Array ( [0] => {{short description|Study of substances harmful to living organisms}} [1] => {{cs1 config|name-list-style=vanc|display-authors=6}} [2] => {{for|the scientific journal|Toxicology (journal)}} [3] => {{multiple issues| [4] => {{Expert needed|medicine|talk=|reason= that the article is lacking scope of the real discipline, both in actual content and in its pointing to more specialized, related articles|date= June 2014}} [5] => {{globalize|date=July 2012}} [6] => }} [7] => [[File:Toxicology Research at FDA (NCTR 1193) (6009043040).jpg|thumb|right|255px|A toxicologist working in a lab ([[United States]], 2008)]] [8] => [9] => '''Toxicology''' is a scientific [[discipline (academia)|discipline]], overlapping with [[biology]], [[chemistry]], [[pharmacology]], and [[medicine]], that involves the study of the [[adverse effect]]s of [[chemical substance]]s on living [[organism]]s{{cite web |url=http://www.toxicologysource.com/whatistoxicology.html |title=What is Toxicology | vauthors = Schrager TF |date=October 4, 2006 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070310233247/http://www.toxicologysource.com/whatistoxicology.html |archive-date=March 10, 2007 }} and the practice of [[diagnosis|diagnosing]] and [[therapy|treating]] exposures to [[toxin]]s and [[toxicant]]s. The [[dose–response relationship|relationship between dose and its effects on the exposed organism]] is of high significance in toxicology. Factors that influence chemical [[toxicity]] include the dosage, duration of exposure (whether it is acute or chronic), route of exposure, species, age, sex, and environment. '''Toxicologists''' are experts on [[poison]]s and [[poisoning]]. There is a movement for [[evidence-based toxicology]] as part of the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]]. Toxicology is currently contributing to the field of [[cancer]] research, since some toxins can be used as drugs for killing tumor cells. One prime example of this is [[ribosome-inactivating protein]]s, tested in the treatment of [[leukemia]].{{cite journal | vauthors = Mercatelli D, Bortolotti M, Giorgi FM | title = Transcriptional network inference and master regulator analysis of the response to ribosome-inactivating proteins in leukemia cells | journal = Toxicology | volume = 441 | pages = 152531 | date = August 2020 | pmid = 32593706 | doi = 10.1016/j.tox.2020.152531 | s2cid = 220255474 }} [10] => [11] => The word ''toxicology'' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|t|ɒ|k|s|ᵻ|ˈ|k|ɒ|l|ə|dʒ|i}}) is a [[classical compound|neoclassical compound]] from [[Neo-Latin]], first attested {{Circa|1799}},{{Citation|author=Merriam-Webster|title=Merriam-Webster's Unabridged Dictionary|url=http://unabridged.merriam-webster.com/unabridged/|postscript=.|publisher=Merriam-Webster|author-link=Merriam-Webster|access-date=2017-07-28|archive-date=2020-05-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200525084504/https://unabridged.merriam-webster.com/subscriber/login?redirect_to=%2Funabridged%2F|url-status=dead}} from the combining forms ''[[wikt:toxico-#Prefix|toxico-]]'' + ''[[wikt:-logy#Suffix|-logy]]'', which in turn come from the [[Ancient Greek]] words [[wikt:τοξικός#Ancient Greek|τοξικός]] ''toxikos'', "poisonous", and [[wikt:λόγος#Ancient Greek|λόγος]] ''logos'', "subject matter"). [12] => [13] => == History == [14] => [[File:Mathieu Joseph Bonaventure Orfila.jpg|thumb|left|[[Lithograph]] of [[Mathieu Orfila]]]] [15] => [16] => [[Dioscorides]], a '''Greek''' physician in the court of the Roman emperor [[Nero]], made the first attempt to classify plants according to their toxic and therapeutic effect.{{cite book| vauthors = Hodgson E |year=2010 |title=A Textbook of Modern Toxicology |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |page=10 |isbn=978-0-470-46206-5}} A work attributed to the 10th century author [[Ibn Wahshiyya]] called the ''Book on Poisons'' describes various toxic substances and poisonous recipes that can be made using [[alchemy|magic]].{{cite book| vauthors = Levey M |year=2017|title=A Companion to Islamic Art and Architecture|pages=525–526 | veditors = Arnold E, Flood FB, Necipoğlu G |publisher=Wiley |isbn= 978-1-119-06857-0}} A 14th century [[Kannada]] poetic work attributed to the Jain prince Mangarasa, ''Khagendra Mani Darpana'', describes several poisonous plants.{{cite journal | vauthors = Bhat S, Udupa K | title = Taxonomical outlines of bio-diversity of Karnataka in a 14th century Kannada toxicology text Khagendra Mani Darpana | journal = Asian Pacific Journal of Tropical Biomedicine | volume = 3 | issue = 8 | pages = 668–72; discussion 672 | date = August 2013 | pmid = 23905027 | pmc = 3703563 | doi = 10.1016/S2221-1691(13)60134-3 }} [17] => [18] => Theophrastus Phillipus Auroleus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493–1541) (also referred to as [[Paracelsus]], from his belief that his studies were above or beyond the work of [[Aulus Cornelius Celsus|Celsus]] – a Roman physician from the first century) is considered "the father" of toxicology.