Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Subfield of astronomy}} [1] => {{About|the use of physics to determine the nature of astronomical objects|the use of physics to determine their positions and motions|Celestial mechanics|the physical study of the largest-scale structures of the universe|Physical cosmology|the journal|Astrophysics (journal)}} [2] => [3] => [[Image:NIEdot362.jpg|thumb|Early 1900s comparison of elemental, solar, and stellar spectra]] [4] => {{TopicTOC-Physics}} [5] => [6] => '''Astrophysics''' is a science that employs the methods and principles of [[physics]] and [[chemistry]] in the study of [[astronomical object]]s and phenomena.{{cite book |title=Astrophysics in a Nutshell |first=Dan |last=Maoz |year= 2016 |publisher=Princeton University Press |pages=272 |isbn=978-1400881178 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bmBeCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1}}{{cite web | title=astrophysics | publisher=Merriam-Webster, Incorporated | url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/astrophysics | access-date=2011-05-22 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20110610085146/http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/astrophysics| archive-date= 10 June 2011 | url-status= live}} As one of the founders of the discipline, [[James Edward Keeler|James Keeler]], said, Astrophysics "seeks to ascertain the nature of the heavenly bodies, rather than their positions or motions in space–''what'' they are, rather than ''where'' they are."{{Citation | last = Keeler | first = James E. | author-link = James E. Keeler | title = The Importance of Astrophysical Research and the Relation of Astrophysics to the Other Physical Sciences | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 6 | issue = 4 | pages = 271–288 | date = November 1897 | bibcode = 1897ApJ.....6..271K |doi = 10.1086/140401 | pmid = 17796068 | doi-access = free }} Among the subjects studied are the [[Sun]] ([[solar physics]]), other [[star]]s, [[galaxy|galaxies]], [[extrasolar planet]]s, the [[interstellar medium]] and the [[cosmic microwave background]].{{cite web|url=https://science.nasa.gov/astrophysics/focus-areas/|title=Focus Areas – NASA Science|work=nasa.gov}}{{cite encyclopedia|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/40047/astronomy|title=astronomy|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=29 May 2023 }} Emissions from these objects are examined across all parts of the [[electromagnetic spectrum]], and the properties examined include [[luminosity]], [[density]], [[temperature]], and [[chemistry|chemical]] composition. Because astrophysics is a very broad subject, ''astrophysicists'' apply concepts and methods from many disciplines of physics, including [[classical mechanics]], [[electromagnetism]], [[statistical mechanics]], [[thermodynamics]], [[quantum mechanics]], [[theory of relativity|relativity]], [[nuclear physics|nuclear]] and [[particle physics]], and [[atomic, molecular, and optical physics|atomic and molecular physics]]. [7] => [8] => In practice, modern astronomical research often involves a substantial amount of work in the realms of [[Theoretical physics|theoretical]] and observational physics. Some areas of study for astrophysicists include their attempts to determine the properties of [[dark matter]], [[dark energy]], [[black holes]], and other [[celestial bodies]]; and the [[Cosmogony|origin]] and [[ultimate fate of the universe]]. Topics also studied by theoretical astrophysicists include [[Formation and evolution of the Solar System|Solar System formation and evolution]]; [[stellar dynamics]] and [[Stellar evolution|evolution]]; [[galaxy formation and evolution]]; [[magnetohydrodynamics]]; [[large-scale structure of the universe|large-scale structure]] of [[matter]] in the universe; origin of [[cosmic ray]]s; [[general relativity]], [[special relativity]], [[quantum cosmology|quantum]] and [[physical cosmology]], including [[string theory|string]] cosmology and [[astroparticle physics]]. [9] => [10] => ==History== [11] => Astronomy is an ancient science, long separated from the study of terrestrial