Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Person who engages in critical thinking and reasoning}} [1] => {{About|the term for a practician of intellect|the process of developing intellect|intellectualism}} [2] => {{More citations needed|date=March 2021}} [3] => {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2015}} [4] => [[File:Holbein-erasmus.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Erasmus of Rotterdam]] was one of the foremost intellectuals of his time.]] [5] => [[File:Nobel Peace Laureate Shirin Ebadi at the World Summit of Nobel Peace Laureates in Barcelona, 2015 (cropped).jpg|thumb|200px|''Foreign Policy'' magazine named the lawyer [[Shirin Ebadi]] a leading intellectual for her work protecting human rights in Iran.{{cite journal |last1=Amburn |first1=Brad |date=2009 |title=The World's Top 20 Public Intellectuals |url=https://foreignpolicy.com/2009/10/07/the-worlds-top-20-public-intellectuals/ |journal=Foreign Policy |access-date=2020-01-31}}]] [6] => [7] => An '''intellectual''' is a person who engages in [[critical thinking]], [[research]], and [[Human self-reflection|reflection]] about the [[reality]] of society, and who proposes solutions for its [[normative]] problems.''The New Fontana dictionary of Modern Thought'' Third Edition, A. Bullock & S. Trombley, Eds. (1999) p. 433.Jennings, Jeremy and Kemp-Welch, Tony. "The Century of the Intellectual: From Dreyfus to Salman Rushdie", ''Intellectuals in Politics'', Routledge: New York (1997) p. 1. Coming from the world of [[culture]], either as a creator or as a mediator, the intellectual participates in politics, either to defend a concrete proposition or to denounce an injustice, usually by either rejecting, producing or extending an [[ideology]], and by defending a system of [[value theory|values]].[[Pascal Ory|Ory, Pascal]] and Sirinelli, Jean-François. {{Lang|fr|Les Intellectuels en France. De l’affaire Dreyfus à nos jours}} (''The Intellectuals in France: From the Dreyfus Affair to Our Days''), Paris: Armand Colin, 2002, p. 10. [8] => [9] => == Etymological background == [10] => [11] => === "Man of letters" === [12] => {{anchor|Man of Letters}} [13] => The term "man of letters" derives from the French term ''[[Belles-lettres|belletrist]]'' or ''homme de lettres'' but is not synonymous with "an academic".''The Oxford English Reference Dictionary'' Second Edition, (1996) p. 130.''The New Cassel's French–English, English–French Dictionary'' (1962) p. 88. A "man of letters" was a literate man, able to read and write, and thus highly valued in the upper strata of society in a time when [[literacy]] was rare. In the 17th and 18th centuries, the term ''Belletrist(s)'' came to be applied to the ''literati'': the French participants in—sometimes referred to as "citizens" of—the [[Republic of Letters]], which evolved into the [[salon (gathering)|salon]], a social institution, usually run by a hostess, meant for the edification, education, and cultural refinement of the participants. [14] => [15] => In the late 19th century, when literacy was relatively common in European countries such as the [[United Kingdom]], the "Man of Letters" (''littérateur''){{cite book|chapter=Littérateur, n. |title=Discover the Story of English|edition=Second (1989)|date=June 2012|url=http://www.oed.com/view/Entry/109241 |publisher=Oxford English Dictionary|orig-year=First published in New English Dictionary, 1903}} denotation broadened to mean "specialized", a man who earned his living writing intellectually (not creatively) about literature: the [[essay]]ist, the [[journalist]], the [[critic]], et al. Examples include [[Samuel Johnson]], [[Walter Scott]] and [[Thomas Carlyle]]. In the 20th century, such an approach was gradually superseded by the academic method, and the term "Man of Letters" became disused, replaced by the generic term "intellectual", describing the intellectual person. The archaic term is the basis of the names of several academic institutions which call themselves [[College of Letters and Science (disambiguation)|Colleges of Letters and Science]]. [16] => [17] => === "Intellectual" === [18] => The earliest record of the English noun "intellectual" is found in the 19th century, where in 1813, [[Byron]] reports that 'I wish I may be well enough to listen to these intellectuals'.