{{cite web|title=Paracelsus Dose Response in the Handbook of Pesticide Toxicology WILLIAM C KRIEGER / Academic Press Oct01|url=http://www.mindfully.org/Pesticide/Paracelsus-Dose-ToxicologyOct01.htm}} He is credited with the classic toxicology maxim, "''Alle Dinge sind Gift und nichts ist ohne Gift; allein die Dosis macht, dass ein Ding kein Gift ist.''" which translates as, "All things are poisonous and nothing is without poison; only the dose makes a thing not poisonous." This is often condensed to: "[[The dose makes the poison]]" or in Latin "Sola dosis facit venenum".{{cite book| vauthors = Ottoboni MA |url= https://archive.org/details/dosemakespoison00otto |title=The dose makes the poison: a plain-language guide to toxicology |publisher=Van Nostrand Reinhold |year=1991|isbn=978-0-442-00660-0 |edition=2nd |location=New York, N.Y |url-access=registration}}{{rp|30}} [19] => [20] => [[Mathieu Orfila]] is also considered the modern father of toxicology, having given the subject its first formal treatment in 1813 in his ''Traité des poisons'', also called ''Toxicologie générale''.{{cite web|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/visibleproofs/galleries/biographies/orfila.html |publisher=U.S. National Library of Medicine |title=Biography of Mathieu Joseph Bonaventure Orfila (1787–1853)}} [21] => [22] => In 1850, [[Jean Stas]] became the first person to successfully isolate plant poisons from human tissue. This allowed him to identify the use of [[nicotine]] as a poison in the Bocarmé murder case, providing the evidence needed to convict the Belgian Count [[Hippolyte Visart de Bocarmé]] of killing his brother-in-law.{{cite journal | vauthors = Wennig R | title = Back to the roots of modern analytical toxicology: Jean Servais Stas and the Bocarmé murder case | journal = Drug Testing and Analysis | volume = 1 | issue = 4 | pages = 153–155 | date = April 2009 | pmid = 20355192 | doi = 10.1002/dta.32 }}{{clear left}} [23] => [24] => ==Basic principles== [25] => [26] => The goal of [[toxicity]] assessment is to identify [[adverse effects]] of a substance.{{cite book |author=Committee on Risk Assessment of Hazardous Air Pollutants |author2=Commission on Life Sciences |author3=National Research Council |title= Science and judgement in risk assessment |publisher=The National Academic Press |year=1994|page=56 |isbn= 978-0-309-07490-2}} Adverse effects depend on two main factors: i) routes of exposure (oral, inhalation, or dermal) and ii) dose (duration and concentration of exposure). To explore dose, substances are tested in both acute and chronic models.{{cite web|url=http://www2.epa.gov/region8/human-health-toxicity-assessment|publisher=United States Environmental Protection Agencies|title=Human Health Toxicity Assessment}} Generally, different sets of experiments are conducted to determine whether a substance causes cancer and to examine other forms of toxicity. [27] => [28] => Factors that influence chemical toxicity: [29] => * Dosage [30] => ** Both large single exposures (acute) and continuous small exposures (chronic) are studied. [31] => * Route of exposure [32] => ** Ingestion, inhalation or skin absorption [33] => * Other factors [34] => ** Species [35] => ** Age [36] => ** Sex [37] => ** Health [38] => ** Environment [39] => ** Individual characteristics [40] => The discipline of [[evidence-based toxicology]] strives to transparently, consistently, and objectively assess available scientific evidence in order to answer questions in toxicology,{{cite journal | vauthors = Hoffmann S, Hartung T | title = Toward an evidence-based toxicology | journal = Human & Experimental Toxicology | volume = 25 | issue = 9 | pages = 497–513 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 17017003 | doi = 10.1191/0960327106het648oa | bibcode = 2006HETox..25..497H | s2cid = 42202416 }} the study of the adverse effects of chemical, physical, or biological agents on living organisms and the environment, including the prevention and amelioration of such effects.{{cite web|title=How do you define toxicology?|url=http://www.toxicology.org/AI/PUB/si05/Si05_Define.asp|publisher=Society of Toxicology|access-date=2017-06-17|archive-date=2013-06-05|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130605220710/http://www.toxicology.org/AI/PUB/si05/Si05_Define.asp|url-status=dead}} Evidence-based toxicology has the potential to address concerns in the toxicological community about the limitations of current approaches to assessing the state of the science.