physics. In the [[Aristotle|Aristotelian]] worldview, bodies in the sky appeared to be unchanging [[Celestial spheres|spheres]] whose only motion was uniform motion in a circle, while the earthly world was the realm which underwent [[On Generation and Corruption|growth and decay]] and in which natural motion was in a straight line and ended when the moving object reached its [[Telos|goal]]. Consequently, it was held that the celestial region was made of a fundamentally different kind of matter from that found in the terrestrial sphere; either [[Fire (classical element)|Fire]] as maintained by [[Plato]], or [[Aether (classical element)|Aether]] as maintained by [[Aristotle#Physics|Aristotle]].{{cite book | last = Lloyd | first = G. E. R. | author-link = G. E. R. Lloyd | title = Aristotle: The Growth and Structure of His Thought | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 1968 | location = Cambridge | pages = [https://archive.org/details/aristotlegrowths0000lloy/page/134 134–135] | url =https://archive.org/details/aristotlegrowths0000lloy| url-access = registration | isbn = 978-0-521-09456-6}}{{cite book | last = Cornford | first = Francis MacDonald | author-link = F. M. Cornford | title = Plato's Cosmology: The ''Timaeus'' of Plato translated, with a running commentary | publisher = Bobbs Merrill Co | date = c. 1957 | orig-year = 1937 | location = Indianapolis | page = 118}} [12] => During the 17th century, natural philosophers such as [[Galileo]],{{Citation | last = Galilei | first = Galileo | author-link = Galileo Galilei | editor-last = Van Helden | editor-first = Albert | publication-date = 1989 | title = Sidereus Nuncius or The Sidereal Messenger | publisher = University of Chicago Press | location = Chicago | pages = 21, 47 | isbn = 978-0-226-27903-9 | year = 1989 }} [[Descartes]],{{Cite encyclopedia |author=Edward Slowik |title=Descartes' Physics |url=http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/descartes-physics/ |encyclopedia=[[Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]] |date=2013 |orig-year=2005 |access-date=2015-07-18}} and [[Isaac Newton|Newton]]{{Citation | last = Westfall | first = Richard S. | author-link = Richard S. Westfall | publication-date = 1980 | title = Never at Rest: A Biography of Isaac Newton | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = Cambridge | pages = [https://archive.org/details/neveratrestbiogr00west/page/731 731–732] | isbn = 978-0-521-27435-7 | year = 1983 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/neveratrestbiogr00west/page/731 }} began to maintain that the celestial and terrestrial regions were made of similar kinds of material and were subject to the same [[Physical law|natural laws]]. Their challenge was that the tools had not yet been invented with which to prove these assertions.{{Cite journal |author=Ladislav Kvasz |title=Galileo, Descartes, and Newton – Founders of the Language of Physics |url=http://www.physics.sk/aps/pubs/2012/aps-12-06/aps-12-06.pdf |publisher=Institute of Philosophy, [[Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic]] |date=2013 |access-date=2015-07-18}} [13] => [14] => For much of the nineteenth century, astronomical research was focused on the routine work of measuring the positions and computing the motions of astronomical objects.{{Citation | last = Case | first = Stephen | date = 2015 | title = 'Land-marks of the universe': John Herschel against the background of positional astronomy | journal = Annals of Science | volume = 72 | issue = 4 | pages = 417–434 | doi = 10.1080/00033790.2015.1034588 | pmid = 26221834 | quote = The great majority of astronomers working in the early nineteenth century were not interested in stars as physical objects. Far from being bodies with physical properties to be investigated, the stars were seen as markers measured in order to construct an accurate, detailed and precise background against which solar, lunar and planetary motions could be charted, primarily for terrestrial applications.