{{cite book|author-last=Collini| author-first=Stefan|title=Absent Minds. Intellectuals in Britain |date=2006|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|isbn=0199291055}}{{rp|18}} Over the course of the 19th century, other variants of the already established adjective 'intellectual' as a noun appeared in English and in French, where in the 1890s the noun ({{Lang|fr|intellectuels}}) formed from the adjective {{Lang|fr|intellectuel}} appeared with higher frequency in the literature.{{rp|20}} [19] => Collini writes about this time that "[a]mong this cluster of linguistic experiments there occurred ... the occasional usage of 'intellectuals' as a plural noun to refer, usually with a figurative or ironic intent, to a collection of people who might be identified in terms of their intellectual inclinations or pretensions."{{rp|20}} [20] => [21] => In early 19th-century Britain, [[Samuel Taylor Coleridge]] coined the term ''clerisy'', the intellectual class responsible for upholding and maintaining the national culture, the secular equivalent of the Anglican clergy. Likewise, in [[Tsar]]ist Russia, there arose the ''[[intelligentsia]]'' (1860s–1870s), who were the [[Status group|status class]] of [[White-collar worker|white-collar]] workers. [22] => For Germany, the theologian [[Alister McGrath]] said that "the emergence of a socially alienated, [[theology|theologically]] literate, antiestablishment lay intelligentsia is one of the more significant phenomena of the social history of [[Germany]] in the 1830s".{{cite book|author-last=Kramer| author-first=Hilton|author-link=Hilton Kramer|title=The Twilight of the Intellectuals |date=1999|publisher=Ivan R. Dee|location=Chicago}}{{rp|53}} An intellectual class in Europe was socially important, especially to self-styled intellectuals, whose participation in society's arts, politics, journalism, and education—of either [[Nationalism|nationalist]], [[internationalism (politics)|internationalist]], or ethnic sentiment—constitute "vocation of the intellectual". Moreover, some intellectuals were anti-academic, despite universities (the academy) being synonymous with [[intellectualism]].{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} [23] => [24] => [[File:J’accuse.jpg|thumb|upright|The front page of ''[[L'Aurore (1944 newspaper)|L'Aurore]]'' (13 January 1898) featured [[Émile Zola]]'s open letter ''[[J'Accuse…!]]'' asking the French President [[Félix Faure]] to resolve the [[Dreyfus affair]].]] [25] => [26] => In France, the [[Dreyfus affair]] (1894–1906), an identity crisis of [[antisemitism|antisemitic]] nationalism for the [[French Third Republic]] (1870–1940), marked the full emergence of the "intellectual in public life", especially [[Émile Zola]], [[Octave Mirbeau]] and [[Anatole France]] directly addressing the matter of French [[antisemitism]] to the public; thenceforward, "intellectual" became common, yet initially derogatory, usage; its French noun usage is attributed to [[Georges Clemenceau]] in 1898. Nevertheless, by 1930 the term "intellectual" passed from its earlier pejorative associations and restricted usages to a widely accepted term and it was because of the Dreyfus Affair that the term also acquired generally accepted use in English.{{rp|21}} [27] => [28] => In the 20th century, the term intellectual acquired positive connotations of [[Reputation|social prestige]], derived from possessing [[intellectualism|intellect]] and [[intelligence]], especially when the intellectual's activities exerted positive consequences in the [[public sphere]] and so increased the intellectual understanding of the public, by means of [[Morality|moral]] responsibility, [[altruism]], and [[solidarity]], without resorting to the [[psychological manipulation|manipulations]] of [[demagoguery]], [[paternalism]] and [[incivility]] (condescension).{{rp|169}} The sociologist [[Frank Furedi]] said that "Intellectuals are not defined according to the jobs they do, but [by] the manner in which they act, the way they see themselves, and the [social and political] values that they uphold.