{{cite journal | vauthors = Stephens ML, Andersen M, Becker RA, Betts K, Boekelheide K, Carney E, Chapin R, Devlin D, Fitzpatrick S, Fowle JR, Harlow P, Hartung T, Hoffmann S, Holsapple M, Jacobs A, Judson R, Naidenko O, Pastoor T, Patlewicz G, Rowan A, Scherer R, Shaikh R, Simon T, Wolf D, Zurlo J | title = Evidence-based toxicology for the 21st century: opportunities and challenges | journal = Altex | volume = 30 | issue = 1 | pages = 74–103 | year = 2013 | pmid = 23338808 | doi = 10.14573/altex.2013.1.074 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Mandrioli D, Silbergeld EK | title = Evidence from Toxicology: The Most Essential Science for Prevention | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 124 | issue = 1 | pages = 6–11 | date = January 2016 | pmid = 26091173 | pmc = 4710610 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.1509880 }} These include concerns related to transparency in decision-making, synthesis of different types of evidence, and the assessment of bias and credibility.{{cite journal | vauthors = Schreider J, Barrow C, Birchfield N, Dearfield K, Devlin D, Henry S, Kramer M, Schappelle S, Solomon K, Weed DL, Embry MR | title = Enhancing the credibility of decisions based on scientific conclusions: transparency is imperative | journal = Toxicological Sciences | volume = 116 | issue = 1 | pages = 5–7 | date = July 2010 | pmid = 20363830 | doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfq102 | doi-access = }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Adami HO, Berry SC, Breckenridge CB, Smith LL, Swenberg JA, Trichopoulos D, Weiss NS, Pastoor TP | title = Toxicology and epidemiology: improving the science with a framework for combining toxicological and epidemiological evidence to establish causal inference | journal = Toxicological Sciences | volume = 122 | issue = 2 | pages = 223–234 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21561883 | pmc = 3155086 | doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfr113 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Conrad JW, Becker RA | title = Enhancing credibility of chemical safety studies: emerging consensus on key assessment criteria | journal = Environmental Health Perspectives | volume = 119 | issue = 6 | pages = 757–764 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21163723 | pmc = 3114808 | doi = 10.1289/ehp.1002737 }} Evidence-based toxicology has its roots in the larger movement towards [[evidence-based practices]]. [41] => [42] => == Testing methods == [43] => Toxicity experiments may be conducted ''[[in vivo]]'' (using the whole animal) or ''[[in vitro]]'' (testing on isolated cells or tissues), or ''[[in silico]]'' (in a computer simulation).{{Cite book| vauthors = de Bruin YB, Eskes C, Langezaal I, Coecke S, Kinsner-Ovaskainen A, Hakkinen PJ |date=2009 |chapter=Testing methods and toxicity assessment (Including alternatives)|publisher=[[Academic Press]]|pages=497–514|doi = 10.1016/B978-0-12-373593-5.00060-4|isbn=978-0-12-373593-5|title=Information Resources in Toxicology }} [44] => [45] => === ''In vivo'' model organism === [46] => The classic experimental tool of toxicology is testing on non-human animals. Examples of model organisms are ''[[Galleria mellonella]],''{{cite journal | vauthors = Harding CR, Schroeder GN, Collins JW, Frankel G | title = Use of Galleria mellonella as a model organism to study Legionella pneumophila infection | journal = Journal of Visualized Experiments | issue = 81 | pages = e50964 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 24299965 | pmc = 3923569 | doi = 10.3791/50964 }} which can replace small mammals, [[Zebrafish]] (''Danio rerio''), which allow for the study of toxicology in a lower order vertebrate ''[[in vivo]]''{{cite journal | vauthors = Planchart A, Mattingly CJ, Allen D, Ceger P, Casey W, Hinton D, Kanungo J, Kullman SW, Tal T, Bondesson M, Burgess SM, Sullivan C, Kim C, Behl M, Padilla S, Reif DM, Tanguay RL, Hamm J | title = Advancing toxicology research using in vivo high throughput toxicology with small fish models | journal = Altex | volume = 33 | issue = 4 | pages = 435–452 | date = 2016-11-01 | pmid = 27328013 | pmc = 5270630 | doi = 10.14573/altex.1601281 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Martin WK, Tennant AH, Conolly RB, Prince K, Stevens JS, DeMarini DM, Martin BL, Thompson LC, Gilmour MI, Cascio WE, Hays MD, Hazari MS, Padilla S, Farraj AK | title = High-Throughput Video Processing of Heart Rate Responses in Multiple Wild-type Embryonic Zebrafish per Imaging Field | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 9 | issue = 1 | pages = 145 | date = January 2019 | pmid = 30644404 | pmc = 6333808 | doi = 10.1038/s41598-018-35949-5 | first8 = Brandi L. | first9 = David M. | bibcode = 2019NatSR...9..145M }} and ''[[Caenorhabditis elegans]]''.