Array ( [0] => {{short description|Informal group of fungi}} [1] => {{Other uses}} [2] => {{pp-semi-indef}} [3] => {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2018}} [4] => {{Paraphyletic group [5] => | auto = yes [6] => | image = S cerevisiae under DIC microscopy.jpg [7] => | image_caption = ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'', a species of yeast [8] => | image2 = Simple diagram of yeast cell (en).svg [9] => | image2_alt = Cross-sectional 2D diagram of a yeast cell [10] => | image2_caption = Cross-sectional labelled diagram of a typical yeast cell [11] => | display_parents = 0 [12] => | parent = Fungi [13] => | includes_text = Phyla and subphyla with yeast species [14] => | includes =
[15] => '''[[Ascomycota]]''' [[pro parte|p. p.]] [16] => [17] => * [[Saccharomycotina]] (true yeasts) [18] => * [[Taphrinomycotina]] p. p. [19] => ** [[Schizosaccharomycetes]] (fission yeasts) [20] => [21] => '''[[Basidiomycota]]''' p. p. [22] => [23] => * [[Agaricomycotina]] p. p. [24] => ** [[Tremellomycetes]] [25] => * [[Pucciniomycotina]] p. p. [26] => ** [[Microbotryomycetes]] [27] =>
[28] => }} [29] => [30] => '''Yeasts''' are [[eukaryotic]], single-celled [[microorganism]]s classified as members of the [[fungus]] [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]]. The first yeast originated hundreds of millions of years ago, and at least 1,500 [[species]] are currently recognized.{{Cite book|last1=Piškur|first1=Jure|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7NclBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98|title=Molecular Mechanisms in Yeast Carbon Metabolism|last2=Compagno|first2=Concetta|date=2014|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3-642-55013-3|page=98| quote=The second completely sequenced yeast genome came 6 years later from the fission yeast ''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'', which diverged from ''S. cerevisiae'' probably more than 300 million years ago. [31] => }}{{cite journal |vauthors=Hoffman CS, Wood V, Fantes PA |title=An Ancient Yeast for Young Geneticists: A Primer on the ''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'' Model System |journal=[[Genetics (journal)|Genetics]] |volume=201 |issue=2 |pages=403–23 |date=October 2015 |pmid=26447128 |doi=10.1534/genetics.115.181503 |pmc=4596657}} They are estimated to constitute 1% of all described fungal species. [32] => [33] => Some yeast species have the ability to develop multicellular characteristics by forming strings of connected budding cells known as [[pseudohyphae]] or false [[hyphae]], or quickly evolve into a [[Multicellular organism|multicellular]] cluster with specialised [[Organelle|cell organelles]] function. Yeast sizes vary greatly, depending on species and environment, typically measuring 3–4 [[micrometre|µm]] in [[diameter]], although some yeasts can grow to 40 µm in size. Most yeasts reproduce [[asexual reproduction|asexually]] by [[mitosis]], and many do so by the asymmetric division process known as [[budding]]. With their single-celled growth habit, yeasts can be contrasted with [[Mold (fungus)|mold]]s, which grow [[hypha]]e. Fungal species that can take both forms (depending on temperature or other conditions) are called [[dimorphic fungi]]. [34] => [35] => The yeast species ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'' converts [[carbohydrate]]s to [[carbon dioxide]] and [[Alcohol (chemistry)|alcohol]]s through the process of [[fermentation (food)|fermentation]]. The products of this reaction have been used in [[baking]] and the production of alcoholic beverages for thousands of years. ''S. cerevisiae'' is also an important [[model organism]] in modern [[cell biology]] research, and is one of the most thoroughly studied eukaryotic microorganisms. Researchers have cultured it in order to understand the biology of the eukaryotic cell and ultimately human biology in great detail. Other species of yeasts, such as ''[[Candida albicans]]'', are [[opportunistic pathogen]]s and can cause [[yeast infection|infections]] in humans. Yeasts have recently been used to generate electricity in [[microbial fuel cell]]s and to produce [[ethanol]] for the [[biofuel]] industry. [36] => [37] => Yeasts do not form a single [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] or [[phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] grouping. The term "yeast" is often taken as a [[synonym]] for ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'', but the phylogenetic diversity of yeasts is shown by their placement in two separate [[phylum|phyla]]: the [[Ascomycota]] and the [[Basidiomycota]]. The budding yeasts or "true yeasts" are classified in the [[order (biology)|order]] [[Saccharomycetales]], within the phylum Ascomycota. [38] => [39] => == History == [40] => {{See also|History of bread|History of wine|History of beer}} [41] => The word "yeast" comes from [[Old English language|Old English]] ''gist'', ''gyst'', and from the [[Proto Indo-European language|Indo-European]] root ''yes-'', meaning "boil", "foam", or "bubble". Yeast microbes are probably one of the earliest [[Domestication|domesticated]] organisms. Archaeologists digging in [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptian]] ruins found early [[millstone|grinding stones]] and baking chambers for yeast-raised bread, as well as drawings of 4,000-year-old bakeries and [[brewery|breweries]]. Vessels studied from several archaeological sites in [[Israel]] (dating to around 5,000, 3,000 and 2,500 years ago), which were believed to have contained alcoholic beverages ([[beer]] and [[mead]]), were found to contain yeast colonies that had survived over the millennia, providing the first direct biological evidence of yeast use in early cultures.{{cite journal |url=https://mbio.asm.org/content/10/2/e00388-19/article-info |title=Isolation and Characterization of Live Yeast Cells from Ancient Vessels as a Tool in Bio-Archaeology |first1=Tzemach |last1=Aouizerat |first2=Itai |last2=Gutman |first3=Yitzhak |last3=Paz |first4=Aren M. |last4=Maeir |first5=Yuval |last5=Gadot |first6=Daniel |last6=Gelman |first7=Amir |last7=Szitenberg |first8=Elyashiv |last8=Drori |first9=Ania |last9=Pinkus |first10=Miriam |last10=Schoemann |first11=Rachel |last11=Kaplan |first12=Tziona |last12=Ben-Gedalya |first13=Shunit |last13=Coppenhagen-Glazer |first14=Eli |last14=Reich |first15=Amijai |last15=Saragovi |first16=Oded |last16=Lipschits |first17=Michael |last17=Klutstein |first18=Ronen |last18=Hazan |journal=mBio |volume=10 |number=2 |date=2019 |doi=10.1128/mBio.00388-19|pmid=31040238 |pmc=6495373 }} In 1680, [[Dutch (ethnic group)|Dutch]] naturalist [[Anton van Leeuwenhoek]] first [[microscopy|microscopically]] observed yeast, but at the time did not consider them to be [[organism|living organisms]], but rather globular structures as researchers were doubtful whether yeasts were [[algae]] or fungi. [[Theodor Schwann]] recognized them as fungi in 1837. [42] => [43] => In 1857, French microbiologist [[Louis Pasteur]] showed that by bubbling oxygen into the yeast broth, [[cell growth]] could be increased, but fermentation was inhibited – an observation later called the "[[Pasteur effect]]". In the paper "''Mémoire sur la fermentation alcoolique,''" Pasteur proved that alcoholic fermentation was conducted by living yeasts and not by a chemical catalyst. [44] => [45] => By the late 18th century two yeast strains used in brewing had been identified: ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' (top-fermenting yeast) and ''[[Saccharomyces carlsbergensis|S. pastorianus]]'' (bottom-fermenting yeast). ''S. cerevisiae'' has been sold commercially by the Dutch for bread-making since 1780; while, around 1800, the Germans started producing ''S. cerevisiae'' in the form of cream. In 1825, a method was developed to remove the liquid so the yeast could be prepared as solid blocks. The industrial production of yeast blocks was enhanced by the introduction of the [[filter press]] in 1867. In 1872, Baron Max de Springer developed a manufacturing process to create granulated yeast, a technique that was used until the first World War. In the United States, naturally occurring airborne yeasts were used almost exclusively until commercial yeast was marketed at the [[Centennial Exposition]] in 1876 in Philadelphia, where [[Charles L. Fleischmann]] exhibited the product and a process to use it, as well as serving the resultant baked bread. [46] => [47] => The [[refrigeration|mechanical refrigerator]] (first patented in the 1850s in Europe) liberated [[Brewing|brewers]] and [[winemakers]] from seasonal constraints for the first time and allowed them to exit cellars and other earthen environments. For [[John Molson]], who made his livelihood in [[Montreal]] prior to the development of the fridge, the brewing season lasted from September through to May. The same seasonal restrictions formerly governed the [[distiller]]'s art. [48] => [49] => == Nutrition and growth == [50] => Yeasts are [[chemoorganotroph]]s, as they use [[organic compound]]s as a source of energy and do not require sunlight to grow. Carbon is obtained mostly from [[hexose]] sugars, such as [[glucose]] and [[fructose]], or disaccharides such as [[sucrose]] and [[maltose]]. Some species can metabolize [[pentose]] sugars such as ribose, alcohols, and [[organic acid]]s. Yeast species either require oxygen for aerobic [[cellular respiration]] ([[obligate aerobe]]s) or are anaerobic, but also have aerobic methods of energy production ([[facultative anaerobe]]s). Unlike [[bacteria]], no known yeast species grow only anaerobically ([[obligate anaerobe]]s). Most yeasts grow best in a neutral or slightly acidic pH environment. [51] => [52] => Yeasts vary in regard to the temperature range in which they grow best. For example, ''[[Leucosporidium frigidum]]'' grows at {{convert|-2|to|20|C|F}}, ''[[Saccharomyces telluris]]'' at {{convert|5|to|35|C|F}}, and ''[[Candida slooffi]]'' at {{convert|28|to|45|C|F}}. The cells can survive freezing under certain conditions, with viability decreasing over time. [53] => [54] => In general, yeasts are grown in the laboratory on solid [[growth medium|growth media]] or in liquid [[broth]]s. Common media used for the cultivation of yeasts include [[potato dextrose agar]] or [[potato dextrose broth]], Wallerstein Laboratories nutrient [[agar]], yeast [[peptone]] [[dextrose]] agar, and yeast mould agar or broth. Home brewers who cultivate yeast frequently use dried [[malt extract]] and agar as a solid growth medium. The [[fungicide]] [[cycloheximide]] is sometimes added to yeast growth media to inhibit the growth of ''[[Saccharomyces]]'' yeasts and select for wild/indigenous yeast species. This will change the yeast process. [55] => [56] => The appearance of a white, thready yeast, commonly known as [[kahm]] yeast, is often a byproduct of the lactofermentation (or pickling) of certain vegetables. It is usually the result of exposure to air. Although harmless, it can give pickled vegetables a bad flavor and must be removed regularly during fermentation. [57] => [58] => == Ecology == [59] => Yeasts are very common in the environment, and are often isolated from sugar-rich materials. Examples include naturally occurring yeasts on the skins of fruits and berries (such as grapes, apples, or [[peach]]es), and [[Exudate|exudates]] from plants (such as plant saps or cacti). Some yeasts are found in association with soil and insects. Yeasts from the soil and from the skins of fruits and berries have been shown to dominate fungal [[Ecological succession|succession]] during fruit decay.{{Cite journal|last1=Martin|first1=Phillip L.|last2=King|first2=William|last3=Bell|first3=Terrence H|last4=Peter|first4=Kari|date=2021|title=The decay and fungal succession of apples with bitter rot across a vegetation diversity gradient|journal=Phytobiomes Journal|volume=6|pages=26–34|doi=10.1094/pbiomes-06-21-0039-r|s2cid=239658496|issn=2471-2906|doi-access=free}} The ecological function and [[biodiversity]] of yeasts are relatively unknown compared to those of other [[microorganism]]s. Yeasts, including ''[[Candida albicans]]'', ''[[Rhodotorula]] rubra'', ''[[Torulopsis]]'' and ''[[Trichosporon cutaneum]]'', have been found living in between people's toes as part of their [[skin flora]]. Yeasts are also present in the [[gut flora]] of mammals and some insects and even deep-sea environments host an array of yeasts.