{{cite book|author-last=Furedi| author-first=Frank|author-link=Frank Furedi|title=Where Have All The Intellectuals Gone? |date=2004|publisher=Continuum Press|location=London and New York}}{{Page needed|date=March 2021}} [29] => [30] => According to [[Thomas Sowell]], as a descriptive term of person, personality, and profession, the word ''intellectual'' identifies three traits: [31] => # Educated; erudition for developing theories; [32] => # Productive; creates [[cultural capital]] in the fields of philosophy, [[literary criticism]], and [[sociology]], law, medicine, and science, etc.; and [33] => # [[Artist]]ic; creates art in [[literature]], [[musical composition|music]], [[painting]], [[sculpture]], etc.{{cite book|title=Knowledge and Decisions|last=Sowell|first=Thomas|author-link=Thomas Sowell|year=1980|publisher=Basic Books}}{{Page needed|date=February 2021}} [34] => [35] => == Historical uses == [36] => In [[Latin language]], at least starting from the [[Carolingian Empire]], intellectuals could be called ''litterati'', a term which is sometimes applied today.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} [37] => [38] => The word intellectual is found in Indian scripture [[Mahabharata]] in the Bachelorette meeting (Swayamvara Sava) of [[Draupadi]]. Immediately after [[Arjuna]] and Raja-Maharaja (kings-emperors) came to the meeting, ''Nipuna Buddhijibina (perfect intellectuals)'' appeared at the meeting.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} [39] => [40] => In [[Imperial China]] in the period from 206 BC until AD 1912, the intellectuals were the ''[[Scholar-official]]s'' ("Scholar-gentlemen"), who were civil servants appointed by the [[Emperor of China]] to perform the tasks of daily governance. Such civil servants earned academic degrees by means of [[imperial examination]], and were often also skilled [[calligraphy|calligraphers]] or [[Confucianism|Confucian]] philosophers. Historian Wing-Tsit Chan concludes that: [41] => [42] => {{Blockquote|text=Generally speaking, the record of these scholar-gentlemen has been a worthy one. It was good enough to be praised and imitated in 18th century Europe. Nevertheless, it has given China a tremendous handicap in their transition from government by men to government by law, and personal considerations in Chinese government have been a curse.{{cite book|editor=Charles Alexander Moore|title=The Chinese Mind: Essentials of Chinese Philosophy and Culture|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_DoyN2h56ucC&pg=PA22|year=1967|publisher=U of Hawaii Press|isbn=978-0824800758}}{{rp|22}}}} [43] => [44] => In [[Joseon|Joseon Korea]] (1392–1910), the intellectuals were the ''literati'', who knew how to read and write, and had been designated, as the [[chungin]] (the "middle people"), in accordance with the Confucian system. Socially, they constituted the [[petite bourgeoisie]], composed of scholar-bureaucrats (scholars, professionals, and technicians) who administered the dynastic rule of the Joseon dynasty.{{cite book|author=The Korea Foundation|title=Koreana – Winter 2015|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=WkmOCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT73|date=2016|publisher=한국국제교류재단 |isbn=979-1156041573}}{{rp|73–4}} [45] => [46] => == Public intellectual == [47] => {{external media|float=right|video1=[https://www.c-span.org/video/?163104-1/role-intellectuals-public-life "Role of Intellectuals in Public Life", panel featuring Michael Ignatieff, Russell Jacoby, Roger Kimball, Susie Linfield, Alex Star, Ellen Willis and Alan Wolfe, March 1, 2001], [[C-SPAN]]}} [48] => The term '''''public intellectual''''' describes the intellectual participating in the public-affairs [[discourse]] of society, in addition to an academic career.Etzioni, Amitai. Ed., ''Public Intellectuals'', Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2006. Regardless of their [[Academy|academic]] fields or [[profession]]al expertise, public intellectuals address and respond to the [[normative]] problems of society, and, as such, are expected to be impartial critics who can "rise above the partial preoccupation of one's own profession—and engage with the global issues of [[truth]], judgment, and [[Taste (sociology)|taste]] of the time".Bauman, 1987: 2.{{rp|32}} In ''Representations of the Intellectual'' (1994), [[Edward Said|Edward Saïd]] said that the "true intellectual is, therefore, always an outsider, living in self-imposed exile, and on the margins of society".