|bibcode = 2015AnSci..72..417C | doi-access = | s2cid = 205397708 }}{{Citation | last = Donnelly | first = Kevin | date = September 2014 | title = On the boredom of science: positional astronomy in the nineteenth century | journal = The British Journal for the History of Science | volume = 47 | issue = 3 | pages = 479–503 | doi = 10.1017/S0007087413000915 | s2cid = 146382057 | url = https://zenodo.org/record/999531 }} A new astronomy, soon to be called astrophysics, began to emerge when [[William Hyde Wollaston]] and [[Joseph von Fraunhofer]] independently discovered that, when decomposing the light from the Sun, a multitude of [[Fraunhofer lines|dark lines]] (regions where there was less or no light) were observed in the [[Visible spectrum|spectrum]].{{cite book | last=Hearnshaw|first=J.B. | title=The analysis of starlight | date=1986 | publisher=Cambridge University Press | location=Cambridge | isbn=978-0-521-39916-6 | pages=23–29}} By 1860 the physicist, [[Gustav Kirchhoff]], and the chemist, [[Robert Bunsen]], had demonstrated that the [[Absorption spectroscopy#Absorption spectrum|dark lines]] in the solar spectrum corresponded to [[Emission spectrum|bright lines]] in the spectra of known gases, specific lines corresponding to unique [[chemical element]]s.{{citation | last = Kirchhoff | first = Gustav | author-link = Gustav Kirchhoff |title=Ueber die Fraunhofer'schen Linien | journal=Annalen der Physik | volume=185 |issue=1 | pages=148–150 | date=1860 | bibcode = 1860AnP...185..148K | doi=10.1002/andp.18601850115| url = https://zenodo.org/record/1423666 }} Kirchhoff deduced that the dark lines in the solar spectrum are caused by [[absorption (optics)|absorption]] by [[chemical elements]] in the Solar atmosphere.{{citation | last = Kirchhoff | first = Gustav | author-link = Gustav Kirchhoff | title=Ueber das Verhältniss zwischen dem Emissionsvermögen und dem Absorptionsvermögen der Körper für Wärme und Licht |journal=Annalen der Physik |volume=185 | issue=2 | pages=275–301 | date=1860 | bibcode = 1860AnP...185..275K | doi=10.1002/andp.18601850205| url=https://zenodo.org/record/1423668 | doi-access=free }} In this way it was proved that the chemical elements found in the Sun and stars were also found on Earth. [15] => [16] => Among those who extended the study of solar and stellar spectra was [[Norman Lockyer]], who in 1868 detected radiant, as well as dark lines in solar spectra. Working with chemist [[Edward Frankland]] to investigate the spectra of elements at various temperatures and pressures, he could not associate a yellow line in the solar spectrum with any known elements. He thus claimed the line represented a new element, which was called [[helium]], after the Greek [[Helios]], the Sun personified.{{citation | last = Cortie | first = A. L. | title = Sir Norman Lockyer, 1836 – 1920 | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | year = 1921 | volume = 53 | pages = 233–248 | bibcode = 1921ApJ....53..233C | doi=10.1086/142602}}{{Citation | last = Jensen | first = William B.|author1-link=William B. Jensen | title = Why Helium Ends in "-ium" | journal = Journal of Chemical Education | volume = 81 | issue = 7 | pages = 944–945 | year = 2004 | url = http://www.che.uc.edu/jensen/W.%20B.%20Jensen/Reprints/115.%20Helium.pdf | doi=10.1021/ed081p944 | bibcode = 2004JChEd..81..944J }} [17] => [18] => In 1885, [[Edward C. Pickering]] undertook an ambitious program of stellar spectral classification at [[Harvard College Observatory]], in which a team of [[Harvard Computers|woman computers]], notably [[Williamina Fleming]], [[Antonia Maury]], and [[Annie Jump Cannon]], classified the spectra recorded on photographic plates. By 1890, a catalog of over 10,000 stars had been prepared that grouped them into thirteen spectral types. Following Pickering's vision, by 1924 Cannon expanded the [[Henry Draper Catalogue|catalog]] to nine volumes and over a quarter of a million stars, developing the [[Stellar classification#Harvard spectral classification|Harvard Classification Scheme]] which was accepted for worldwide use in 1922.