{{Cite journal|vauthors=Kutty SN, Philip R | url = http://dyuthi.cusat.ac.in/xmlui/bitstream/handle/purl/2035/Marine%20yeasts-a%20rewiew.pdf| doi = 10.1002/yea.1599 | title = Marine yeasts—a review | journal = Yeast | volume = 25 | issue = 7 | pages = 465–483| year = 2008 | pmid = 18615863| s2cid = 26625932}} [60] => [61] => An Indian study of seven [[honey bee|bee]] species and nine plant species found 45 species from 16 genera colonize the [[nectaries]] of flowers and honey stomachs of bees. Most were members of the genus ''[[Candida (genus)|Candida]]''; the most common species in honey stomachs was ''[[Dekkera intermedia]]'' and in flower nectaries, ''[[Candida blankii]]''. Yeast colonising nectaries of the [[stinking hellebore]] have been found to raise the temperature of the flower, which may aid in attracting pollinators by increasing the evaporation of [[volatile organic compound]]s. A [[black yeast]] has been recorded as a partner in a complex relationship between [[ant]]s, their [[ant-fungus mutualism|mutualistic fungus]], a fungal [[parasite]] of the fungus and a bacterium that kills the parasite. The yeast has a negative effect on the bacteria that normally produce antibiotics to kill the parasite, so may affect the ants' health by allowing the parasite to spread. [62] => [63] => Certain strains of some species of yeasts produce proteins called yeast killer toxins that allow them to eliminate competing strains. (See main article on [[killer yeast]].) This can cause problems for winemaking but could potentially also be used to advantage by using killer toxin-producing strains to make the wine. Yeast killer toxins may also have medical applications in treating yeast infections (see "Pathogenic yeasts" section below). [64] => [65] => Marine yeasts, defined as the yeasts that are isolated from marine environments, are able to grow better on a medium prepared using seawater rather than freshwater. The first marine yeasts were isolated by Bernhard Fischer in 1894 from the [[Atlantic Ocean]], and those were identified as ''Torula'' sp. and ''Mycoderma'' sp.{{cite journal |last1=Kutty |first1=Sreedevi N. |last2=Philip |first2=Rosamma |title=Marine yeasts—a review |journal=Yeast |date=July 2008 |volume=25 |issue=7 |pages=465–483 |doi=10.1002/yea.1599|pmid=18615863 |s2cid=26625932 |doi-access= }} Following this discovery, various other marine yeasts have been isolated from around the world from different sources, including seawater, seaweeds, marine fish and mammals.{{cite journal |last1=Zaky |first1=Abdelrahman Saleh |last2=Greetham |first2=Darren |last3=Louis |first3=Edward J. |last4=Tucker |first4=Greg A. |last5=Du |first5=Chenyu |title=A New Isolation and Evaluation Method for Marine-Derived Yeast spp. with Potential Applications in Industrial Biotechnology |journal=Journal of Microbiology and Biotechnology |date=28 November 2016 |volume=26 |issue=11 |pages=1891–1907 |doi=10.4014/jmb.1605.05074|pmid=27435537 |s2cid=40476719 |url=http://www.jmb.or.kr/journal/view.html?doi=10.4014/jmb.1605.05074 }} Among these isolates, some marine yeasts originated from terrestrial habitats (grouped as facultative marine yeast), which were brought to and survived in marine environments. The other marine yeasts were grouped as obligate or indigenous marine yeasts, which are confined to marine habitats. However, no sufficient evidence has been found to explain the indispensability of seawater for obligate marine yeasts.{{cite journal|last1=Zaky|first1=Abdelrahman Saleh|last2=Tucker|first2=Gregory A.|last3=Daw|first3=Zakaria Yehia|last4=Du|first4=Chenyu|date=September 2014|title=Marine yeast isolation and industrial application|journal=FEMS Yeast Research|volume=14|issue=6|pages=813–825|doi=10.1111/1567-1364.12158|pmc=4262001|pmid=24738708}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50x50px]] This article contains quotations from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution license. It has been reported that marine yeasts are able to produce many bioactive substances, such as amino acids, glucans, glutathione, toxins, enzymes, phytase, and vitamins with potential applications in the food, pharmaceutical, cosmetic, and chemical industries as well as for marine culture and environmental protection. Marine yeast was successfully used to produce bioethanol using seawater-based media which will potentially reduce the [[water footprint]] of bioethanol.{{cite journal |last1=Zaky |first1=Abdelrahman Saleh |last2=Greetham |first2=Darren |last3=Tucker |first3=Gregory A. |last4=Du |first4=Chenyu |title=The establishment of a marine focused biorefinery for bioethanol production using seawater and a novel marine yeast strain |journal=Scientific Reports |date=14 August 2018 |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=12127 |doi=10.1038/s41598-018-30660-x |pmid=30108287 |pmc=6092365 |issn=2045-2322|bibcode=2018NatSR...812127Z }} [66] => [67] => == Reproduction == [68] => [[File:Yeast lifecycle.svg|thumb|right|250px|The yeast cell's life cycle: {{ordered list |Budding |Conjugation |Spore}}]] [69] => {{See also|Mating of yeast}} [70] => Yeasts, like all fungi, may have [[asexual reproduction|asexual]] and [[sexual reproduction|sexual]] reproductive cycles. The most common mode of vegetative growth in yeast is asexual reproduction by [[budding]], where a small bud (also known as a [[Bleb (cell biology)|bleb]] or daughter cell) is formed on the parent cell. The [[cell nucleus|nucleus]] of the parent cell splits into a daughter nucleus and migrates into the daughter cell. The bud then continues to grow until it separates from the parent cell, forming a new cell. The daughter cell produced during the budding process is generally smaller than the mother cell. Some yeasts, including ''[[Schizosaccharomyces pombe]]'', reproduce by [[Fission (biology)|fission]] instead of budding, and thereby creating two identically sized daughter cells. [71] => [72] => In general, under high-stress conditions such as [[nutrient]] starvation, [[haploid]] cells will die; under the same conditions, however, [[diploid]] cells can undergo sporulation, entering sexual reproduction ([[meiosis]]) and producing a variety of haploid [[spore]]s, which can go on to [[mating of yeast|mate]] (conjugate), reforming the diploid. [73] => [74] => The haploid fission yeast ''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'' is a facultative sexual microorganism that can undergo mating when nutrients are limited. Exposure of ''S. pombe'' to hydrogen peroxide, an agent that causes oxidative stress leading to oxidative DNA damage, strongly induces mating and the formation of meiotic spores. The budding yeast ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' reproduces by mitosis as diploid cells when nutrients are abundant, but when starved, this yeast undergoes meiosis to form haploid spores. Haploid cells may then reproduce asexually by mitosis. Katz Ezov et al. presented evidence that in natural ''S. cerevisiae'' populations clonal reproduction and selfing (in the form of intratetrad mating) predominate. In nature, the mating of haploid cells to form diploid cells is most often between members of the same clonal population and [[Outcrossing|out-crossing]] is uncommon. Analysis of the ancestry of natural ''S. cerevisiae'' strains led to the conclusion that out-crossing occurs only about once every 50,000 cell divisions. These observations suggest that the possible long-term benefits of outcrossing (e.g. generation of diversity) are likely to be insufficient for generally maintaining sex from one generation to the next.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019|reason=removal of citation referring to predatory publisher content}} Rather, a short-term benefit, such as recombinational repair during meiosis,{{cite book|vauthors=Birdsell JA, Wills C |date=2003 |title=The evolutionary origin and maintenance of sexual recombination: A review of contemporary models |series=Evolutionary Biology Series >> Evolutionary Biology |volume=33 |pages=27–137 |veditors=MacIntyre RJ, Clegg MT |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0306472619}} may be the key to the maintenance of sex in ''S. cerevisiae''. [75] => [76] => Some [[Pucciniomycotina|pucciniomycete]] yeasts, in particular species of ''[[Sporidiobolus]]'' and ''[[Sporobolomyces]]'', produce aerially dispersed, asexual [[ballistospore|ballistoconidia]]. [77] => [78] => == Uses == [79] => The useful physiological properties of yeast have led to their use in the field of [[biotechnology]]. [[fermentation (biochemistry)|Fermentation]] of sugars by yeast is the oldest and largest application of this technology. Many types of yeasts are used for making many foods: [[baker's yeast]] in bread production, brewer's yeast in [[beer fermentation]], and yeast in wine fermentation and for [[xylitol]] production. So-called [[red rice yeast]] is actually a [[Mold (fungus)|mold]], ''[[Monascus purpureus]]''. Yeasts include some of the most widely used [[model organism]]s for [[genetics]] and [[cell biology]]. [80] => [81] => === Alcoholic beverages === [82] => Alcoholic beverages are defined as [[drink|beverages]] that contain [[ethanol]] (C2H5OH). This ethanol is almost always produced by [[fermentation (food)|fermentation]] – the [[metabolism]] of [[carbohydrate]]s by certain species of yeasts under anaerobic or low-oxygen conditions. Beverages such as mead, wine, beer, or [[distilled beverage|distilled spirits]] all use yeast at some stage of their production. A distilled beverage is a beverage containing ethanol that has been purified by [[distillation]]. Carbohydrate-containing plant material is fermented by yeast, producing a dilute solution of ethanol in the process. Spirits such as [[whiskey]] and [[rum]] are prepared by distilling these dilute solutions of ethanol. Components other than ethanol are collected in the condensate, including water, [[ester]]s, and other alcohols, which (in addition to that provided by the oak in which it may be aged) account for the [[Flavour (taste)|flavour]] of the beverage. [83] => [84] => {{anchor|top-fermenting|bottom-fermenting}} [85] => [86] => ===={{anchor|Beer}}Beer ==== [87] => {{Main|Brewing}} [88] => {{see also|Barm}} [89] => [[File:NM.0019545 Jästkrans.jpg|thumb|[[Yeast ring]] used by Swedish farmhouse brewers in the 19th century to preserve yeast between brewing sessions.]] [90] => [[File:2009-03-21 Beer brewing bubbles.jpg|right|thumb|Bubbles of [[carbon dioxide]] forming during beer-brewing]] [91] => Brewing yeasts may be classed as "top-cropping" (or "top-fermenting") and "bottom-cropping" (or "bottom-fermenting").{{cite book|vauthors=Priest FG, Stewart GG |date=2006 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TIYbNdrIsPEC&pg=PA84 |page=84 |publisher=CRC Press |title=Handbook of Brewing|isbn=9781420015171 }} Top-cropping yeasts are so called because they form a foam at the top of the [[wort]] during fermentation. An example of a top-cropping yeast is ''[[Saccharomyces cerevisiae]]'', sometimes called an "ale yeast". Bottom-cropping yeasts are typically used to produce [[lager]]-type beers, though they can also produce [[ale]]-type beers. These yeasts ferment well at low temperatures. An example of bottom-cropping yeast is ''[[Saccharomyces pastorianus]]'', formerly known as ''S. carlsbergensis''. [92] => [93] => Decades ago,{{vague|date=March 2018}} taxonomists reclassified ''S. carlsbergensis'' (uvarum) as a member of ''S. cerevisiae'', noting that the only distinct difference between the two is metabolic. {{dubious |reason=In conflict with newer sources cited by “Saccharomyces uvarum” article. Could be a lumper/splitter thing, but the names ain’t invalid yet.|date=January 2022}} Lager strains of ''S. cerevisiae'' secrete an enzyme called melibiase, allowing them to hydrolyse [[melibiose]], a [[disaccharide]], into more fermentable [[monosaccharide]]s. Top- and bottom-cropping and cold- and warm-fermenting distinctions are largely generalizations used by laypersons to communicate to the general public.For more on the taxonomical differences, see {{cite book |author=Dowhanick TM |chapter=Yeast – Strains and Handling Techniques |title=The Practical Brewer |editor=McCabe JT |publisher=Master Brewers Association of the Americas |year=1999}} [94] => [95] => The most common top-cropping brewer's yeast, ''S. cerevisiae'', is the same species as the common baking yeast. Brewer's yeast is also very rich in [[essential mineral]]s and the [[B vitamin]]s (except B12), a feature exploited in food products made from leftover ([[by-product]]) yeast from brewing. However, baking and brewing yeasts typically belong to different strains, cultivated to favour different characteristics: baking yeast strains are more aggressive, to carbonate [[dough]] in the shortest amount of time possible; brewing yeast strains act more slowly but tend to produce fewer off-flavours and tolerate higher alcohol concentrations (with some strains, up to 22%). [96] => [97] => ''[[Dekkera/Brettanomyces]]'' is a genus of yeast known for its important role in the production of '[[lambic]]' and specialty [[sour ale]]s, along with the secondary conditioning of a particular Belgian [[Trappist beer]]. The taxonomy of the genus ''Brettanomyces'' has been debated since its early discovery and has seen many reclassifications over the years. Early classification was based on a few species that reproduced asexually (anamorph form) through multipolar budding. Shortly after, the formation of ascospores was observed and the genus ''Dekkera'', which reproduces sexually (teleomorph form), was introduced as part of the taxonomy. The current taxonomy includes five species within the genera of ''Dekkera/Brettanomyces''. Those are the anamorphs ''[[Brettanomyces bruxellensis]]'', ''[[Brettanomyces anomalus]]'', ''[[Brettanomyces custersianus]]'', ''[[Brettanomyces