{{cite journal | vauthors = Hunt PR | title = The C. elegans model in toxicity testing | journal = J. Appl. Toxicol. | volume = 37 | issue = 1 | pages = 50–59 | date = January 2017 | pmid = 27443595 | pmc = 5132335 | doi = 10.1002/jat.3357 }} As of 2014, such [[animal testing]] provides information that is not available by other means about how substances function in a living organism.{{cite web |url=http://www.toxicology.org/ms/air1.asp |publisher=Society of Toxicology |title=The importance of animal in research |date=2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141207062218/http://www.toxicology.org/ms/air1.asp |archive-date=2014-12-07 }} The use of non-human animals for toxicology testing is opposed by some organisations for reasons of animal welfare, and it has been restricted or banned under some circumstances in certain regions, such as the testing of cosmetics in the European Union.{{cite news| vauthors = Kanter J | date = March 11, 2013 | title = E.U. Bans Cosmetics With Animal-Tested Ingredients | url = https://www.nytimes.com/2013/03/11/business/global/eu-to-ban-cosmetics-with-animal-tested-ingredients.html | work = [[The New York Times]] |access-date=October 26, 2018 }} [47] => [48] => === ''In vitro'' methods === [49] => While testing in animal models remains as a method of estimating human effects, there are both ethical and technical concerns with animal testing.{{cite web |date = 8 September 2011 | title = Existing Non-animal Alternatives | publisher = AltTox.org | url = http://alttox.org/ttrc/existing-alternatives/}} [50] => [51] => Since the late 1950s, the field of toxicology has sought to reduce or eliminate animal testing under the rubric of "[[Three Rs (animal research)|Three Rs]]" – reduce the number of experiments with animals to the minimum necessary; refine experiments to cause less suffering, and replace ''in vivo'' experiments with other types, or use more simple forms of life when possible.{{cite web|url=https://www.toxicology.org/script/admin/toxtopics/114517_AM_TT3_InVitro_SOT.pdf|title=Alternative toxicity test methods: reducing, refining and replacing animal use for safety testing|publisher=Society of Toxicology|access-date=2014-12-05|archive-date=2016-03-04|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304075550/https://www.toxicology.org/script/admin/toxtopics/114517_AM_TT3_InVitro_SOT.pdf|url-status=dead}}Alan M. Goldberg. [http://altweb.jhsph.edu/altex/27_2/rPL7_Goldberg2.pdf The Principles of Humane Experimental Technique: Is It Relevant Today?] Altex 27, Special Issue 2010 The historical development of alternative testing methods in toxicology has been published by Balls.{{Cite book |url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1057893426 |title=The history of alternative test methods in toxicology |date=2019 | vauthors = Balls M, Combes RD, Worth AP |isbn=978-0-12-813698-0 |location=London |oclc=1057893426|publisher=Academic Press}} [52] => [53] => Computer modeling is an example of an alternative [[in vitro toxicology]] testing method; using computer models of chemicals and proteins, [[Structure–activity relationship|structure-activity relationships]] can be determined, and chemical structures that are likely to bind to, and interfere with, proteins with essential functions, can be identified.{{cite book | vauthors = van Leeuwen CJ, Vermeire TG |title= Risk assessment of chemicals: An introduction |publisher=Springer |location=New York |year=2007|pages=451–479 |isbn=978-1-4020-6102-8}} This work requires expert knowledge in molecular modeling and statistics together with expert judgment in chemistry, biology and toxicology. [54] => [55] => In 2007 the American NGO [[National Academy of Sciences]] published a report called "Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy" which opened with a statement: "Change often involves a pivotal event that builds on previous history and opens the door to a new era. Pivotal events in science include the discovery of penicillin, the elucidation of the DNA double helix, and the development of computers. ... Toxicity testing is approaching such a scientific pivot point. It is poised to take advantage of the revolutions in biology and biotechnology. Advances in toxicogenomics, bioinformatics, systems biology, epigenetics, and computational toxicology could transform toxicity testing from a system based on whole-animal testing to one founded primarily on in vitro methods that evaluate changes in biologic processes using cells, cell lines, or cellular components, preferably of human origin."