a group of 2D slice images acquired, for example, by a [[computed axial tomography|CT]], [[magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]], or [[Microtomography|MicroCT]] [[Image scanner|scanner]]. These are usually acquired in a regular pattern (e.g., one slice every millimeter) and usually have a regular number of image [[pixel]]s in a regular pattern. [266] => This is an example of a regular volumetric grid, with each volume element, or [[voxel]] represented by a single value that is obtained by sampling the immediate area surrounding the voxel. [267] => [268] => To render a 2D projection of the 3D data set, one first needs to define a [[Virtual camera|camera]] in space relative to the volume. Also, one needs to define the [[opacity (optics)|opacity]] and color of every voxel. [269] => This is usually defined using an [[RGBA color space|RGBA]] (for red, green, blue, alpha) [[transfer function]] that defines the RGBA value for every possible voxel value. [270] => [271] => For example, a volume may be viewed by extracting [[isosurface]]s (surfaces of equal values) from the volume and rendering them as [[Polygon mesh|polygonal meshes]] or by rendering the volume directly as a block of data. The [[marching cubes]] algorithm is a common technique for extracting an isosurface from volume data. Direct volume rendering is a computationally intensive task that may be performed in several ways. [272] => [273] => ==History== [274] => [[Focal plane tomography]] was developed in the 1930s by the radiologist [[Alessandro Vallebona]], and proved useful in reducing the problem of superimposition of structures in [[projectional radiography]]. [275] => [276] => In a 1953 article in the medical journal [[Chest (journal)|''Chest'']], B. Pollak of the [[Fort William Sanatorium]] described the use of planography, another term for tomography.{{cite journal [277] => |title = Experiences with Planography [278] => |first = B. [279] => |last = Pollak [280] => |journal = Chest [281] => |doi = 10.1378/chest.24.6.663 [282] => |pmid = 13107564 [283] => |date = December 1953 [284] => |volume = 24 [285] => |issue = 6 [286] => |pages = 663–669 [287] => |url = http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/24/6/663.abstract [288] => |archive-url = https://archive.today/20130414135338/http://chestjournal.chestpubs.org/content/24/6/663.abstract [289] => |url-status = dead [290] => |archive-date = 2013-04-14 [291] => |issn = 0012-3692 [292] => |access-date = July 10, 2011 [293] => }} [294] => [295] => Focal plane tomography remained the conventional form of tomography until being largely replaced by mainly [[computed tomography]] in the late-1970s.{{cite book|last=Littleton|first=J.T.|title=A History of the Radiological Sciences|publisher=[[American Roentgen Ray Society]]|chapter-url=http://www.arrs.org/publications/HRS/diagnosis/RCI_D_c15.pdf|access-date=29 November 2014|chapter=Conventional Tomography}} Focal plane tomography uses the fact that the focal plane appears sharper, while structures in other planes appear blurred. By moving an X-ray source and the film in opposite directions during the exposure, and modifying the direction and extent of the movement, operators can select different focal planes which contain the structures of interest. [296] => [297] => ==See also== [298] => * [[Chemical imaging]] [299] => * [[3D reconstruction]] [300] => * [[Discrete tomography]] [301] => * [[Geometric tomography]] [302] => * [[Geophysical imaging]] [303] => * [[Industrial CT scanning]] [304] => * [[Johann Radon]] [305] => * [[Medical imaging]] [306] => * [[MRI#MRI versus CT|MRI compared with CT]] [307] => * [[Network tomography]] [308] => * [[Nonogram]], a type of puzzle based on a discrete model of tomography [309] => * [[Radon transform]] [310] => * [[Tomographic reconstruction]] [311] => * [[Multiscale Tomography]] [312] => * [[Voxels]] [313] => [314] => ==References== [315] => {{Reflist|30em}} [316] => [317] => ==External links== [318] => * {{Commons category-inline|Tomography}} [319] => * [http://www.bronnikov-algorithms.com/downloads/Andrei.Bronnikov_Image_reconstruction.pdf Image reconstruction algorithms for microtomography] [320] => [321] => {{Medical imaging}} [322] => {{Authority control}} [323] => [324] => [[Category:Tomography| ]] [325] => [[Category:Medical imaging]] [] => )
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Tomography

Tomography is imaging by sections or sectioning that uses any kind of penetrating wave. The method is used in radiology, archaeology, biology, atmospheric science, geophysics, oceanography, plasma physics, materials science, cosmochemistry, astrophysics, quantum information, and other areas of science.

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