{{Citation|last1=Hetherington |first1=Norriss S. |last2=McCray |first2=W. Patrick |author2-link=W. Patrick McCray |editor-last=Weart |editor-first=Spencer R. |editor-link=Spencer R. Weart |title=Spectroscopy and the Birth of Astrophysics |publisher=American Institute of Physics, Center for the History of Physics |url=https://www.aip.org/history/cosmology/tools/tools-spectroscopy.htm |access-date=July 19, 2015 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150907133751/https://www.aip.org/history/cosmology/tools/tools-spectroscopy.htm |archive-date=September 7, 2015 }} [19] => [20] => In 1895, [[George Ellery Hale]] and [[James E. Keeler]], along with a group of ten associate editors from Europe and the United States,{{Citation | last = Hale | first = George Ellery | title = The Astrophysical Journal | author-link = George Ellery Hale | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 1 | pages = 80–84 | bibcode = 1895ApJ.....1...80H | doi = 10.1086/140011| year = 1895 }} established [[The Astrophysical Journal|''The Astrophysical Journal: An International Review of Spectroscopy and Astronomical Physics'']].{{List journal | journal = The Astrophysical Journal | volume = 1 | issue = 1 }} It was intended that the journal would fill the gap between journals in astronomy and physics, providing a venue for publication of articles on astronomical applications of the spectroscope; on laboratory research closely allied to astronomical physics, including wavelength determinations of metallic and gaseous spectra and experiments on radiation and absorption; on theories of the Sun, Moon, planets, comets, meteors, and nebulae; and on instrumentation for telescopes and laboratories. [21] => [22] => Around 1920, following the discovery of the [[Hertzsprung–Russell diagram]] still used as the basis for classifying stars and their evolution, [[Arthur Eddington]] anticipated the discovery and mechanism of [[nuclear fusion]] processes in [[star]]s, in his paper ''The Internal Constitution of the Stars''.{{ Citation | last = Eddington | first = A. S. | author-link = Arthur Eddington | date = October 1920 | title = The Internal Constitution of the Stars | journal = The Scientific Monthly | volume = 11 | issue = 4 | pages = 297–303 | doi = 10.1126/science.52.1341.233 | jstor = 6491 | pmid = 17747682 | bibcode = 1920Sci....52..233E | url = https://zenodo.org/record/1429642 }}{{cite journal | bibcode = 1916MNRAS..77...16E | title = On the radiative equilibrium of the stars | journal=Monthly Notices of the Royal Astronomical Society | volume=77 | pages=16–35 | last1=Eddington|first1=A. S. | author-link = Arthur Eddington | year=1916 | doi=10.1093/mnras/77.1.16| doi-access=free }} At that time, the source of stellar energy was a complete mystery; Eddington correctly speculated that the source was [[nuclear fusion|fusion]] of hydrogen into helium, liberating enormous energy according to Einstein's equation ''E = mc2''. This was a particularly remarkable development since at that time fusion and thermonuclear energy, and even that stars are largely composed of [[hydrogen]] (see [[metallicity]]), had not yet been discovered.{{Cite book|title=Fusion|last1=McCracken|editor-last2=Stott|editor-first2=Peter |editor-last=McCracken|editor-first=Garry |last2=Stott|first2=Peter |first1=Garry|url=http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/B9780123846563000027 |language=en|doi=10.1016/b978-0-12-384656-3.00002-7 |pages=13|isbn=978-0-12-384656-3|location=Boston|year=2013|publisher=Academic Press|quote=Eddington had realized that there would be a mass loss if four hydrogen atoms combined to form a single helium atom. Einstein's equivalence of mass and energy led directly to the suggestion that this could be the long-sought process that produces the energy in the stars! It was an inspired guess, all the more remarkable because the structure of the nucleus and the mechanisms of these reactions were not fully understood.|edition=Second}} [23] => [24] => In 1925 Cecilia Helena Payne (later [[Cecilia Payne-Gaposchkin]]) wrote an influential doctoral dissertation at [[Radcliffe College]], in which she applied [[Saha ionization equation|Saha's ionization theory]] to stellar atmospheres to relate the spectral classes to the temperature of stars.