{{cite book|last1=National Research Council|title=Toxicity Testing in the 21st Century: A Vision and a Strategy|date=2007|publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=978-0-309-15173-3|url=https://www.nap.edu/catalog/11970/toxicity-testing-in-the-21st-century-a-vision-and-a}} [http://dels.nas.edu/resources/static-assets/materials-based-on-reports/reports-in-brief/Toxicity_Testing_final.pdf Lay summary] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200215102924/http://dels.nas.edu/resources/static-assets/materials-based-on-reports/reports-in-brief/Toxicity_Testing_final.pdf |date=2020-02-15 }} As of 2014 that vision was still unrealized.{{cite journal | vauthors = Krewski D, Acosta D, Andersen M, Anderson H, Bailar JC, Boekelheide K, Brent R, Charnley G, Cheung VG, Green S, Kelsey KT, Kerkvliet NI, Li AA, McCray L, Meyer O, Patterson RD, Pennie W, Scala RA, Solomon GM, Stephens M, Yager J, Zeise L | title = Toxicity testing in the 21st century: a vision and a strategy | journal = Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health Part B: Critical Reviews | volume = 13 | issue = 2–4 | pages = 51–138 | date = February 2010 | pmid = 20574894 | pmc = 4410863 | doi = 10.1080/10937404.2010.483176 | bibcode = 2010JTEHB..13...51K }} [56] => [57] => The [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] studied 1,065 chemical and drug substances in their ToxCast program (part of the [[CompTox Chemicals Dashboard]]) using ''in silica'' modelling and a human [[pluripotent]] [[stem cell]]-based assay to predict ''[[in vivo]]'' developmental intoxicants based on changes in cellular [[metabolism]] following chemical exposure. Major findings from the analysis of this ToxCast_STM dataset published in 2020 include: (1) 19% of 1065 chemicals yielded a prediction of [[developmental toxicity]], (2) assay performance reached 79%–82% accuracy with high specificity (> 84%) but modest sensitivity (< 67%) when compared with ''in vivo'' animal models of human prenatal developmental toxicity, (3) sensitivity improved as more stringent weights of evidence requirements were applied to the animal studies, and (4) statistical analysis of the most potent chemical hits on specific biochemical targets in ToxCast revealed positive and negative associations with the STM response, providing insights into the mechanistic underpinnings of the targeted endpoint and its biological domain.{{cite journal | vauthors = Zurlinden TJ, Saili KS, Rush N, Kothiya P, Judson RS, Houck KA, Hunter ES, Baker NC, Palmer JA, Thomas RS, Knudsen TB | title = Profiling the ToxCast Library With a Pluripotent Human (H9) Stem Cell Line-Based Biomarker Assay for Developmental Toxicity | journal = Toxicological Sciences | volume = 174 | issue = 2 | pages = 189–209 | date = April 2020 | pmid = 32073639 | pmc = 8527599 | doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfaa014 }} [58] => [59] => In some cases shifts away from animal studies have been mandated by law or regulation; the European Union (EU) prohibited use of animal testing for cosmetics in 2013.{{cite journal | vauthors = Adler S, Basketter D, Creton S, Pelkonen O, van Benthem J, Zuang V, Andersen KE, Angers-Loustau A, Aptula A, Bal-Price A, Benfenati E, Bernauer U, Bessems J, Bois FY, Boobis A, Brandon E, Bremer S, Broschard T, Casati S, Coecke S, Corvi R, Cronin M, Daston G, Dekant W, Felter S, Grignard E, Gundert-Remy U, Heinonen T, Kimber I, Kleinjans J, Komulainen H, Kreiling R, Kreysa J, Leite SB, Loizou G, Maxwell G, Mazzatorta P, Munn S, Pfuhler S, Phrakonkham P, Piersma A, Poth A, Prieto P, Repetto G, Rogiers V, Schoeters G, Schwarz M, Serafimova R, Tähti H, Testai E, van Delft J, van Loveren H, Vinken M, Worth A, Zaldivar JM | title = Alternative (non-animal) methods for cosmetics testing: current status and future prospects-2010 | journal = Archives of Toxicology | volume = 85 | issue = 5 | pages = 367–485 | date = May 2011 | pmid = 21533817 | doi = 10.1007/s00204-011-0693-2 | s2cid = 28569258 | doi-access = free }} [60] => [61] => == Dose response complexities == [62] => Most chemicals display a classic dose response curve – at a low dose (below a threshold), no effect is observed.{{rp|80}} Some show a phenomenon known as sufficient challenge – a small exposure produces animals that "grow more rapidly, have better general appearance and coat quality, have fewer tumors, and live longer than the control animals".