naardenensis]]'', and ''[[Brettanomyces nanus]]'', with teleomorphs existing for the first two species, ''[[Dekkera bruxellensis]]'' and ''[[Dekkera anomala]]''. The distinction between ''Dekkera'' and ''Brettanomyces'' is arguable, with Oelofse et al. (2008) citing Loureiro and Malfeito-Ferreira from 2006 when they affirmed that current molecular DNA detection techniques have uncovered no variance between the anamorph and teleomorph states. Over the past decade, ''Brettanomyces'' spp. have seen an increasing use in the craft-brewing sector of the industry, with a handful of breweries having produced beers that were primarily fermented with pure cultures of ''Brettanomyces'' spp. This has occurred out of experimentation, as very little information exists regarding pure culture fermentative capabilities and the aromatic compounds produced by various strains. ''Dekkera''/''Brettanomyces'' spp. have been the subjects of numerous studies conducted over the past century, although a majority of the recent research has focused on enhancing the knowledge of the wine industry. Recent research on eight ''Brettanomyces'' strains available in the brewing industry focused on strain-specific fermentations and identified the major compounds produced during pure culture anaerobic fermentation in wort. [98] => [99] => ==== Wine ==== [100] => {{Main|Yeast in winemaking}} [101] => [[File:Schramsberg Vineyards, July 2019-7609.jpg|thumb|Yeast in a bottle during sparkling wine production at [[Schramsberg Vineyards]], Napa]] [102] => Yeast is used in [[winemaking]], where it converts the sugars present ([[glucose]] and [[fructose]]) in [[grape juice]] ([[must]]) into ethanol. Yeast is normally already present on grape skins. [[Fermentation (wine)|Fermentation]] can be done with this endogenous "wild yeast", but this procedure gives unpredictable results, which depend upon the exact types of yeast species present. For this reason, a pure yeast culture is usually added to the must; this yeast quickly dominates the fermentation. The wild yeasts are repressed, which ensures a reliable and predictable fermentation. [103] => [104] => Most added wine yeasts are strains of ''S. cerevisiae'', though not all strains of the species are suitable. Different ''S. cerevisiae'' yeast strains have differing physiological and fermentative properties, therefore the actual strain of yeast selected can have a direct impact on the finished wine. Significant research has been undertaken into the development of novel wine yeast strains that produce atypical flavour profiles or increased complexity in wines. [105] => [106] => The growth of some yeasts, such as ''[[Zygosaccharomyces]]'' and ''[[Brettanomyces]]'', in wine can result in [[wine fault]]s and subsequent spoilage. ''Brettanomyces'' produces an array of [[metabolite]]s when growing in wine, some of which are volatile [[phenol]]ic compounds. Together, these compounds are often referred to as "''Brettanomyces'' character", and are often described as "[[antiseptic]]" or "barnyard" type aromas. ''Brettanomyces'' is a significant contributor to wine faults within the wine industry. [107] => [108] => Researchers from the [[University of British Columbia]], Canada, have found a new strain of yeast that has reduced [[amine]]s. The amines in [[Wine color|red wine]] and [[Chardonnay]] produce off-flavors and cause headaches and hypertension in some people. About 30% of people are sensitive to biogenic amines, such as [[histamine]]s.{{Cite news|title=Eureka! Vancouver scientists take the headache out of red wine |url=https://vancouversun.com/health/Eureka+Vancouver+scientists+take+headache+wine/4281742/story.html |author=Shore R |date=15 February 2011 |work=[[The Vancouver Sun]] |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110217024652/http://www.vancouversun.com/health/Eureka%2BVancouver%2Bscientists%2Btake%2Bheadache%2Bwine/4281742/story.html |archive-date=17 February 2011 |url-status=dead }} [109] => [110] => === Baking === [111] => {{Main|Baker's yeast}} [112] => {{More citations needed section|date=April 2013}} [113] => [114] => Yeast, most commonly ''S. cerevisiae'', is used in baking as a [[leavening agent]], converting the [[fermentation (food)|fermentable]] sugars present in dough into [[carbon dioxide]]. This causes the dough to expand or rise as gas forms pockets or bubbles. When the dough is baked, the yeast dies and the air pockets "set", giving the baked product a soft and spongy texture. The use of potatoes, water from potato boiling, [[egg (food)|eggs]], or sugar in a bread dough accelerates the growth of yeast. Most yeasts used in baking are of the same species common in alcoholic fermentation. In addition, ''Saccharomyces exiguus'' (also known as ''S. minor''), a wild yeast found on plants, fruits, and grains, is occasionally used for baking. In breadmaking, the yeast initially respires aerobically, producing carbon dioxide and water. When the oxygen is depleted, [[fermentation (biochemistry)|fermentation]] begins, producing ethanol as a waste product; however, this evaporates during baking. [115] => [116] => [[File:Compressed fresh yeast - 1.jpg|right|thumb|A block of compressed fresh yeast]] [117] => [118] => It is not known when yeast was first used to bake bread. The first records that show this use came from [[Ancient Egypt]]. Researchers speculate a mixture of flour meal and water was left longer than usual on a warm day and the yeasts that occur in natural contaminants of the [[flour]] caused it to ferment before baking. The resulting bread would have been lighter and tastier than the normal flat, hard cake. [119] => [120] => [[File:Dry yeast.jpg|thumb|right|Active dried yeast, a granulated form in which yeast is commercially sold]] [121] => [122] => Today, there are several retailers of baker's yeast; one of the earlier developments in North America is [[Fleischmann's Yeast]], in 1868. During World War II, Fleischmann's developed a [[wikt:granulate|granulated]] active dry yeast which did not require refrigeration, had a longer [[shelf life]] than fresh yeast, and rose twice as fast. Baker's yeast is also sold as a fresh yeast compressed into a square "cake". This form perishes quickly, so must be used soon after production. A weak solution of water and sugar can be used to determine whether yeast is expired.{{Cite web |last=John |date=2023-08-24 |title=Does Yeast Expire? [Active Dry vs Instant Yeast] |url=https://pizzaovenshub.com/does-yeast-expire/ |access-date=2023-09-27 |website=PizzaOvensHub |language=en-US}} In the solution, active yeast will foam and bubble as it ferments the sugar into ethanol and carbon dioxide. Some recipes refer to this as [[Proofing (baking technique)|proofing]] the yeast, as it "proves" (tests) the viability of the yeast before the other ingredients are added. When a [[sourdough]] starter is used, flour and water are added instead of sugar; this is referred to as proofing the [[Sponge and dough|sponge]].{{Citation needed|reason='Reliable sources needed for the whole paragraph, also maybe some irrelevant information for an WP article'|date=October 2016}} [123] => [124] => When yeast is used for making bread, it is mixed with [[flour]], salt, and warm water or milk. The dough is [[Kneading|kneaded]] until it is smooth, and then left to rise, sometimes until it has doubled in size. The dough is then shaped into loaves. Some bread doughs are knocked back after one rising and left to rise again (this is called [[proofing (baking technique)|dough proofing]]) and then baked. A longer rising time gives a better flavor, but the yeast can fail to raise the bread in the final stages if it is left for too long initially. [125] => [126] => === Bioremediation === [127] => Some yeasts can find potential application in the field of [[bioremediation]]. One such yeast, ''[[Yarrowia lipolytica]]'', is known to degrade [[palm oil]] mill [[effluent]], [[Trinitrotoluene|TNT]] (an explosive material), and other [[hydrocarbon]]s, such as [[alkane]]s, [[fatty acid]]s, fats and oils. It can also tolerate high concentrations of salt and [[heavy metal (chemistry)|heavy metals]], and is being investigated for its potential as a heavy metal [[Biosorption|biosorbent]]. ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' has potential to bioremediate toxic pollutants like [[arsenic]] from industrial effluent. Bronze statues are known to be degraded by certain species of yeast. Different yeasts from Brazilian gold mines [[bioaccumulation|bioaccumulate]] free and [[Coordination complex|complexed]] silver ions. [128] => [129] => === Industrial ethanol production === [130] => {{See also|Biofuel#Bioalcohols|label 1=Bioethanol}} [131] => [132] => The ability of yeast to convert sugar into ethanol has been harnessed by the biotechnology industry to produce [[ethanol fuel]]. The process starts by milling a feedstock, such as [[sugar cane]], [[field corn]], or other [[cereal grain]]s, and then adding dilute [[sulfuric acid]], or fungal alpha [[amylase]] enzymes, to break down the starches into complex sugars. A glucoamylase is then added to break the complex sugars down into simple sugars. After this, yeasts are added to convert the simple sugars to ethanol, which is then distilled off to obtain ethanol up to 96% in purity. [133] => [134] => ''Saccharomyces'' yeasts have been [[genetically engineered]] to ferment [[xylose]], one of the major fermentable sugars present in [[Lignocellulosic biomass|cellulosic biomasses]], such as agriculture residues, paper wastes, and wood chips. Such a development means ethanol can be efficiently produced from more inexpensive feedstocks, making [[cellulosic ethanol]] fuel a more competitively priced alternative to gasoline fuels. [135] => [136] => === Nonalcoholic beverages === [137] => {{multiple image [138] => | align = right [139] => | direction = [140] => | width = 150 [141] => | image1 = Kombucha jar.jpg [142] => | caption1 = A ''[[kombucha]]'' culture fermenting in a jar [143] => | image2 = Kombuchacultsm.jpg [144] => | caption2 = Yeast and bacteria in kombucha at 400× [145] => }} [146] => A number of sweet [[soft drink|carbonated beverages]] can be produced by the same methods as beer, except the fermentation is stopped sooner, producing carbon dioxide, but only trace amounts of alcohol, leaving a significant amount of residual sugar in the drink. [147] => [148] => * '''[[Root beer]]''', originally made by Native Americans, commercialized in the United States by [[Charles Elmer Hires]] and especially popular during [[Prohibition in the United States|Prohibition]] [149] => * '''[[Kvass]]''', a [[fermented drink]] made from [[rye]], popular in Eastern Europe. It has a recognizable, but low alcoholic content. [150] => * '''[[Kombucha]]''', a fermented sweetened tea. Yeast in [[symbiosis]] with [[acetic acid bacteria]] is used in its preparation. Species of yeasts found in the tea can vary, and may include: ''[[Brettanomyces bruxellensis]]'', ''[[Candida stellata]]'', ''[[Schizosaccharomyces pombe]]'', ''[[Torulaspora delbrueckii]]'' and ''[[Zygosaccharomyces bailii]]''. Also popular in Eastern Europe and some [[Post-Soviet states|former Soviet republics]] under the name ''chajnyj grib'' ({{lang-ru|Чайный гриб}}), which means "tea mushroom". [151] => * '''[[Kefir]]''' and '''[[kumis]]''' are made by fermenting milk with yeast and bacteria. [152] => * '''[[Mauby]]''' ({{lang-es|mabí}}), made by fermenting sugar with the wild yeasts naturally present on the bark of the ''[[Colubrina elliptica]]'' tree, popular in the [[Caribbean]] [153] => {{See also|Tibicos}} [154] => [155] => === Foods and {{vanchor|nutritional supplements}} === [156] => {{multiple image [157] => | align = right [158] => | direction = [159] => | width = 150 [160] => | image2 = Marmite.jpg [161] => | caption2 = Marmite and Vegemite are dark in colour [162] => | image1 = Vegemite and Marmite.jpg [163] => | caption1 = [[Marmite]] and [[Vegemite]], products made from [[yeast extract]] [164] => }} [165] => [166] => Yeast is used as an ingredient in foods for its [[umami]] flavor, in much of the same way that [[monosodium glutamate]] (MSG) is used and, like MSG, often contain free [[glutamic acid]]. Examples include:{{Cite book|last1=Stewart|first1=Graham G.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TIYbNdrIsPEC&pg=PA691|title=Handbook of Brewing, Second Edition|last2=Priest|first2=Fergus G.