{{citation |last=Payne |first=C. H. |year=1925 |title=Stellar Atmospheres; A Contribution to the Observational Study of High Temperature in the Reversing Layers of Stars |type=PhD Thesis |publisher=[[Radcliffe College]] | location = Cambridge, Massachusetts | publication-date = 1925 |bibcode=1925PhDT.........1P }} Most significantly, she discovered that hydrogen and helium were the principal components of stars, not the composition of Earth. Despite Eddington's suggestion, discovery was so unexpected that her dissertation readers (including [[Henry Norris Russell|Russell]]) convinced her to modify the conclusion before publication. However, later research confirmed her discovery.{{citation | last = Haramundanis | first = Katherine | editor-last = Hockey | editor-first = Thomas | editor2-last = Trimble | editor2-first = Virginia | editor2-link = Virginia Louise Trimble | editor3-last = Williams | editor3-first = Thomas R. | title = Biographical Encyclopedia of Astronomers | chapter = Payne-Gaposchkin [Payne], Cecilia Helena | access-date = July 19, 2015 |year=2007 | chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t-BF1CHkc50C | pages=876–878 | publisher = Springer | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-387-30400-7 }}{{cite web |author1=Steven Soter and Neil deGrasse Tyson |title=Cecilia Payne and the Composition of the Stars |url=https://www.amnh.org/learn-teach/curriculum-collections/cosmic-horizons-book/cecilia-payne-profile |publisher=[[American Museum of Natural History]] |date=2000}} [25] => [26] => By the end of the 20th century, studies of astronomical spectra had expanded to cover wavelengths extending from radio waves through optical, x-ray, and gamma wavelengths.{{cite conference |mode=cs2 |last1=Biermann |first1=Peter L. |last2=Falcke |first2=Heino |author2-link=Heino Falcke |editor-last=Panvini |editor-first=Robert S. |editor2-last=Weiler |editor2-first=Thomas J. |date=1998 |book-title=Fundamental particles and interactions: Frontiers in contemporary physics an international lecture and workshop series. AIP Conference Proceedings |title=Frontiers of Astrophysics: Workshop Summary |volume=423 |publisher=American Institute of Physics |pages=236–248 |isbn=1-56396-725-1 |bibcode=1998AIPC..423..236B |doi=10.1063/1.55085|arxiv=astro-ph/9711066 }} In the 21st century, it further expanded to include observations based on [[gravitational waves]]. [27] => [28] => ==Observational astrophysics== [29] => [[Image:N 63A- Chandra and Hubble - Heic0507f.tif|thumb|right|200px|Supernova remnant LMC N 63A imaged in x-ray (blue), optical (green) and radio (red) wavelengths. The X-ray glow is from material heated to about ten million degrees Celsius by a shock wave generated by the supernova explosion.]] [30] => [[Observational astronomy]] is a division of the astronomical science that is concerned with recording and interpreting data, in contrast with [[theoretical astrophysics]], which is mainly concerned with finding out the measurable implications of physical [[model (abstract)|models]]. It is the practice of observing [[celestial object]]s by using [[telescope]]s and other astronomical apparatus. [31] => [32] => The majority of astrophysical observations are made using the [[electromagnetic spectrum]]. [33] => * [[Radio astronomy]] studies radiation with a [[wavelength]] greater than a few millimeters. Example areas of study are [[radio waves]], usually emitted by cold objects such as [[interstellar gas]] and dust clouds; the cosmic microwave background radiation which is the [[redshift]]ed light from the [[Big Bang]]; [[pulsar]]s, which were first detected at [[microwave]] frequencies. The study of these waves requires very large [[radio telescope]]s. [34] => * [[Infrared astronomy]] studies radiation with a wavelength that is too long to be visible to the naked eye but is shorter than radio waves. Infrared observations are usually made with telescopes similar to the familiar [[optical]] telescopes. Objects colder than stars (such as planets) are normally studied at infrared frequencies. [35] => * [[Optical astronomy]] was the earliest kind of astronomy. Telescopes paired with a [[charge-coupled device]] or [[spectroscope]]s are the most common instruments used. The Earth's [[atmosphere]] interferes