{{cite book |last1=Jennings |first1=Jeremy |last2=Kemp-Welch |first2=Tony |editor1-last=Jennings |editor1-first=Jeremy |editor2-last=Kemp-Welch |editor2-first=Tony |title=Intellectuals in Politics: From the Dreyfus Affair to Salman Rushdie |publisher=Routledge |date=1997 |pages=100–110 |chapter=The Century of the Intellectual: From Dreyfus to Salman Rushdie |isbn=0-415-14995-9}}{{rp|1–2}} Public intellectuals usually arise from the educated élite of a society; although the North American usage of the term ''intellectual'' includes the university academics.McKee (2001) The difference between ''intellectual'' and ''academic'' is participation in the realm of public affairs.Bourdieu 1989 [49] => [50] => [[Jürgen Habermas]]' ''Structural Transformation of Public Sphere'' (1963) made significant contribution to the notion of public intellectual by historically and conceptually delineating the idea of private and public. Controversial, in the same year, was [[Ralf Dahrendorf]]'s definition: "As the court-[[jester]]s of modern society, all intellectuals have the duty to doubt everything that is obvious, to make relative all authority, to ask all those questions that no one else dares to ask".Ralf Dahrendorf, ''Der Intellektuelle und die Gesellschaft'', [[Die Zeit]], 20 March 1963, reprinted in ''The Intellectual and Society'', in ''On Intellectuals'', ed. Philip Rieff, Garden City, NY, 1969{{rp|51}} [51] => [52] => An intellectual usually is associated with an [[ideology]] or with a [[philosophy]].{{cite journal|last=McLennan| first=Gregor|title=Traveling With Vehicular Ideas: The Case of the Third Way |date=2004|journal=Economy and Society |volume=33 |issue=4 |pages=484–99| doi=10.1080/0308514042000285251| s2cid=145227353}}{{Page needed|date=March 2021}} The Czech intellectual [[Václav Havel]] said that politics and intellectuals can be linked, but that moral responsibility for the intellectual's ideas, even when advocated by a politician, remains with the intellectual. Therefore, it is best to avoid [[utopia]]n intellectuals who offer 'universal insights' to resolve the problems of [[political economy]] with [[Public policy|public policies]] that might harm and that have harmed civil society; that intellectuals be mindful of the social and cultural ties created with their words, insights and ideas; and should be heard as social critics of [[politics]] and [[Power (social and political)|power]].{{rp|13}} [53] => [54] => === Public engagement === [55] => The determining factor for a "thinker" (historian, philosopher, scientist, writer, artist) to be considered a public intellectual is the degree to which the individual is [[logical consequence|implicated]] and [[engaged theory|engaged]] with the vital reality of the contemporary world, i.e. participation in the public affairs of society. Consequently, being designated as a public intellectual is determined by the degree of influence of the designator's [[motivation]]s, opinions, and options of action (social, political, ideological), and by affinity with the given thinker.{{citation needed|date=March 2021}} [56] => [57] => After the failure of the large-scale [[May 68]] movement in France, intellectuals within the country were often maligned for having specific areas of expertise while discussing general subjects like democracy. Intellectuals increasingly claimed to be within marginalized groups rather than their spokespeople, and centered their activism on the social problems relevant to their areas of expertise (such as gender relations in the case of psychologists). A similar shift occurred in China after the [[1989 Tiananmen Square protests|Tiananmen Square Massacre]] from the "universal intellectual" (who plans better futures from within academia) to ''minjian'' ("grassroots") intellectuals, the latter group represented by such figures as [[Wang Xiaobo]], social scientist [[Yu Jianrong]], and ''[[Yanhuang Chunqiu]]'' editor Ding Dong ({{lang|zh|丁東}}).