|date=2006-02-22|publisher=CRC Press|isbn=978-1-4200-1517-1|language=en|page=691}} [167] => * {{anchor|Yeast extract}}[[Yeast extract]], made from the intracellular contents of yeast and used as [[food additive]]s or [[Flavoring|flavour]]s. The general method for making yeast extract for food products such as [[Vegemite]] and [[Marmite]] on a commercial scale is ''heat autolysis'', i.e. to add salt to a suspension of yeast, making the solution hypertonic, which leads to the cells' shrivelling up. This triggers [[autolysis (biology)|autolysis]], wherein the yeast's [[digestion|digestive]] enzymes break their own [[protein]]s down into simpler compounds, a process of self-destruction. The dying yeast cells are then heated to complete their breakdown, after which the husks (yeast with thick cell walls that would give poor texture) are removed. Yeast autolysates are used in [[Vegemite]] and [[Promite]] (Australia); [[Marmite]] (the United Kingdom); the unrelated [[Marmite (New Zealand)|Marmite]] (New Zealand); [[Vitam-R]] (Germany); and [[Cenovis]] ([[Switzerland]]). [168] => * [[File:Hefeflocken Naturata.jpg|thumb|150px|Nutritional yeast flakes are yellow in colour]][[Nutritional yeast]], which is whole dried, deactivated yeast cells, usually ''S. cerevisiae''. Usually in the form of yellow flake or powder, its nutty and umami flavor makes it a vegan substitute for cheese powder. Another popular use is as a topping for popcorn. It can also be used in mashed and fried potatoes, as well as in [[scrambled egg]]s. It comes in the form of flakes, or as a yellow powder similar in texture to [[cornmeal]]. In Australia, it is sometimes sold as "savoury yeast flakes". [170] => [171] => Both types of yeast foods above are rich in [[Vitamin B|B-complex]] vitamins (besides vitamin B12 unless fortified), making them an attractive nutritional supplement to vegans. The same vitamins are also found in some yeast-fermented products mentioned above, such as [[kvass]].{{cite journal |last1=Līdums |first1=Ivo |last2=Kārkliņa |first2=Daina |last3=Ķirse |first3=Asnate |last4=Šabovics |first4=Mārtiņš |date=April 2017 |title=Nutritional value, vitamins, sugars and aroma volatiles in naturally fermented and dry kvass |url=http://llufb.llu.lv/conference/foodbalt/2017/FoodBalt_2017_Conference_Proceedings.pdf#page=61 |journal=Foodbalt |publisher=[[Faculty of Food Technology, Latvia University of Life Sciences and Technologies]] |pages=61–65 |doi=10.22616/foodbalt.2017.027 |issn=2501-0190}} Nutritional yeast in particular is naturally low in fat and [[sodium]] and a source of protein and vitamins as well as other minerals and [[cofactor (biochemistry)|cofactors]] required for growth. Many brands of nutritional yeast and yeast extract spreads, though not all, are fortified with [[Cyanocobalamin|vitamin B12]], which is produced separately by [[bacteria]]. [172] => [173] => In 1920, the [[Fleischmann's Yeast|Fleischmann Yeast Company]] began to promote yeast cakes in a "Yeast for Health" campaign. They initially emphasized yeast as a source of vitamins, good for skin and digestion. Their later advertising claimed a much broader range of health benefits, and was censured as misleading by the [[Federal Trade Commission]]. The [[fad]] for yeast cakes lasted until the late 1930s.{{cite journal|author1=Price C|title=The healing power of compressed yeast|journal=Distillations Magazine|date=Fall 2015|volume=1|issue=3|pages=17–23|url=https://www.sciencehistory.org/distillations/magazine/the-healing-power-of-compressed-yeast|access-date=20 March 2018}} [174] => [175] => === Probiotics === [176] => Some [[probiotic]] supplements use the yeast ''[[Saccharomyces boulardii|S. boulardii]]'' to maintain and restore the natural flora in the [[gastrointestinal tract]]. ''S. boulardii'' has been shown to reduce the symptoms of acute [[diarrhea]], reduce the chance of infection by ''[[Clostridium difficile (bacteria)|Clostridium difficile]]'' (often identified simply as C. difficile or C. diff), reduce bowel movements in diarrhea-predominant [[irritable bowel syndrome|IBS]] patients, and reduce the incidence of [[antibiotic-associated diarrhea|antibiotic]]-, [[travelers' diarrhea|traveler's]]-, and [[HIV/AIDS]]-associated diarrheas. [177] => [178] => === Aquarium hobby === [179] => Yeast is often used by [[aquarium]] hobbyists to generate carbon dioxide (CO2) to nourish plants in [[Aquascaping|planted aquaria]]. CO2 levels from yeast are more difficult to regulate than those from pressurized CO2 systems. However, the low cost of yeast makes it a widely used alternative. [180] => [181] => === Scientific research === [182] => [[File:Yeast cell english.svg|thumb|right|Diagram showing a yeast cell]] [183] => [184] => Several yeasts, in particular ''[[S. cerevisiae]]'' and ''[[S. pombe]]'', have been widely used in genetics and cell biology, largely because they are simple [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] cells, serving as a model for all eukaryotes, including humans, for the study of fundamental cellular processes such as the [[cell cycle]], [[DNA replication]], [[genetic recombination|recombination]], [[cell division]], and metabolism. Also, yeasts are easily manipulated and cultured in the laboratory, which has allowed for the development of powerful standard techniques, such as [[yeast two-hybrid]], [[synthetic genetic array]] analysis, and [[tetrad (genetics)|tetrad analysis]]. Many proteins important in human biology were first discovered by studying their [[homology (biology)|homologues]] in yeast; these proteins include [[cell cycle protein]]s, [[Cell signaling|signaling proteins]], and protein-processing [[enzyme]]s. [185] => [186] => On 24 April 1996, ''S. cerevisiae'' was announced to be the first eukaryote to have its [[genome]], consisting of 12 million [[base pair]]s, fully sequenced as part of the [[Genome Project]]. At the time, it was the most complex organism to have its full genome sequenced, and the work of seven years and the involvement of more than 100 laboratories to accomplish. The second yeast species to have its genome sequenced was ''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'', which was completed in 2002. It was the sixth eukaryotic genome sequenced and consists of 13.8 million base pairs. As of 2014, over 50 yeast species have had their genomes sequenced and published. [187] => [188] => Genomic and functional gene annotation of the two major yeast models can be accessed via their respective [[model organism databases]]: SGD{{cite web |url=https://www.yeastgenome.org |title=About SGD |website=Saccharomyces Genome Database}}{{cite journal |last1=Cherry |first1=JM |last2=Hong |first2=EL |last3=Amundsen |first3=C |last4=Balakrishnan |first4=R |last5=Binkley |first5=G |last6=Chan |first6=ET |last7=Christie |first7=KR |last8=Costanzo |first8=MC |last9=Dwight |first9=SS |last10=Engel |first10=SR |last11=Fisk |first11=DG |last12=Hirschman |first12=JE |last13=Hitz |first13=BC |last14=Karra |first14=K |last15=Krieger |first15=CJ |last16=Miyasato |first16=SR |last17=Nash |first17=RS |last18=Park |first18=J |last19=Skrzypek |first19=MS |last20=Simison |first20=M |last21=Weng |first21=S |last22=Wong |first22=ED |title=Saccharomyces Genome Database: the genomics resource of budding yeast. |journal=Nucleic Acids Research |date=January 2012 |volume=40 |issue=Database issue |pages=D700–5 |doi=10.1093/nar/gkr1029 |pmid=22110037|pmc=3245034 }} and PomBase.{{cite web |url=http://www.pombase.org |title=PomBase}}{{cite journal |last1=Lock |first1=A |last2=Rutherford |first2=K |last3=Harris |first3=MA |last4=Hayles |first4=J |last5=Oliver |first5=SG |last6=Bähler |first6=J |last7=Wood |first7=V |title=PomBase 2018: user-driven reimplementation of the fission yeast database provides rapid and intuitive access to diverse, interconnected information. |doi-access=free |journal=Nucleic Acids Research |volume=47 |issue=D1 |pages=D821–D827 |date=13 October 2018 |doi=10.1093/nar/gky961 |pmid=30321395|pmc=6324063 }} [189] => [190] => === Genetically engineered biofactories === [191] => Various yeast species have been genetically engineered to efficiently produce various drugs, a technique called [[metabolic engineering]].{{Cite journal|first1=N. |last1=Milne|first2=P. |last2=Thomsen|first3=N. |last3=Mølgaard Knudsen|first4=P. |last4=Rubaszka|first5=M. |last5=Kristensen|first6=L. |last6=Borodina|date=2020-07-01|title=Metabolic engineering of ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' for the ''de novo'' production of psilocybin and related tryptamine derivatives|journal=Metabolic Engineering|language=en|volume=60|pages=25–36|doi=10.1016/j.ymben.2019.12.007|pmid=32224264|pmc=7232020|issn=1096-7176|doi-access=free}} ''S. cerevisiae'' is easy to genetically engineer; its physiology, metabolism and genetics are well known, and it is amenable for use in harsh industrial conditions. A wide variety of chemical in different classes can be produced by engineered yeast, including [[phenols|phenolics]], [[isoprenoid]]s, [[alkaloid]]s, and [[polyketide]]s. About 20% of [[biopharmaceutical]]s are produced in ''S. cerevisiae'', including [[insulin]], [[vaccine]]s for [[hepatitis]], and [[human serum albumin]]. [192] => [193] => == Pathogenic yeasts == [194] => {{Main|Fungal infection}} [195] => [[File:Candida Gram stain.jpg|thumb|right|[[Gram stain]] of ''Candida albicans'' from a vaginal swab. The small oval chlamydospores are 2–4 [[micrometre|µm]] in diameter.]] [196] => [[File:C albicans en.jpg|thumb|right|A [[photomicrograph]] of ''[[Candida albicans]]'' showing hyphal outgrowth and other morphological characteristics]] [197] => [198] => Some species of yeast are [[opportunistic pathogen]]s that can cause infection in people with compromised [[immune system]]s. ''[[Cryptococcus neoformans]]'' and ''[[Cryptococcus gattii]]'' are significant pathogens of [[immunocompromised]] people. They are the species primarily responsible for [[cryptococcosis]], a [[fungal infection]] that occurs in about one million [[HIV/AIDS]] patients, causing over 600,000 deaths annually. The cells of these yeast are surrounded by a rigid [[polysaccharide]] capsule, which helps to prevent them from being recognised and engulfed by [[white blood cell]]s in the human body. [199] => [200] => Yeasts of the genus ''[[Candida (genus)|Candida]]'', another group of opportunistic pathogens, cause [[Oral candidiasis|oral]] and [[vaginal infection]]s in humans, known as [[candidiasis]]. ''Candida'' is commonly found as a [[commensal]] yeast in the [[mucous membrane]]s of humans and other warm-blooded animals. However, sometimes these same strains can become pathogenic. The yeast cells sprout a [[hypha]]l outgrowth, which locally penetrates the [[mucous membrane|mucosal membrane]], causing irritation and shedding of the tissues. A book from the 1980s listed the pathogenic yeasts of candidiasis in probable descending order of [[virulence]] for humans as: ''[[Candida albicans|C. albicans]]'', ''[[Candida tropicalis|C. tropicalis]]'', ''[[Candida stellatoidea|C. stellatoidea]]'', ''[[Candida glabrata|C. glabrata]]'', ''[[Candida krusei|C. krusei]]'', ''[[Candida parapsilosis|C. parapsilosis]]'', ''[[Candida guilliermondii|C. guilliermondii]]'', ''[[Candida viswanathii|C. viswanathii]]'', ''[[Candida lusitaniae|C. lusitaniae]]'', and ''[[Rhodotorula|Rhodotorula mucilaginosa]]''. ''Candida glabrata'' is the second most common ''Candida'' pathogen after ''C. albicans'', causing infections of the [[urogenital tract]], and of the [[bloodstream]] ([[candidemia]]). ''[[Candida auris|C. auris]]'' has been more recently identified. [201] => [202] => == Food spoilage == [203] => Yeasts are able to grow in foods with a low pH (5.0 or lower) and in the presence of sugars, organic acids, and other easily metabolized carbon sources. During their growth, yeasts metabolize some food components and produce metabolic end products. This causes the physical, chemical, and sensible properties of a food to change, and the food is spoiled. The growth of yeast within food products is often seen on their surfaces, as in cheeses or meats, or by the fermentation of sugars in beverages, such as juices, and semiliquid products, such as [[syrup]]s and [[jam]]s. The yeast of the genus ''[[Zygosaccharomyces]]'' have had a long history as spoilage yeasts within the [[food industry]]. This is mainly because these species can grow in the presence of high sucrose, ethanol, [[acetic acid]], [[sorbic acid]], [[benzoic acid]], and [[sulfur dioxide]] concentrations, representing some of the commonly used [[food preservation]] methods. [[Methylene blue]] is used to test for the presence of live yeast cells. In [[oenology]], the major spoilage yeast is ''[[Brettanomyces bruxellensis]]''. [204] => [205] => ''[[Candida blankii]]'' has been detected in [[Iberian ham]] and meat.{{cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=yIgeBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA140 |title=Handbook of Fermented Meat and Poultry|first1=Fidel |last1=Toldrá |page=140 |edition=2nd |editor-first1=Fidel |editor-last1= Toldrá |editor-first2= Y. H. |editor-last2=Hui |editor-first3=Iciar |editor-last3=Astiasaran |editor-first4=Joseph |editor-last4=Sebranek |editor-first5=Regine |editor-last5=Talon |isbn= 978-1-118-52267-7 |date=October 2014 |location=Chichester, West Sussex, UK|publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]]}} [206] => [207] => ==Symbiosis== [208] => {{Main|Symbiosis}} [209] => An Indian study of seven [[honey bee|bee]] species and nine plant species found 45 yeast species from 16 genera colonise the [[nectaries]] of flowers and honey stomachs of bees. Most were members of the genus ''[[Candida (genus)|Candida]]''; the most common species in honey bee stomachs was ''[[Dekkera intermedia]]'', while the most common species colonising flower nectaries was ''[[Candida blankii]]''. Although the mechanism is not fully understood, it was found that ''A. indica'' flowers more if ''[[Candida blankii]]'' is present. [210] => [211] => In another example, ''Spathaspora passalidarum'', found in the digestive tract of [[Passalidae|bess beetles]], aids the digestion of plant cells by fermenting [[xylose]].