somewhat with optical observations, so [[adaptive optics]] and [[space telescope]]s are used to obtain the highest possible image quality. In this wavelength range, stars are highly visible, and many chemical spectra can be observed to study the chemical composition of stars, galaxies, and [[nebula]]e. [36] => * [[Ultraviolet]], [[X-ray astronomy|X-ray]] and [[gamma ray astronomy]] study very energetic processes such as [[binary pulsar]]s, [[black hole]]s, [[magnetar]]s, and many others. These kinds of radiation do not penetrate the Earth's atmosphere well. There are two methods in use to observe this part of the electromagnetic spectrum—[[space-based telescope]]s and ground-based [[imaging air Cherenkov telescope]]s (IACT). Examples of [[Observatory|Observatories]] of the first type are [[RXTE]], the [[Chandra X-ray Observatory]] and the [[Compton Gamma Ray Observatory]]. Examples of IACTs are the [[High Energy Stereoscopic System]] (H.E.S.S.) and the [[MAGIC (telescope)|MAGIC]] telescope. [37] => Other than electromagnetic radiation, few things may be observed from the Earth that originate from great distances. A few [[gravitational wave]] observatories have been constructed, but gravitational waves are extremely difficult to detect. [[Neutrino]] observatories have also been built, primarily to study the Sun. Cosmic rays consisting of very high-energy particles can be observed hitting the Earth's atmosphere. [38] => [39] => Observations can also vary in their time scale. Most optical observations take minutes to hours, so phenomena that change faster than this cannot readily be observed. However, historical data on some objects is available, spanning [[century|centuries]] or [[millennia]]. On the other hand, radio observations may look at events on a millisecond timescale ([[millisecond pulsar]]s) or combine years of data ([[Rotation-powered pulsar|pulsar deceleration]] studies). The information obtained from these different timescales is very different. [40] => [41] => The study of the Sun has a special place in observational astrophysics. Due to the tremendous distance of all other stars, the Sun can be observed in a kind of detail unparalleled by any other star. Understanding the Sun serves as a guide to understanding of other stars. [42] => [43] => The topic of how stars change, or stellar evolution, is often modeled by placing the varieties of star types in their respective positions on the [[Hertzsprung–Russell diagram]], which can be viewed as representing the state of a stellar object, from birth to destruction. [44] => [45] => ==Theoretical astrophysics== [46] => {{see also|Theoretical astronomy}} [47] => Theoretical astrophysicists use a wide variety of tools which include [[mathematical model|analytical models]] (for example, [[polytrope]]s to approximate the behaviors of a star) and [[computation]]al [[Numerical analysis|numerical simulations]]. Each has some advantages. Analytical models of a process are generally better for giving insight into the heart of what is going on. Numerical models can reveal the existence of phenomena and effects that would otherwise not be seen.{{Citation |first=H. |last=Roth |title=A Slowly Contracting or Expanding Fluid Sphere and its Stability |journal=[[Physical Review]] |volume=39 |issue=3 |pages=525–529 |year=1932 |doi=10.1103/PhysRev.39.525 |bibcode = 1932PhRv...39..525R }}{{Citation |first=A.S. |last=Eddington |title=Internal Constitution of the Stars |journal=Science |location=New York |publisher=Cambridge University Press |orig-year=1926 |year=1988 |volume=52 |issue=1341 |pages=233–240 |doi=10.1126/science.52.1341.233 |isbn=978-0-521-33708-3 |pmid=17747682 |bibcode=1920Sci....52..233E |url=https://zenodo.org/record/1429642 }} [48] => [49] => Theorists in astrophysics endeavor to create theoretical models and figure out the observational consequences of those models. This helps allow observers to look for data that can refute a model or help in choosing between several alternate or conflicting models. [50] => [51] => Theorists also try to generate or modify models to take into account new data. In the case of an inconsistency, the general