{{sfn|Ottoboni|1991|pp=83-85}} [63] => A few chemicals have no well-defined safe level of exposure. These are treated with special care. Some chemicals are subject to bioaccumulation as they are stored in rather than being excreted from the body;{{rp|85–90}} these also receive special consideration. [64] => [65] => Several measures are commonly used to describe toxic dosages according to the degree of effect on an organism or a population, and some are specifically defined by various laws or organizational usage. These include: [66] => * LD50 = [[Median lethal dose]], a dose that will kill 50% of an exposed population [67] => * NOEL = No-Observed-Effect-Level, the highest dose known to show no effect [68] => * NOAEL = [[No-observed-adverse-effect level|No-Observed-Adverse-Effect-Level]], the highest dose known to show no adverse effects [69] => * PEL = Permissible Exposure Limit, the highest concentration permitted under US [[Occupational Safety and Health Administration|OSHA]] regulations [70] => * STEL = Short-Term Exposure Limit, the highest concentration permitted for short periods of time, in general 15–30 minutes [71] => * TWA = Time-Weighted Average, the average amount of an agent's concentration over a specified period of time, usually 8 hours [72] => * TTC = The Threshold of Toxicological Concern concept{{cite journal | vauthors = Patlewicz G, Worth A, Yang C, Zhu T | title = Editorial: Advances and Refinements in the Development and Application of Threshold of Toxicological Concern | journal = Frontiers in Toxicology | volume = 4 | pages = 882321 | date = 2022 | pmid = 35573274 | pmc = 9096208 | doi = 10.3389/ftox.2022.882321 | doi-access = free }} has been applied to low-level contaminants, such as the constituents of [[tobacco smoke]]{{cite journal | vauthors = Talhout R, Schulz T, Florek E, van Benthem J, Wester P, Opperhuizen A | title = Hazardous compounds in tobacco smoke | journal = International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health | volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 613–628 | date = February 2011 | pmid = 21556207 | pmc = 3084482 | doi = 10.3390/ijerph8020613 | doi-access = free }} [73] => [74] => ==Types== [75] => {{Redirect|Clinical toxicology|the journal|Clinical Toxicology}} [76] => [[File:CDC Division of Laboratory Sciences Brochure.pdf|thumb|Brochure illustrating the work of the CDC Division of Laboratory Sciences]] [77] => [[Medical toxicology]] is the discipline that requires [[physician]] status (MD or DO degree plus specialty education and experience). [78] => [79] => [[Clinical toxicology]] is the discipline that can be practiced not only by physicians but also other [[health professional]]s with a [[master's degree]] in clinical toxicology: physician extenders ([[physician assistant]]s, [[nurse practitioner]]s), [[nursing|nurses]], [[pharmacist]]s, and [[allied health professions|allied health professionals]]. [80] => [81] => [[Forensic toxicology]] is the discipline that makes use of toxicology and other disciplines such as [[analytical chemistry]], [[pharmacology]] and [[clinical chemistry]] to aid medical or legal investigation of death, poisoning, and drug use. The primary concern for forensic toxicology is not the legal outcome of the toxicological investigation or the technology utilized, but rather the obtainment and interpretation of results.{{cite journal | vauthors = Dinis-Oliveira RJ, Carvalho F, Duarte JA, Remião F, Marques A, Santos A, Magalhães T | title = Collection of biological samples in forensic toxicology | journal = Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods | volume = 20 | issue = 7 | pages = 363–414 | date = September 2010 | pmid = 20615091 | doi = 10.3109/15376516.2010.497976 | s2cid = 20779037 }} [82] => [83] => Computational toxicology is a discipline that develops [[Mathematical model|mathematical]] and [[Computational model|computer-based models]] to better understand and predict adverse health effects caused by chemicals, such as environmental pollutants and pharmaceuticals.{{Cite book | pmid = 23007423| year = 2012| vauthors = Reisfeld B, Mayeno AN | title = Computational Toxicology| volume = 929| pages = 3–7| doi = 10.1007/978-1-62703-050-2_1| chapter = What is Computational Toxicology?| series = Methods in Molecular Biology| isbn = 978-1-62703-049-6}} Within the ''Toxicology in the 21st Century'' project,{{cite journal | vauthors = Hartung T | title = A toxicology for the 21st century--mapping the road ahead | journal = Toxicological Sciences | volume = 109 | issue = 1 | pages = 18–23 | date = May 2009 | pmid = 19357069 | pmc = 2675641 | doi = 10.1093/toxsci/kfp059 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Berg N, De Wever B, Fuchs HW, Gaca M, Krul C, Roggen EL | title = Toxicology in the 21st century--working our way towards a visionary reality | journal = Toxicology in Vitro | volume = 25 | issue = 4 | pages = 874–881 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21338664 | doi = 10.1016/j.tiv.2011.02.008 }} the best predictive models were identified to be [[Deep learning|Deep Neural Networks]], [[Random forest|Random Forest]], and [[Support Vector Machines]], which can reach the performance of [[in vitro]] experiments.