{{Cite journal|last=Béja|first=Jean-Philippe|date=2020|title=Review of Minjian: The Rise of China's Grassroots Intellectuals|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/26959862|journal=China Review|volume=20|issue=4|pages=285–287|jstor=26959862|issn=1680-2012}} [58] => [59] => === Public policy === [60] => In the matters of [[Public policy doctrine|public policy]], the public intellectual connects scholarly research to the practical matters of solving societal problems. The British sociologist [[Michael Burawoy]], an exponent of [[public sociology]], said that professional sociology has failed by giving insufficient attention to resolving social problems, and that a dialogue between the academic and the layman would bridge the gap.{{cite book|title=The Social Scientist As Public Intellectual: Critical Reflections In A Changing World|last=Gattone|first=Charles|date=2006|publisher=Rowman and Littlefield}}{{Page needed|date=March 2021}} An example is how [[Chile]]an intellectuals worked to reestablish [[democracy]] within the [[Right-wing politics|right-wing]], [[Neoliberalism|neoliberal]] governments of the [[Military dictatorship of Chile (1973–90)|military dictatorship of 1973–1990]], the Pinochet régime allowed professional opportunities for some liberal and left-wing social scientists to work as politicians and as consultants in effort to realize the theoretical economics of the [[Chicago Boys]], but their access to [[Power (social and political)|power]] was contingent upon political [[pragmatism]], abandoning the political neutrality of the academic intellectual.Sorkin (2007) [61] => [62] => In ''[[The Sociological Imagination]]'' (1959), [[C. Wright Mills]] said that academics had become ill-equipped for participating in public discourse, and that journalists usually are "more politically alert and knowledgeable than sociologists, economists, and especially ... political scientists".{{cite book|title=The Sociological Imagination|last=Mills|first=Charles Wright|author-link=C. Wright Mills|date=1959|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford}}{{rp|99}} That, because the universities of the U.S. are bureaucratic, private businesses, they "do not teach [[Critical thinking|critical reasoning]] to the student", who then does not know "how to gauge what is going on in the general struggle for power in modern society".{{Page needed|date=March 2021}} Likewise, [[Richard Rorty]] criticized the quality of participation of intellectuals in public discourse as an example of the "civic irresponsibility of [[Intellectualism|intellect]], especially academic intellect".{{rp|142}} [63] => {{external media | width = 210px | float = right | headerimage= | video1 = [https://www.c-span.org/video/?169625-1/public-intellectuals ''Booknotes'' interview with Posner on ''Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline'', June 2, 2002], [[C-SPAN]]}} The American legal scholar [[Richard Posner]] said that the participation of academic public intellectuals in the public life of society is characterized by logically untidy and politically biased statements of the kind that would be unacceptable to academia. He concluded that there are few ideologically and politically independent public intellectuals, and disapproved public intellectuals who limit themselves to practical matters of public policy, and not with [[Value (ethics)|values]] or [[public philosophy]], or public [[ethics]], or [[public theology]], nor with matters of moral and spiritual outrage. [64] => [65] => == Intellectual status class== [66] => {{main|Intelligentsia}} [67] => [68] => Socially, intellectuals constitute the [[intelligentsia]], a [[Status group|status class]] organised either by [[ideology]] (e.g., [[conservatism]], [[fascism]], [[socialism]], [[Liberalism|liberal]], [[reactionary]], [[revolution]]ary, [[Democracy|democratic]], [[communism]]), or by nationality (American intellectuals, French intellectuals, Ibero–American intellectuals, ''et al.''). The term ''intelligentsiya'' originated from [[Russian Empire|Tsarist Russia]] ({{circa|1860s}}–1870s), where it denotes the [[Social stratification|social stratum]] of those possessing intellectual formation (schooling, education), and who were Russian society's counterpart to the German ''[[Bildungsbürgertum]]'' and to the French ''bourgeoisie éclairée'', the [[Bourgeoisie|enlightened middle classes]] of those realms.Williams, Raymond. ''Keywords: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society'' (1983){{rp|169–71}} [69] => [70] => In [[Marxist philosophy]], the [[social class]] function of the intellectuals (the [[intelligentsia]]) is to