{{Cite journal |last1=Nguyen |first1=Nhu H. |last2=Suh |first2=Sung-Oui |last3=Marshall |first3=Christopher J. |last4=Blackwell |first4=Meredith |date=2006-10-01 |title=Morphological and ecological similarities: wood-boring beetles associated with novel xylose-fermenting yeasts, ''Spathaspora passalidarum'' gen. sp. nov. and ''Candida jeffriesii'' sp. nov. |journal=Mycological Research |volume=110 |issue=10 |pages=1232–1241 |doi=10.1016/j.mycres.2006.07.002 |pmid=17011177 |issn=0953-7562}} [212] => [213] => Many [[fruit]]s produce different types of sugars that attract yeasts, which ferment the sugar and turns it into alcohol. Fruit eating mammals find the scent of alcohol attractive as it indicates a ripe, sugary fruit which provides more nutrition. In turn, the mammals helps disperse both the fruit's seeds and the yeast's spores.{{Cite web |last=Yirka |first=Bob |title=Wild fruits with higher alcohol content found to be more widely dispersed by mammals |url=https://phys.org/news/2023-07-wild-fruits-higher-alcohol-content.html |date=July 20, 2023 |website=Phys.org |language=en |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308211512/https://phys.org/news/2023-07-wild-fruits-higher-alcohol-content.html |archive-date= Mar 8, 2024 }}{{Cite web |last=Sagar |first=Soumya |date=19 July 2023 |title=Alcoholic fruit may help plants recruit mammals to spread their seeds |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/2383191-alcoholic-fruit-may-help-plants-recruit-mammals-to-spread-their-seeds/ |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240308211535/https://www.newscientist.com/article/2383191-alcoholic-fruit-may-help-plants-recruit-mammals-to-spread-their-seeds/ |archive-date=Mar 8, 2024 |website=New Scientist}} [214] => [215] => Yeast and [[small hive beetle]] have mutualistic relationship. While small hive beetle is attracted by the pheromone released by the host honeybee, yeast can produce a similar pheromone which have the same attractive effect to the small hive beetle. Therefore, yeast facilitates SHB's infestation if the beehive contains yeast inside.{{Cite journal |last=Torto |first=Baldwyn |last2=Boucias |first2=Drion G. |last3=Arbogast |first3=Richard T. |last4=Tumlinson |first4=James H. |last5=Teal |first5=Peter E. A. |date=2007-05-15 |title=Multitrophic interaction facilitates parasite–host relationship between an invasive beetle and the honey bee |url=https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1895957/ |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=104 |issue=20 |pages=8374–8378 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0702813104 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1895957 |pmid=17483478}} [216] => [217] => == See also == [218] => {{Portal|Fungi}} [219] => * [[Bioaerosol]] [220] => * [[Ethanol fermentation]] [221] => * [[Evolution of aerobic fermentation]] [222] => * ''[[Kazachstania yasuniensis]]'' – a yeast isolated in 2015 [223] => * [[Mycosis]] (fungal infection in animals) [224] => * [[Start point (yeast)]] [225] => * [[WHI3]] [226] => * [[Plasmid#Yeast plasmids|Yeast plasmids]] [227] => * [[Zymology]] [228] => [229] => == References == [230] => {{Reflist|30em|refs= [231] => [232] => {{cite web |author=Henahan S |url=http://www.accessexcellence.org/WN/SUA07/yeast496.php |title=Complete DNA Sequence of Yeast |work=Science Updates |date=24 April 1996 |publisher=Access Excellence |access-date=15 January 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305202109/http://www.accessexcellence.org/WN/SUA07/yeast496.php |archive-date=5 March 2012 |df=dmy-all }} [233] => [234] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Brat D, Boles E, Wiedemann B |title=Functional expression of a bacterial xylose isomerase in ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |volume=75 |issue=8 |pages=2304–2311 |year=2009 |pmid=19218403 |pmc=2675233 |doi=10.1128/AEM.02522-08 |bibcode=2009ApEnM..75.2304B }} [235] => [236] => {{cite book |author=Ainsworth GC |year=1976 |title=Introduction to the History of Mycology |location=Cambridge, UK |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press]] |page=212 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3R09AAAAIAAJ&pg=PA212|isbn=9780521210133 }} [237] => [238] => {{cite book |vauthors=Amendola J, Rees N |title=Understanding Baking: The Art and Science of Baking |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bQcxoepvxOwC&pg=PA36 |year=2002 |publisher=[[John Wiley and Sons]] |isbn=978-0-471-40546-7 |page=36}} [239] => [240] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Arthur H, Watson K |title=Thermal adaptation in yeast: growth temperatures, membrane lipid, and cytochrome composition of psychrophilic, mesophilic, and thermophilic yeasts |journal=Journal of Bacteriology |volume=128 |issue=1 |pages=56–68 |year=1976 |pmid=988016 |pmc=232826|doi=10.1128/JB.128.1.56-68.1976 }} [241] => [242] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Bai FY, Zhao JH, Takashima M, Jia JH, Boekhout T, Nakase T |title=Reclassification of the ''Sporobolomyces roseus'' and ''Sporidiobolus pararoseus'' complexes, with the description of ''Sporobolomyces phaffii'' sp. nov |journal=International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology |volume=52 |issue=6 |pages=2309–2314 |year=2002 |pmid=12508902 |doi=10.1099/ijs.0.02297-0}} [243] => [244] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Balasubramanian MK, Bi E, Glotzer M |title=Comparative analysis of cytokinesis in budding yeast, fission yeast and animal cells |journal=[[Current Biology]] |volume=14 |issue=18 |pages=R806–818 |year=2004 |pmid=15380095 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2004.09.022|s2cid=12808612 |doi-access=free }} [245] => [246] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Bankar AV, Kumar AR, Zinjarde SS |title=Removal of chromium (VI) ions from aqueous solution by adsorption onto two marine isolates of ''Yarrowia lipolytica'' |journal=[[Journal of Hazardous Materials]] |volume=170 |issue=1 |pages=487–494 |year=2009 |pmid=19467781 |doi=10.1016/j.jhazmat.2009.04.070}} [247] => [248] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Bankar AV, Kumar AR, Zinjarde SS |title=Environmental and industrial applications of ''Yarrowia lipolytica'' |journal=[[Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology]] |volume=84 |issue=5 |pages=847–865 |year=2009 |pmid=19669134 |doi=10.1007/s00253-009-2156-8|s2cid=38670765 }} [249] => [250] => {{cite magazine |url=https://www.newscientist.com/article/mg20527473.900-stinky-flower-is-kept-warm-by-yeast-partner.html |title=Stinky flower is kept warm by yeast partner |author=Barley S |date=10 February 2010 |magazine=New Scientist}} {{subscription required}} [251] => [252] => {{cite journal |author=Barnett JA |title=Beginnings of microbiology and biochemistry: the contribution of yeast research |journal=Microbiology |volume=149 |issue=3 |pages=557–567 |year=2003 |pmid=12634325 |doi= 10.1099/mic.0.26089-0|s2cid=15986927 |url=http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b42e/9ff03995727f1040fdf4fbcd2522f3ce0695.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190303224450/http://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/b42e/9ff03995727f1040fdf4fbcd2522f3ce0695.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-date=2019-03-03 }} [253] => [254] => {{cite journal |author=Barnett JA |year=2004 |title=A history of research on yeasts 8: taxonomy |journal=Yeast |volume=21 |issue=14 |pages=1141–1193 |doi=10.1002/yea.1154 |pmid=15515119|s2cid=34671745 |doi-access=free }} [255] => [256] => {{cite journal |author=Barnett JA |title=The entry of D-ribose into some yeasts of the genus ''Pichia'' |journal=[[Journal of General Microbiology]] |volume=90 |issue=1 |pages=1–12 |year=1975 |pmid=1176959 |doi=10.1099/00221287-90-1-1|doi-access= }} [257] => [258] => {{cite book |chapter-url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE598.html |chapter=Appendix I |title=Indo-European Roots |publisher=[[American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language]] |edition=4th |year=2000 |access-date=16 November 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081206010439/http://www.bartleby.com/61/roots/IE598.html |archive-date=6 December 2008 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }} [259] => [260] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Bass D, Howe A, Brown N, Barton H, Demidova M, Michelle H, Li L, Sanders H, Watkinson SC, Willcock S, Richards TA |title=Yeast forms dominate fungal diversity in the deep oceans |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |volume=274 |issue=1629 |pages=3069–3077 |year=2007 |pmid=17939990 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1067 |pmc=2293941}} [261] => [262] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Bernstein C, Johns V |title=Sexual reproduction as a response to H2O2 damage in ''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'' |journal=[[Journal of Bacteriology]] |volume=171 |issue=4 |pages=1893–1897 |year=1989 |pmid=2703462 |pmc=209837 |doi= 10.1128/jb.171.4.1893-1897.1989}} [263] => [264] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Brückner A, Polge C, Lentze N, Auerbach D, Schlattner U |title=Yeast two-hybrid, a powerful tool for systems biology |journal=International Journal of Molecular Sciences |year=2009 |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=2763–2788 |doi=10.3390/ijms10062763 |pmid=19582228 |pmc=2705515|doi-access=free }} {{open access}} [265] => [266] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Brunke S, Hube B |title=Two unlike cousins: ''Candida albicans'' and ''C. glabrata'' infection strategies |journal=[[Cellular Microbiology]] |year=2013 |volume=15 |issue=5 |pages=701–708 |pmid=23253282 |pmc=3654559 |doi=10.1111/cmi.12091}} {{open access}} [267] => [268] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Botstein D, Fink GR |title=Yeast: an experimental organism for 21st Century biology |journal=Genetics |year=2011 |volume=189 |issue=3 |pages=695–704 |doi=10.1534/genetics.111.130765 |pmid=22084421 |pmc=3213361}} {{open access}} [269] => [270] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Cappitelli F, Sorlini C |title=Microorganisms attack synthetic polymers in items representing our cultural heritage |journal=Applied and Environmental Microbiology |year=2008 |volume=74 |issue=3 |doi=10.1128/AEM.01768-07 |pages=564–569 |pmc=2227722 |pmid=18065627|bibcode=2008ApEnM..74..564C }} {{open access}} [271] => [272] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Chen X, Jiang ZH, Chen S, Qin W |title=Microbial and bioconversion production of D-xylitol and its detection and application |journal=[[International Journal of Biological Sciences]] |year=2010 |volume=6 |issue=7 |pages=834–844 |pmid=21179590 |pmc=3005349 |doi=10.7150/ijbs.6.834}} {{open access}} [273] => [274] => {{cite journal |author=Cogliati M |title=Global molecular epidemiology of ''Cryptococcus neoformans'' and ''Cryptococcus gattii'': An atlas of the molecular types |journal=[[Scientifica]] |year=2013 |volume=2013 |doi=10.1155/2013/675213 |pmid=24278784 |pmc=3820360 |page=675213|doi-access=free }} [275] => [276] => {{cite book |editor-last=Conn PM |title=Sourcebook of Models for Biomedical Research |vauthors=Ishiwata S, Kuno T, Takada H, Koike A, Sugiura R |chapter=Molecular genetic approach to identify inhibitors of signal transduction pathways |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9LpxCwGcV6oC&pg=PA439 |year=2007 |publisher=[[Springer Science & Business Media]] |isbn=978-1-58829-933-8 |pages=439–444}} [277] => [278] => {{cite thesis |author=Custers MTJ |year=1940 |title=Onderzoekingen over het gistgeslacht ''Brettanomyces'' |degree=PhD |publisher=[[Delft University]] |location=Delft, the Netherlands |language=nl}} [279] => [280] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Dai C, Zheng CQ, Jiang M, Ma XY, Jiang LJ |title=Probiotics and irritable bowel syndrome |journal=[[World Journal of Gastroenterology]] |year=2013 |volume=19 |issue=36 |pages=5973–5980 |doi=10.3748/wjg.v19.i36.5973 |pmid=24106397 |pmc=3785618 |doi-access=free }} {{open access}} [281] => [282] => {{cite journal |author=Davey J |title=Fusion of a fission yeast |journal=Yeast |volume=14 |issue=16 |pages=1529–1566 |year=1998 |pmid=9885154 |doi=10.1002/(SICI)1097-0061(199812)14:16<1529::AID-YEA357>3.0.CO;2-0|s2cid=44652765 |doi-access=free }} [283] => [284] => {{cite book |last1=Denison |first1=Merrill |title=The Barley and the Stream: The Molson Story |date=1955 |publisher=McClelland & Stewart Limited|place=Toronto|page=165}} [285] => [286] => {{cite journal |vauthors=de Oliveira Leite AM, Miguel MA, Peixoto RS, Rosado AS, Silva JT, Paschoalin VM |title=Microbiological, technological and therapeutic properties of kefir: A natural probiotic beverage |journal=Brazilian Journal of