{{cite web|title=Toxicology in the 21st century Data Challenge|url=https://tripod.nih.gov/tox21/challenge/leaderboard.jsp|website=www.tripod.nih.gov}}{{cite web|title=NCATS Announces Tox21 Data Challenge Winners|url=http://www.ncats.nih.gov/news-and-events/features/tox21-challenge-winners.html|website=www.ncats.nih.gov|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150228225709/http://www.ncats.nih.gov/news-and-events/features/tox21-challenge-winners.html|archive-date=2015-02-28}}{{cite conference | vauthors = Unterthiner T, Mayr A, Klambauer G, Steijaert M, Wegner JK, Ceulemans H, Hochreiter S | title = Deep learning as an opportunity in virtual screening. | conference = Proceedings of the deep learning workshop at NIPS | date = December 2014 | volume = 27 | pages = 1–9 | url = http://www.bioinf.jku.at/publications/2014/NIPS2014a.pdf }}{{cite arXiv | vauthors = Unterthiner T, Mayr A, Klambauer G, Hochreiter S | title = Toxicity prediction using deep learning | date = March 2015 | class = stat.ML | eprint = 1503.01445 }} [84] => [85] => [[Occupational toxicology]] is the application of toxicology to [[chemical hazard]]s in the workplace.{{Cite journal| vauthors = Johnson BL |date=January 1983|title=Occupational Toxicology: NIOSH Perspective |journal=Journal of the American College of Toxicology |volume=2 |issue=1 |pages=43–50 |doi=10.3109/10915818309140666 |s2cid=84847131 |issn=0730-0913|doi-access=free }} [86] => [87] => == Toxicology as a profession == [88] => {{unreferenced section|date=June 2014}} [89] => A '''toxicologist''' is a scientist or medical personnel who specializes in the study of symptoms, mechanisms, treatments and detection of [[venom]]s and [[toxin]]s; especially the [[poison]]ing of people. [90] => [91] => === Requirements === [92] => To work as a toxicologist one should obtain a degree in toxicology or a related degree like [[biology]], [[chemistry]], [[pharmacology]] or [[biochemistry]].{{cite web | title = Toxicology Overview | publisher = American Chemical Society | url = https://www.acs.org/content/acs/en/careers/college-to-career/chemistry-careers/toxicology.html | access-date = 10 May 2020}} {{citation needed|date=April 2017}} Bachelor's degree programs in toxicology cover the chemical makeup of toxins and their effects on biochemistry, physiology and ecology. After introductory life science courses are complete, students typically enroll in labs and apply toxicology principles to research and other studies. Advanced students delve into specific sectors, like the pharmaceutical industry or law enforcement, which apply methods of toxicology in their work. The [[Society of Toxicology]] (SOT) recommends that undergraduates in postsecondary schools that do not offer a bachelor's degree in toxicology consider attaining a degree in biology or chemistry. Additionally, the SOT advises aspiring toxicologists to take statistics and mathematics courses, as well as gain laboratory experience through lab courses, student research projects and internships. To become Medical Toxicologists, physicians in the United States complete residency training such as in Emergency Medicine, Pediatrics or Internal Medicine, followed by fellowship in Medical Toxicology and eventual certification by the [[American College of Medical Toxicology]] (ACMT). [93] => [94] => === Duties === [95] => Toxicologists perform many different duties including research in the academic, nonprofit and industrial fields, product safety evaluation, consulting, public service and legal regulation. In order to research and assess the effects of chemicals, toxicologists perform carefully designed studies and experiments. These experiments help identify the specific amount of a chemical that may cause harm and potential risks of being near or using products that contain certain chemicals. Research projects may range from assessing the effects of toxic pollutants on the environment to evaluating how the human immune system responds to chemical compounds within pharmaceutical drugs. While the basic duties of toxicologists are to determine the effects of chemicals on organisms and their surroundings, specific job duties may vary based on industry and employment. For example, forensic toxicologists may look for toxic substances in a crime scene, whereas aquatic toxicologists may analyze the toxicity level of water bodies. [96] => [97] => === Compensation === [98] => The salary for jobs in toxicology is dependent on several factors, including level of schooling, specialization, experience. The U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) notes that jobs for biological scientists, which generally include toxicologists, were