tendency is to try to make minimal modifications to the model to fit the data. In some cases, a large amount of inconsistent data over time may lead to total abandonment of a model. [52] => [53] => Topics studied by theoretical astrophysicists include stellar dynamics and evolution; galaxy formation and evolution; magnetohydrodynamics; large-scale structure of matter in the universe; origin of cosmic rays; general relativity and physical cosmology, including [[string theory|string]] cosmology and astroparticle physics. Relativistic astrophysics serves as a tool to gauge the properties of large-scale structures for which gravitation plays a significant role in physical phenomena investigated and as the basis for [[black hole]] (''astro'')physics and the study of [[gravitational waves]]. [54] => [55] => Some widely accepted and studied theories and models in astrophysics, now included in the [[Lambda-CDM model]], are the [[Big Bang]], [[cosmic inflation]], dark matter, dark energy and fundamental theories of physics. [56] => [57] => == Popularization == [58] => The roots of astrophysics can be found in the seventeenth century emergence of a unified physics, in which the same laws applied to the celestial and terrestrial realms.{{Citation | last = Burtt | first = Edwin Arthur | author-link = Edwin Arthur Burtt | publication-date = 2003 | orig-year = First published 1924 | title = The Metaphysical Foundations of Modern Science | edition = second revised | publisher = Dover Publications | location = Mineola, NY | pages = 30, 41, 241–2 | isbn = 978-0-486-42551-1 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=G9WBMa1Rz_kC | year = 2003 }} There were scientists who were qualified in both physics and astronomy who laid the firm foundation for the current science of astrophysics. In modern times, students continue to be drawn to astrophysics due to its popularization by the [[Royal Astronomical Society]] and notable [[Science education|educators]] such as prominent professors [[Lawrence Krauss]], [[Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar]], [[Stephen Hawking]], [[Hubert Reeves]], [[Carl Sagan]] and [[Patrick Moore]]. The efforts of the early, late, and present scientists continue to attract young people to study the history and science of astrophysics.{{Cite web |author=D. Mark Manley |title=Famous Astronomers and Astrophysicists |url=http://cnr2.kent.edu/~manley/astronomers.html |publisher=[[Kent State University]] |date=2012 |access-date=2015-07-17}}{{Cite web |author=The science.ca team |title=Hubert Reeves – Astronomy, Astrophysics and Space Science |url=http://www.science.ca/scientists/scientistprofile.php?pID=213 |publisher=GCS Research Society |date=2015 |access-date=2015-07-17}}{{Cite web |title=Neil deGrasse Tyson |url=http://www.haydenplanetarium.org/tyson/ |publisher=[[Hayden Planetarium]] |date=2015 |access-date=2015-07-17}} [59] => The television sitcom show ''[[The Big Bang Theory]]'' popularized the field of astrophysics with the general public, and featured some well known scientists like [[Stephen Hawking]] and [[Neil deGrasse Tyson]]. [60] => [61] => ==See also== [62] => * {{Annotated link|Astrochemistry}} [63] => * {{Annotated link|List of astronomical observatories|Astronomical observatories}} [64] => * {{Annotated link|Astronomical spectroscopy}} [65] => * {{Annotated link|Astroparticle physics}} [66] => * {{Annotated link|Gravitational-wave astronomy}} [67] => * {{Annotated link|Hertzsprung–Russell diagram}} [68] => * {{Annotated link|High-energy astronomy}} [69] => * {{Annotated link|List of important publications in physics#Astrophysics|Important publications in astrophysics}} [70] => * {{Annotated link|List of astronomers|fallback=(includes astrophysicists)}} [71] => * {{Annotated link|Neutrino astronomy|fallback=(future prospects)}} [72] => * {{Annotated link|Timeline of gravitational physics and relativity}} [73] => * {{Annotated link|Timeline of knowledge about galaxies, clusters of galaxies, and large-scale structure}} [74] => * {{Annotated link|Timeline of white dwarfs, neutron stars, and supernovae}} [75] => [76] => ==References== [77] => {{Reflist}} [78] => [79] => ==Further