Microbiology |year=2013 |volume=44 |issue=2 |pages=341–349 |doi=10.1590/S1517-83822013000200001 |pmid=24294220 |pmc=3833126}} {{open access}} [287] => [288] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Dinleyici EC, Eren M, Ozen M, Yargic ZA, Vandenplas Y |title=Effectiveness and safety of ''Saccharomyces boulardii'' for acute infectious diarrhea |journal=Expert Opinion on Biological Therapy |year=2012 |volume=12 |issue=4 |pages=395–410 |pmid=22335323 |doi=10.1517/14712598.2012.664129|s2cid=40040866 }} [289] => [290] => {{cite book |vauthors=Downes FP, Ito K |title=Compendium of Methods for the Microbiological Examination of Foods |year=2001 |publisher=[[American Public Health Association]] |location=Washington, DC |isbn=978-0-87553-175-5 |page=211 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nz851G-cZf0C&pg=PA211}} [291] => [292] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Dunn B, Levine RP, Sherlock G |title=Microarray karyotyping of commercial wine yeast strains reveals shared, as well as unique, genomic signatures |journal=BMC Genomics |volume=6 |issue=1 |page=53 |year=2005 |pmid=15833139 |pmc=1097725 |doi=10.1186/1471-2164-6-53 |doi-access=free }} [293] => [294] => {{cite book |author=Duyff RL |title=American Dietetic Association Complete Food and Nutrition Guide, Revised and Updated |edition=4th |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GcgLBwAAQBAJ&pg=PA256 |year=2012 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |isbn=978-0-544-66456-2 |pages=256–257}} [295] => [296] => {{cite book |vauthors=Fleet GH, Praphailong W |chapter=Yeasts |editor-last=Moir CJ |title=Spoilage of Processed Foods: Causes and Diagnosis |year=2001 |publisher=Food Microbiology Group of the Australian Institute of Food Science and Technology (AIFST) |pages=383–397 |isbn=978-0-9578907-0-1}} [297] => [298] => {{cite book |author=Gibson M |title=The Sommelier Prep Course: An Introduction to the Wines, Beers, and Spirits of the World| url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DhMavBH4B18C&pg=PA361 |year=2010 |publisher=John Wiley and Sons |isbn=978-0-470-28318-9 |page=361}} [299] => [300] => {{cite journal |vauthors=González Techera A, Jubany S, Carrau FM, Gaggero C |title=Differentiation of industrial wine yeast strains using microsatellite markers |journal=[[Letters in Applied Microbiology]] |volume=33 |issue=1 |pages=71–75 |year=2001 |pmid=11442819 |doi=10.1046/j.1472-765X.2001.00946.x|s2cid=7625171 |doi-access=free }} [301] => [302] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Herrera C, Pozo MI |year=2010 |pages=1827–1834 |issue=1689 |title=Nectar yeasts warm the flowers of a winter-blooming plant |volume=277 |journal=[[Proceedings of the Royal Society B]] |pmid=20147331 |pmc=2871880 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2009.2252}} [303] => [304] => {{cite journal |author=Herskowitz I |title=Life cycle of the budding yeast ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' |journal=[[Microbiological Reviews]]|volume=52 |issue=4 |pages=536–553 |year=1988 |pmid=3070323 |pmc=373162 |doi= 10.1128/MMBR.52.4.536-553.1988}} [305] => [306] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Ho NW, Chen Z, Brainard AP |title=Genetically engineered ''Saccharomyces'' yeast capable of effective cofermentation of glucose and xylose |journal=[[Applied and Environmental Microbiology]] |volume=64 |issue=5 |pages=1852–1859 |year=1998 |pmid=9572962 |pmc=106241|doi=10.1128/AEM.64.5.1852-1859.1998 |bibcode=1998ApEnM..64.1852H }} [307] => [308] => {{cite book |vauthors=Hurley R, de Louvois J, Mulhall A |chapter=Yeast as human and animal pathogens |pages=207–281 |editor1=Rose AH |editor2=Harrison JS |title=The Yeasts. Volume 1: Biology of Yeasts |year=1987 |edition=2nd |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |location=New York, New York}} [309] => [310] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Johnson S, Maziade PJ, McFarland LV, Trick W, Donskey C, Currie B, Low DE, Goldstein EJ |title=Is primary prevention of ''Clostridium difficile'' infection possible with specific probiotics? |journal=[[International Journal of Infectious Diseases]] |year=2012 |volume=16 |issue=11 |pages=e786–92 |pmid=22863358 |doi=10.1016/j.ijid.2012.06.005|doi-access=free }} [311] => [312] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Katz Ezov T, Chang SL, Frenkel Z, Segrè AV, Bahalul M, Murray AW, Leu JY, Korol A, Kashi Y |title=Heterothallism in ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' isolates from nature: effect of HO locus on the mode of reproduction |journal=Molecular Ecology |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=121–131 |year=2010 |pmid=20002587 |pmc=3892377 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2009.04436.x|bibcode=2010MolEc..19..121K }} [313] => [314] => {{cite book |vauthors=Kaufmann K, Schoneck A |title=Making Sauerkraut and Pickled Vegetables at Home: Creative Recipes for Lactic Fermented Food to Improve Your Health |publisher=Book Publishing Company |year=2002 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2REy7lUARrkC&q=%22kahm+yeast%22 |isbn=978-1-55312-037-7}} [315] => [316] => {{cite book |title=The Fleischmann yeast family |author=Klieger PC |year=2004 |publisher=[[Arcadia Publishing]] |isbn=978-0-7385-3341-4 |page=13 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=er88eh9jA0wC&pg=PA13}} [317] => [318] => {{cite book |vauthors=Kurtzman CP, Fell JW |title=Biodiversity and Ecophysiology of Yeasts |series=The Yeast Handbook |editor=Gábor P |editor2=de la Rosa CL|publisher=Springer |location=Berlin |year=2005 |pages=11–30 |isbn=978-3-540-26100-1}} [319] => [320] => {{cite book |vauthors=Kurtzman CP, Piškur J |chapter=Taxonomy and phylogenetic diversity among the yeasts |title=Comparative Genomics: Using Fungi as Models |series=Topics in Current Genetics |editor1=Sunnerhagen P |editor2=Piskur J |pages=29–46 |publisher=Springer | year=2006 |volume=15 |isbn=978-3-540-31480-6 |location=Berlin|doi=10.1007/b106654 }} [321] => [322] => {{cite book |author=Kurtzman CP |date=2006 |chapter=Detection, identification and enumeration methods for spoilage yeasts |editor=Blackburn CDW |title=Food spoilage microorganisms |isbn=978-1-85573-966-6 |publisher=[[Woodhead Publishing]] |location=Cambridge, England |pages=28–54}} [323] => [324] => {{cite journal |author=Kurtzman CP |title=Molecular taxonomy of the yeasts |journal=Yeast |volume=10 |issue=13 |pages=1727–1740 |year=1994 |pmid=7747515 |doi= 10.1002/yea.320101306|s2cid=44797575 |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1229388 }} [325] => [326] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Legras JL, Merdinoglu D, Cornuet JM, Karst F |title=Bread, beer and wine: ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' diversity reflects human history |journal=[[Molecular Ecology]] |volume=16 |issue=10 |pages=2091–2102 |year=2007 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-294X.2007.03266.x |pmid=17498234|bibcode=2007MolEc..16.2091L |s2cid=13157807 }} [327] => [328] => {{cite journal |vauthors=((Little AEF)), Currie CR |title=Black yeast symbionts compromise the efficiency of antibiotic defenses in fungus-growing ants |journal=[[Ecology (journal)|Ecology]] |year=2008 |volume=89 |issue=5 |pages=1216–1222 |doi=10.1890/07-0815.1 |pmid=18543616|bibcode=2008Ecol...89.1216L |s2cid=28969854 }} [329] => [330] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Loureiro V, Malfeito-Ferreira M |title=Spoilage yeasts in the wine industry |journal=[[International Journal of Food Microbiology]] |volume=86 |issue=1–2 |pages=23–50 |year=2003 |pmid=12892920 |doi=10.1016/S0168-1605(03)00246-0}} [331] => [332] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Madhavan A, Srivastava A, Kondo A, Bisaria VS |title=Bioconversion of lignocellulose-derived sugars to ethanol by engineered ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' |journal=[[Critical Reviews in Biotechnology]] |year=2012 |volume=32 |issue=1 |pages=22–48 |pmid=21204601 |doi=10.3109/07388551.2010.539551|s2cid=207467678 }} [333] => [334] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Magliani W, Conti S, Frazzi R, Ravanetti L, Maffei DL, Polonelli L |title=Protective antifungal yeast killer toxin-like antibodies |journal=[[Current Molecular Medicine]] |year=2006 |volume=5 |issue=4 |pages=443–452 |pmid=15978000 |doi=10.2174/1566524054022558}} [335] => [336] => {{cite journal |author=Martini A |year=1992 |title=Biodiversity and conservation of yeasts |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=1 |issue=4 |pages=324–333 |doi=10.1007/BF00693768|bibcode=1992BiCon...1..324M |s2cid=35231385 }} [337] => [338] => {{cite journal |vauthors=McBryde C, Gardner JM, de Barros Lopes M, Jiranek V |year=2006 |title=Generation of novel wine yeast strains by adaptive evolution |journal=American Journal of Enology and Viticulture |volume=57 |issue=4 |pages=423–430|doi=10.5344/ajev.2006.57.4.423 |s2cid=83723719 }} [339] => [340] => {{cite journal |author=McFarland LV |title=Systematic review and meta-analysis of ''Saccharomyces boulardii'' in adult patients |journal=World Journal of Gastroenterology |year=2010 |volume=16 |issue=18 |pages=2202–22 |pmid=20458757 |pmc=2868213 |doi=10.3748/wjg.v16.i18.2202 |doi-access=free }} {{open access}} [341] => [342] => {{cite book |author=Moore-Landecker E |title=Fundamentals of the Fungi |publisher=Prentice Hall |location=Englewood Cliffs, NJ |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-13-376864-0 |pages=533–534 |ref={{harvid|Moore-Landecker|1996}} }} [343] => [344] => {{cite web |url=https://science.nasa.gov/science-news/science-at-nasa/msad16mar99_1b/ |title=Planets in a bottle: more about yeast |work=Science@NASA |author=Phillips T |access-date=3 October 2016}} [345] => [346] => {{cite journal |author=Nilesen J |title=Production of biopharmaceutical proteins by yeast. Advances through metabolic engineering |journal=Bioengineered |year=2012 |volume=4 |issue=4 |pages=207–211 |doi=10.4161/bioe.22856|pmid=23147168 |pmc=3728191 }} {{open access}} [347] => [348] => {{cite journal |author=Neiman AM |title=Ascospore formation in the yeast ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=69 |issue=4 |pages=565–584 |year=2005 |pmid=16339736 |pmc=1306807 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.69.4.565-584.2005}} [349] => [350] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Oelofse A, Pretorius IS, du Toit M |year=2008 |title=Significance of ''Brettanomyces'' and ''Dekkera'' during winemaking: a synoptic review |journal=South African Journal of Enology and Viticulture |volume=29 |pages=128–144 |issue=2 |url=http://scholar.sun.ac.za/bitstream/handle/10019.1/8437/oelofse_significance_2008.pdf?sequence=1 |format=PDF}} [351] => [352] => {{cite journal |vauthors=O'Meara TR, Alspaugh JA |title=The ''Cryptococcus neoformans'' capsule: A sword and a shield |journal=Clinical Microbiology Reviews |year=2012 |volume=25 |issue=3 |pages=387–408 |pmid=22763631 |pmc=3416491 |doi=10.1128/CMR.00001-12}} {{open access}} [353] => [354] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Ostergaard S, Olsson L, Nielsen J |title=Metabolic Engineering of ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' |journal=Microbiology and Molecular Biology Reviews |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=34–50 |year=2000 |pmid=10704473 |doi=10.1128/MMBR.64.1.34-50.2000 |pmc=98985}} [355] => [356] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Oyeka CA, Ugwu LO |title=Fungal flora of human toe webs |journal=Mycoses |volume=45 |issue=11–12 |pages=488–491 |year=2002 |pmid=12472726 |doi=10.1046/j.1439-0507.2002.00796.x|s2cid=8789635 }} [357] => [358] => {{cite journal |title=CO2 in planted aquaria |vauthors=Pedersen O, Andersen T, Christensen C |journal=The Aquatic Gardener |year=2007 |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=24–33 |url=http://www.bio-web.dk/ole_pedersen/pdf/TAG20-3p24-35.pdf |access-date=29 May 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624160220/http://www.bio-web.dk/ole_pedersen/pdf/TAG20-3p24-35.pdf |archive-date=24 June 2016 |url-status=dead }} [359] => [360] => {{cite book |veditors=Piskur J, Compagno C |vauthors=Lin Z, ((Li W-H)) |chapter=Comparative genomics and evolutionary genetics of yeast carbon metabolism |title=Molecular Mechanisms in Yeast Carbon Metabolism |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7NclBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA98 |year=2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-55013-3 |page=98}} [361] => [362] => {{cite web |author=Reinert B |url=http://www.genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/03_02/s_pombe.shtml |title=''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'': Second yeast genome sequenced |date=1 March 2002 |work=Genome News Network |access-date=15 January 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080503174359/http://genomenewsnetwork.org/articles/03_02/s_pombe.shtml |archive-date=3 May 2008 |url-status=dead }} [363] => [364] => {{cite journal|author=Ross JP |url=http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3488/is_n9_v78/ai_19900987 