expected to increase by 21% between 2008 and 2018. The BLS notes that this increase could be due to research and development growth in biotechnology, as well as budget increases for basic and medical research in biological science. {{cite web | title = Biological Scientists | publisher = U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics | url = https://www.bls.gov/oes/current/oes191029.htm | access-date = 15 Dec 2023}} [99] => [100] => == See also == [101] => {{Div col|colwidth=20em}} [102] => * [[Aquatic toxicology]] [103] => * [[Automatism (toxicology)]] [104] => * [[Certain safety factor]] [105] => * [[Children's Environmental Exposure Research Study]] (CHEERS) (in the US) [106] => * [[Ecotoxicology]] [107] => * [[Entomotoxicology]] [108] => * [[Environmental health]] [109] => * [[Environmental toxicology]] [110] => * [[Enzyme inhibitor|Enzyme inhibition]] [111] => * [[Exposure science]] [112] => * [[Exposome]] [113] => * [[Forensic toxicology]] [114] => * [[History of poison]] [115] => * [[In vitro toxicology]] [116] => * [[Indicative limit value]] [117] => * [[Modes of toxic action]] [118] => * [[Nanotoxicology]] [119] => * [[Occupational toxicology]] [120] => * [[Overdose]] [121] => * [[Risk Information Exchange]] [122] => * [[Pollution]] [123] => * [[Toxicogenomics]] [124] => * ''[[Toxicology Mechanisms and Methods]]'' (journal) [125] => * [[Toxinology]] [126] => * ''[[Unacceptable Levels]]'' (2013 documentary film) [127] => {{Div col end}} [128] => [129] => == References == [130] => {{reflist|30em}} [131] => [132] => == Further reading == [133] => {{refbegin|30em}} [134] => * {{cite book | vauthors = Caito S, Lopes AC, Paoliello MM, Aschner M | chapter = Chapter 16. Toxicology of Lead and Its Damage to Mammalian Organs | pages = 501–534 | publisher = de Gruyter | publication-date = 2017 | series = Metal Ions in Life Sciences | volume = 17 | title = Lead: Its Effects on Environment and Health | veditors = Astrid S, Helmut S, Sigel RK | doi = 10.1515/9783110434330-016 | pmid = 28731309 | year = 2017 | isbn = 978-3-11-043433-0 }} [135] => * {{cite book | vauthors = Andresen E, Küpper H | title = Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality | chapter = Cadmium Toxicity in Plants | veditors = Sigel A, Sigel H, Sigel RK | series = Metal Ions in Life Sciences | volume = 11 | year = 2013 | publisher = Springer | pages = 395–413 | doi = 10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_13| pmid = 23430780 | isbn = 978-94-007-5178-1 }} {{subscription required}} [136] => * {{cite book | vauthors = Thévenod F, Lee WK | title = Cadmium: From Toxicity to Essentiality | chapter = Toxicology of Cadmium and Its Damage to Mammalian Organs | veditors = Sigel A, Sigel H, Sigel RK | series = Metal Ions in Life Sciences | volume = 11 | year = 2013 | publisher = Springer | pages = 415–490 | doi = 10.1007/978-94-007-5179-8_14| pmid = 23430781 | isbn = 978-94-007-5178-1 }} {{subscription required}} [137] => {{refend}} [138] => [139] => == External links == [140] => {{Wiktionary}} [141] => {{commons category}} [142] => * {{Curlie|Science/Biology/Toxicology/}} [143] => * [https://www.toxicology.org/index.asp Society of Toxicology] [144] => [145] => {{Toxicology}} [146] => {{Poisoning and toxicity}} [147] => {{Pharmacology}} [148] => {{Pharmacy}} [149] => {{Branches of biology}} [150] => {{Authority control}} [151] => [152] => [[Category:Toxicology| ]] [] => )
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Toxicology

Toxicology is a scientific discipline that studies the harmful effects of substances on living organisms and the environment. It involves the analysis of the chemical, physical, and biological properties of toxic substances, as well as the study of their mechanisms of action and the ways they interact with biological systems.

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It involves the analysis of the chemical, physical, and biological properties of toxic substances, as well as the study of their mechanisms of action and the ways they interact with biological systems. Toxicologists assess the potential risks associated with exposure to these substances and develop strategies to prevent or mitigate harm. The field of toxicology also includes the study of how drugs and therapeutic agents can cause adverse effects, with the aim of improving drug safety. In addition to human health, toxicology is concerned with the impact of toxic substances on ecosystems and the environment. Toxicologists work in various settings, including government agencies, universities, research institutions, and private companies, and their findings are crucial for informing public health policies and regulatory decisions.

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