be the source of progressive ideas for the transformation of society: providing advice and counsel to the political leaders, interpreting the country's politics to the mass of the population (urban workers and peasants). In the pamphlet ''[[What Is to Be Done?]]'' (1902), [[Vladimir Lenin]] (1870–1924) said that [[Vanguardism|vanguard-party revolution]] required the participation of the intellectuals to explain the complexities of [[socialism|socialist]] ideology to the uneducated [[proletariat]] and the urban industrial workers in order to integrate them to the revolution because "the history of all countries shows that the working class, exclusively by its own efforts, is able to develop only [[Trade union|trade-union]] consciousness" and will settle for the limited, socio-economic gains so achieved. In Russia as in [[Continental Europe]], socialist theory was the product of the "educated representatives of the propertied classes", of "revolutionary socialist intellectuals", such as were Karl Marx and [[Friedrich Engels]].Le Blanc, Paul. ''Revolution, Democracy, Socialism: Selected Writings of Lenin'' (Pluto Press, London: 2008){{rp|31,137–8}} [71] => [72] => The Hungarian Marxist philosopher [[György Lukács]] (1885–1971) identified the intelligentsia as the privileged social class who provide revolutionary leadership. By means of intelligible and accessible interpretation, the intellectuals explain to the workers and peasants the "Who?", the "How?" and the "Why?" of the social, economic and political ''[[status quo]]''—the ideological totality of society—and its practical, revolutionary application to the transformation of their society. [73] => [74] => The Italian communist theoretician [[Antonio Gramsci]] (1891–1937) developed [[Karl Marx]]'s conception of the intelligentsia to include political leadership in the public sphere. That because "all knowledge is [[Existentialism|existentially]]-based", the intellectuals, who create and preserve knowledge, are "spokesmen for different social groups, and articulate particular social interests". That intellectuals occur in each social class and throughout the [[right-wing]], the [[Centrism|centre]] and the [[left-wing]] of the [[political spectrum]] and that as a social class the "intellectuals view themselves as autonomous from the [[ruling class]]" of their society. [75] => [76] => Addressing their role as a social class, [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] said that intellectuals are the moral conscience of their age; that their moral and ethical responsibilities are to observe the socio-political moment, and to freely speak to their society, in accordance with their consciences.Scriven 1993{{rp|119}} [77] => [78] => The British historian [[Norman Stone]] said that the intellectual [[social class]] misunderstand the reality of society and so are doomed to the errors of [[logical fallacy]], ideological stupidity, and poor planning hampered by ideology. In her memoirs, the [[Conservative Party (UK)|Conservative]] politician [[Margaret Thatcher]] wrote that the anti-monarchical [[French Revolution]] (1789–1799) was "a [[utopia]]n attempt to overthrow a traditional order [...] in the name of [[Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen|abstract ideas]], formulated by vain intellectuals".{{cite book|title=The Downing Street Years|last=Thatcher|first=Margaret|author-link=Margaret Thatcher|date=1993|publisher=HarperCollins|location=London|isbn=0-8317-5448-6}}{{rp|753}} [79] => [80] => === Latin America === [81] => The American academic [[Peter H. Smith]] describes the intellectuals of Latin America as people from an identifiable social class, who have been conditioned by that common experience and thus are inclined to share a set of [[Value (ethics)|common assumptions]] (values and ethics); that ninety-four per cent of intellectuals come either from the [[middle class]] or from the [[upper class]] and that only six per cent come from the [[working class]]. [82] => {{cite book|title=A view from Latin America|last=Smith|first=Peter H.