reading== [80] => * {{Citation | last = Longair | first = Malcolm S. | author-link = Malcolm S. Longair | title = The Cosmic Century: A History of Astrophysics and Cosmology | place = Cambridge | publisher = Cambridge University Press | year = 2006 | isbn = 978-0-521-47436-8 | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/cosmiccenturyhis0000long }} [81] => * [http://www.scholarpedia.org/article/Encyclopedia:Astrophysics Astrophysics], [[Scholarpedia]] Expert articles [82] => [83] => ==External links== [84] => {{Wikibooks|Astrophysics}} [85] => {{Library resources box|onlinebooks=yes}} [86] => * [http://www.aanda.org/ ''Astronomy and Astrophysics'', a European Journal] [87] => * [http://iopscience.iop.org/0004-637X/ ''Astrophysical Journal''] [88] => * [http://www.aip.org/history/cosmology/index.htm Cosmic Journey: A History of Scientific Cosmology] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081021070242/http://www.aip.org/history/cosmology/index.htm |date=2008-10-21 }} from the American Institute of Physics [89] => * [http://www.worldscinet.com/ijmpd/ijmpd.shtml ''International Journal of Modern Physics D''] from [[World Scientific]] [90] => * [http://www.scienceresourceworld.com/publications/journals/astronomy_journals.html List and directory of peer-reviewed Astronomy / Astrophysics Journals] [91] => * [http://www.astro.ucla.edu/~wright/cosmolog.htm Ned Wright's Cosmology Tutorial, UCLA] [92] => [93] => {{Physics-footer}} [94] => {{Astronomy subfields}} [95] => {{Astronomy navbox}} [96] => {{Portal bar|Physics|Astronomy|Stars|Spaceflight|Outer space|Solar System}} [97] => {{Authority control}} [98] => [99] => [[Category:Astrophysics| ]] [100] => [[Category:Astronomical sub-disciplines]] [] => )
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Astrophysics

Astrophysics is a branch of physics that deals with the study of the universe, its celestial objects, and their physical properties. It combines principles of physics and astronomy to understand the behavior and evolution of celestial bodies such as stars, galaxies, and the overall structure of the universe.

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It combines principles of physics and astronomy to understand the behavior and evolution of celestial bodies such as stars, galaxies, and the overall structure of the universe. The field of astrophysics encompasses a wide range of topics, including stellar physics, galactic astronomy, the study of black holes, cosmology, the study of the origin and evolution of the universe, and the exploration of exoplanets. Observational and theoretical methods are used in the study of astrophysics, with scientists observing celestial objects using telescopes and other instruments, and developing mathematical models and computational simulations to understand their underlying physical processes. Key areas of research in astrophysics include understanding the origins of the universe through the study of the big bang theory, investigating the nature and properties of dark matter and dark energy, and exploring the physical processes that govern the formation and evolution of galaxies, stars, and planets. The field has also contributed to advancements in technology, with many technological innovations in areas such as optics, sensors, and data analysis being driven by astronomical research. Astrophysics has a rich history, with significant contributions from astronomers and physicists throughout the ages. Prominent figures in astrophysics include Isaac Newton, who formulated the laws of motion and gravity, Albert Einstein, whose theory of general relativity revolutionized our understanding of gravity, and Edwin Hubble, who provided evidence for the expansion of the universe. Today, astrophysics continues to be a vibrant and active field of research, with scientists using advanced technologies and techniques to further our knowledge of the universe. The discoveries and advancements in astrophysics not only deepen our understanding of the cosmos but also inspire new questions and challenges that drive scientific progress.

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