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20050505101154/http://www.findarticles.com/p/articles/mi_m3488/is_n9_v78/ai_19900987 |url-status=dead |archive-date=5 May 2005 |title=Going wild: wild yeast in winemaking |journal=Wines & Vines |date=September 1997 |access-date=15 January 2012 }} [365] => [366] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Ruderfer DM, Pratt SC, Seidel HS, Kruglyak L |title=Population genomic analysis of outcrossing and recombination in yeast |journal=Nature Genetics |volume=38 |issue=9 |pages=1077–1081 |year=2006 |pmid=16892060 |doi=10.1038/ng1859|s2cid=783720 }} [367] => [368] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Sandhu DK, Waraich MK |year=1985 |title=Yeasts associated with pollinating bees and flower nectar |journal=[[Microbial Ecology]] |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=51–58 |doi=10.1007/BF02015108 |pmid=24221239 |jstor=4250820|bibcode=1985MicEc..11...51S |s2cid=1776642 }} [369] => [370] => {{cite journal |author=Schwann T |date=1837 |title=Vorläufige Mittheilung, bettreffend Versuche über die Weingährung und Fäulniss |journal=Annalen der Physik und Chemie |volume=41 |issue=5 |pages=184–193 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rXIEAAAAYAAJ |language=de|doi=10.1002/andp.18371170517 |bibcode=1837AnP...117..184S }} [371] => [372] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Siddiqui MS, Thodey K, Trenchard I, Smolke CD |title=Advancing secondary metabolite biosynthesis in yeast with synthetic biology tools |journal=FEMS Yeast Research |year=2012 |volume=12 |issue=2 |pages=144–170 |doi=10.1111/j.1567-1364.2011.00774.x|pmid=22136110 |doi-access=free }} {{open access}} [373] => [374] => {{cite book |author=Singh H |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WY3YvfNoouMC&pg=PA533 |title=Mycoremediation: Fungal Bioremediation |page=507 |isbn=978-0-470-05058-3 |year=2006| publisher=John Wiley & Sons }} [375] => [376] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Sláviková E, Vadkertiová R |title=The diversity of yeasts in the agricultural soil |journal=Journal of Basic Microbiology |volume=43 |issue=5 |pages=430–436 |year=2003 |pmid=12964187 |doi=10.1002/jobm.200310277|s2cid=12030027 }} [377] => [378] => {{cite book |vauthors=Smith A, Kraig B |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of Food and Drink in America |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DOJMAgAAQBAJ&pg=RA1-PA440 |year=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-973496-2 |page=440}} [379] => [380] => {{cite book |author=Snodgrass ME |title=Encyclopedia of Kitchen History |year=2004 |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn |location=New York, New York |isbn=978-1-57958-380-4 |page=1066 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=D7IhN7lempUC&pg=PA1066}} [381] => [382] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Soares EV, ((Soares HMVM)) |title=Bioremediation of industrial effluents containing heavy metals using brewing cells of ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' as a green technology: A review |journal=Environmental Science and Pollution Research |year=2012 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=1066–1083 |doi=10.1007/s11356-011-0671-5 |pmid=22139299|bibcode=2012ESPR...19.1066S |hdl=10400.22/10260 |s2cid=24030739 |url=http://recipp.ipp.pt/bitstream/10400.22/10260/1/ART_EduardoSoares_CIETI_2012.pdf |hdl-access=free }} [383] => [384] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Suh SO, McHugh JV, Pollock DD, Blackwell M |title=The beetle gut: a hyperdiverse source of novel yeasts |journal=Mycological Research |volume=109 |issue=3 |pages=261–265 |year=2005 |pmid=15912941 |pmc=2943959 |doi=10.1017/S0953756205002388}} [385] => [386] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Teoh AL, Heard G, Cox J |year=2004 |title=Yeast ecology of Kombucha fermentation |journal=International Journal of Food Microbiology |volume=95 |issue=2 |pages=119–126 |doi=10.1016/j.ijfoodmicro.2003.12.020 |pmid=15282124}} [387] => [388] => {{cite book |vauthors=Thaler M, Safferstein D |title=A Curious Harvest: The Practical Art of Cooking Everything |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lD_0AwAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 |year=2014 |publisher=Quarry Books |isbn=978-1-59253-928-4 |page=129}} [389] => [390] => {{cite book |editor=Xiao W. |title=Yeast Protocols |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sC0Am-HWeeEC&pg=PA171 |vauthors=((Tong AHY)), Boone C |chapter=Synthetic genetic array analysis in ''Saccharomyces cerevisiae'' |year=2006 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-59259-958-5 |pages=171–191}} [391] => [392] => {{cite web |url=http://www.cofalec.com/contentO.aspx?progres |title=Le Comité des Fabricants de levure |publisher=COFALEC |access-date=21 February 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514062814/http://www.cofalec.com/contentO.aspx?progres |archive-date=14 May 2010 |df=dmy-all }} [393] => [394] => {{cite web|title=Brewer's yeast|url=http://www.umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/brewers-yeast|publisher=University of Maryland Medical Center|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170702112126/http://www.umm.edu/health/medical/altmed/supplement/brewers-yeast|url-status=dead|archive-date=2 July 2017}} [395] => [396] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Vanderhaegen B, Neven H, Cogne S, Vertrepin KJ, Derdelinckx C, Verachtert H |year=2003 |title=Bioflavoring and Beer Refermentation |journal=Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology |volume=62 |issue=2–3 |pages=140–150 |doi=10.1007/s00253-003-1340-5|pmid=12759790|s2cid=12944068 }} [397] => [398] => {{cite journal |author=Van der Walt JP |year=1984 |title=The Yeasts: A Taxonomic Study |edition=3rd |publisher=[[Elsevier Science]] |location=Amsterdam |pages=146–150}} [399] => [400] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Walker K, Skelton H, Smith K |title=Cutaneous lesions showing giant yeast forms of ''Blastomyces dermatitidis'' |journal=Journal of Cutaneous Pathology |volume=29 |issue=10 |pages=616–618 |year=2002 |pmid=12453301 |doi=10.1034/j.1600-0560.2002.291009.x|s2cid=39904013 }} [401] => [402] => {{cite journal |author=Williams N |year=1996 |title=Genome Projects: Yeast genome sequence ferments new research |journal=Science |volume=272 |issue=5261 |page=481 |doi=10.1126/science.272.5261.481 |pmid=8614793|bibcode=1996Sci...272..481W |s2cid=35565404 |doi-access=free }} [403] => [404] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Wood V, Gwilliam R, Rajandream MA |display-authors=etal |title=The genome sequence of ''Schizosaccharomyces pombe'' |journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]] |volume=415 |issue=6874 |pages=871–880 |year=2002 |pmid=11859360 |doi=10.1038/nature724|s2cid=4393190 |url=http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v415/n6874/pdf/nature724.pdf |doi-access=free }} [405] => [406] => {{cite book |vauthors=Kurtzman CP, Fell JW |year=2006 |chapter-url=http://www.ars.usda.gov/research/publications/publications.htm?SEQ_NO_115=176765 |chapter=Yeast Systematics and Phylogeny—Implications of Molecular Identification Methods for Studies in Ecology |title=Biodiversity and Ecophysiology of Yeasts, The Yeast Handbook |publisher=Springer}} [407] => [408] => {{cite thesis |author=Yakobson CM |year=2010 |title=Pure culture fermentation characteristics of ''Brettanomyces'' yeast species and their use in the brewing industry |url=http://www.brettanomycesproject.com/dissertation/ |type=MSc. |publisher=International Centre for Brewing and Distilling, Heriot-Watt University}} [409] => [410] => {{cite web |url=http://automation.tkk.fi/Research/BioprocessAutomation |title=Bioprocess automation |publisher=Helsinki University of Technology |year=2007 |access-date=15 January 2012 |archive-date=7 May 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100507013845/http://automation.tkk.fi/Research/BioprocessAutomation |url-status=dead }} [411] => [412] => {{cite web |url=http://www.yeastgenome.org/VL-what_are_yeast.html |title=What are yeasts? |work=Yeast Virtual Library |date=13 September 2009 |access-date=28 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090226151906/http://www.yeastgenome.org/VL-what_are_yeast.html |archive-date=26 February 2009 |df=dmy-all }} [413] => [414] => {{cite web|url=http://genomicsgtl.energy.gov/biofuels/ethanolproduction.shtml |title=Fuel Ethanol Production: GSP Systems Biology Research |publisher=U.S. Department of Energy Office of Science |work=Genomic Science Program |access-date=28 November 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090603231351/http://genomicsgtl.energy.gov/biofuels/ethanolproduction.shtml |archive-date=3 June 2009 }} [415] => [416] => {{cite web |url=http://www.cofepow.org.uk/pages/asia_haruku2.htm |title=South East Asia Under Japanese Occupation – Harukoe (Haruku) |editor=Lee JG |work=Children (& Families) of the Far East Prisoners of War |access-date=28 November 2009}} [417] => [418] => {{cite web|url=http://helios.bto.ed.ac.uk/bto/microbes/yeast.htm |title=The Microbial World: Yeasts and yeast-like fungi |vauthors=Deacon J |access-date=18 September 2008 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060925065545/http://helios.bto.ed.ac.uk/bto/microbes/yeast.htm |archive-date=25 September 2006 |website=Institute of Cell and Molecular Biology}} [419] => [420] => {{cite web |author=Huxley A |url=http://aleph0.clarku.edu/huxley/CE8/Yeast.html |title=Discourses: Biological & Geological (volume VIII) : Yeast |year=1871 |work=Collected Essays |access-date=28 November 2009}} [421] => [422] => {{cite web|url=http://www.gwrdc.com.au/downloads/0506docs/researcher.pdf |title=Research enables yeast supplier to expands options |access-date=10 January 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060921160928/http://www.gwrdc.com.au/downloads/0506docs/researcher.pdf |archive-date=21 September 2006 }} [423] => [424] => {{cite journal |author=Yeong FM |title=Severing all ties between mother and daughter: cell separation in budding yeast |journal=Molecular Microbiology |volume=55 |issue=5 |pages=1325–1331 |year=2005 |pmid=15720543 |doi=10.1111/j.1365-2958.2005.04507.x|s2cid=25013111 |doi-access=free }} [425] => [426] => {{cite web |url=http://www.winepros.org/wine101/vincyc-bret.htm |title=''Brettanomyces'' (Dekkera) |author=Lamar J |work=Vincyclopedia |access-date=28 November 2009}} [427] => [428] => {{cite journal |url=http://www.nature.com/news/yeast-suggests-speedy-start-for-multicellular-life-1.9810 |title=Yeast suggests speedy start for multicellular life |author=Yong E |journal=Nature |date=16 January 2012|doi=10.1038/nature.2012.9810 |s2cid=84392827 |doi-access=free }} [429] => [430] => {{cite journal |vauthors=Zinjarde S, Apte M, Mohite P, Kumar AR |title=''Yarrowia lipolytica'' and pollutants: Interactions and applications |journal=Biotechnology Advances |year=2014 |volume=32 |issue=5 |pages=920–933 |doi=10.1016/j.biotechadv.2014.04.008 |pmid=24780156}} [431] => [432] => }} [433] => [434] => == Further reading == [435] => * {{Cite book |vauthors=Alexopoulos CJ, Mims CW, Blackwell M |year=1996 |title=Introductory Mycology |location=New York |publisher=Wiley |isbn=978-0-471-52229-4}} [436] => * {{Cite book |vauthors=Kirk PM, Cannon PF, Minter DW, Stalpers JA |year=2008 |title=Dictionary of the Fungi |edition=10th |location=Wallingford, UK |publisher=CAB International |isbn=978-0-85199-826-8}} [437] => * {{Cite book |editor1=Kurtzman CP |editor2=Fell JW |editor3=Boekhout T |year=2011 |title=The Yeasts: A Taxonomic Study |volume=1 |edition=5th |location=Amsterdam, etc. |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-12-384708-9}} [438] => * {{Cite book |last=Money |first=Nicholas P. |year=2018 |title=The Rise of Yeast: How the Sugar Fungus Shaped Civilisation |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0198749707}} [439] => * {{Cite book |vauthors=Priest FG, Stewart GG |year=2006 |title=Handbook of Brewing |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TIYbNdrIsPEC&pg=PA691 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-1-4200-1517-1 |page=691}} [440] => [441] => == External links == [442] => {{Wiktionary}} [443] => {{Commons category}} [444] => * [http://www.yeastgenome.org ''Saccharomyces'' genome database] [445] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20070721115019/http://biochemie.web.med.uni-muenchen.de/Yeast_Biol/10%20Yeast%20Growth%20and%20the%20Cell%20Cycle.pdf Yeast growth and the cell cycle] (archived 21 July 2007) [446] => * [http://wiki.yeastgenome.org/index.php/General_Topics Yeast virtual library] [447] => [448] => {{Fungus}} [449] => {{Bread}} [450] => {{Alcoholic drinks}} [451] => {{Authority control}} [452] => [453] => [[Category:Yeasts| ]] [454] => [[Category:Abortifacients]] [455] => [[Category:Brewing ingredients]] [456] => [[Category:Fermentation in food processing]] [457] => [[Category:Food additives]] [458] => [[Category:Fungus common names]] [459] => [[Category:Leavening agents]] [460] => [[Category:Medicinal fungi]] [] => )
good wiki

Yeast

Yeast is a group of single-celled microorganisms belonging to the fungus kingdom. They are commonly found in the environment, including soil, plants, and fruits, but are best known for their role in food and beverage fermentation.

More about us

About

They are commonly found in the environment, including soil, plants, and fruits, but are best known for their role in food and beverage fermentation. Yeasts have been used for thousands of years in the production of bread, wine, beer, and other fermented products. They convert sugars into alcohol and carbon dioxide through a process known as fermentation, making them important for the development of various culinary and industrial products. Yeasts also play a crucial role in scientific research as model organisms, particularly the species Saccharomyces cerevisiae. This versatile microorganism has been extensively studied and its genome sequenced, contributing to significant advances in the fields of genetics, molecular biology, and biotechnology. Overall, yeast is a fascinating organism with diverse applications in both traditional and modern settings.

Expert Team

Vivamus eget neque lacus. Pellentesque egauris ex.

Award winning agency

Lorem ipsum, dolor sit amet consectetur elitorceat .

10 Year Exp.

Pellen tesque eget, mauris lorem iupsum neque lacus.

You might be interested in

Antiseptic

An antiseptic is a substance that is applied to living tissue to prevent infection by killing or inhibiting the growth of microorganisms.

Bacteria

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that have a wide range of shapes and sizes.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms on Earth, encompassing the different species, ecosystems, and genetic variations that exist.

Bioremediation

Bioremediation broadly refers to any process wherein a biological system (typically bacteria, microalgae, fungi in mycoremediation, and plants in phytoremediation), living or dead, is employed for removing environmental pollutants from air, water, soil, flue gasses, industrial effluents etc.

Biotechnology

Biotechnology is a field of science that combines biology with technology to develop new and innovative products and processes.

Carbohydrate

Carbohydrates are a type of biological molecule that serve as a major source of energy for living organisms.

Diploid

Distillation

Distillation is a process used for separating mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a boiling liquid mixture.

Enzyme

Enzymes are macromolecular biological catalysts that accelerate chemical reactions.

Eukaryote

Eukaryotes are complex organisms whose cells contain a nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles.

Fruit

The Wikipedia page on fruit provides a comprehensive overview of fruits, typically derived from flowering plants and containing seeds.

Fungus

Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that belong to the kingdom Fungi.

Genetics

Genetics is a branch of biology that focuses on the study of genes, heredity, and variation in living organisms.

Genome

The Wikipedia page for "Genome" provides a comprehensive overview of what a genome is, its structure, function, and significance.

Glucose

Glucose is a simple sugar and one of the most important sources of energy for living organisms.

Hepatitis

Hepatitis is an inflammatory disease of the liver, characterized by the presence of inflammatory cells in the liver tissue.

HIV/AIDS

HIV/AIDS is a global pandemic caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV).

Insulin

Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas that plays a crucial role in regulating blood sugar (glucose) levels in the body.

Micrometre

A micrometre, also known as a micrometer, is a unit of length in the metric system.

Microorganism

A microorganism is a living organism that is too small to be seen by the naked eye.

Microscopy

Microscopy is a scientific technique that allows researchers to observe and study objects that are too small to be seen with the naked eye.

Mitosis

Mitosis is a process of cell division that occurs in eukaryotic cells, leading to the production of two identical daughter cells.

Monosaccharide

A monosaccharide is the simplest form of sugar and is classified as a carbohydrate.

Montreal

Montreal is a city located in the province of Quebec, Canada.

Nutrient

Nutrients are substances found in food that are essential for the growth, development, and maintenance of the body.

Organelle

An organelle is a specialized subunit within a cell that has a specific function.

Organism

An organism is a living entity that exhibits all the characteristics of life.

Polysaccharide

Polysaccharides are complex carbohydrates made up of long chains of monosaccharide units.

Protein

Proteins are macromolecules found in all living organisms.

Refrigeration

Refrigeration is a process of cooling a space, substance, or system to lower and maintain its temperature below the surrounding environment.

Sodium

Sodium is a chemical element with the symbol Na and atomic number 11.

Vaccine

A vaccine is a biological preparation that provides active acquired immunity to a particular infectious disease.