|publisher=The New History|date=2017}} [83] => [84] => Philosopher [[Steve Fuller (sociologist)|Steven Fuller]] said that because [[cultural capital]] confers [[power (social and political)|power]] and social status as a status group they must be autonomous in order to be credible as intellectuals: [85] => [86] => {{Blockquote|It is relatively easy to demonstrate autonomy, if you come from a wealthy or [an] [[Aristocracy|aristocratic]] background. You simply need to disown your [[Social status|status]] and champion the poor and [the] downtrodden [...]. [A]utonomy is much harder to demonstrate if you come from a poor or [[Proletariat|proletarian]] background [...], [thus] calls to join the wealthy in common cause appear to betray one's class origins. [87] => {{cite book|title=The Intellectual: The Positive Power of Negative Thinking|last=Fuller|first=Steve|author-link=Steve Fuller (sociologist)|date=2005|publisher=Icon|location=Cambridge}}{{rp|113–4}}}} [88] => [89] => === United States === [90] => [[File:Edwards Amasa Park.jpg|thumb|upright|The Congregational theologian [[Edwards Amasa Park]] proposed segregating the intellectuals from the public sphere of society in the United States.]] [91] => [92] => The 19th-century U.S. [[Congregational church|Congregational]] theologian [[Edwards Amasa Park]] said: "We do wrong to our own minds, when we carry out scientific difficulties down to the arena of popular dissension".{{cite book|title=Intellect and Public Life|last=Bender|first=Thomas|date=1993|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|location=Baltimore}}{{rp|12}} In his view, it was necessary for the sake of social, economic and political stability "to separate the serious, [[Social engineering (political science)|technical role]] of professionals from their responsibility [for] supplying [[Public policy|usable philosophies]] for the general public". This expresses a dichotomy, derived from Plato, between public knowledge and private knowledge, "civic culture" and "professional culture", the [[Intellectualism|intellectual sphere of life]] and the life of ordinary people in society.{{rp|12}} [93] => [94] => In the United States, members of the intellectual status class have been [[demographic]]ally characterized as people who hold [[Liberalism|liberal]]-to-[[leftist]] political perspectives about [[Guns versus butter model|guns-or-butter]] [[fiscal policy]].{{cite web|url=http://people-press.org/report/?pageid=1549 |title=Public Praises Science; Scientists Fault Public, Media: Section 4: Scientists, Politics and Religion – Pew Research Center for the People & the Press |publisher=People-press.org |date=9 July 2009|access-date=14 April 2010}} [95] => [96] => In "The Intellectuals and Socialism" (1949), [[Friedrich Hayek]] wrote that "journalists, teachers, ministers, lecturers, publicists, radio commentators, writers of fiction, cartoonists, and artists" form an intellectual social class whose function is to communicate the complex and specialized knowledge of the [[scientist]] to the general public. He argued that intellectuals were attracted to [[socialism]] or [[social democracy]] because the socialists offered "broad visions; the spacious comprehension of the social order, as a whole, which a [[Planned economy|planned system]] promises" and that such broad-vision philosophies "succeeded in inspiring the imagination of the intellectuals" to change and improve their societies."The Intellectuals and Socialism", ''The University of Chicago Law Review'' (Spring 1949) According to Hayek, intellectuals disproportionately support socialism for idealistic and utopian reasons that cannot be realized in practice.{{cite web|url=https://mises.org/etexts/hayekintellectuals.pdf|title=Papers of Interest|work=Mises Institute|date=18 August 2014}} [97] => [98] => == Persecution of intellectuals == [99] => [100] => Totalitarian governments manipulate and apply [[anti-intellectualism]] to repress political dissent. Intellectuals were targeted by the Nazis, the communist regime in China, in [[Socialist Republic of Romania|communist Romania]] by the [[Romanian Communist Party]] (PCR) and the [[Securitate]], the Khmer Rouge, and in conflicts in Bangladesh, the former Yugoslavia, and Poland.{{citation needed|date=December 2021}} [101] => [102] => == Criticism == [103] => [[File:Portrait of Milton Friedman.jpg|thumb|upright|The economist [[Milton Friedman]] identified the intelligentsia and the business class as interfering with capitalism.]] [104] => [105] => The French philosopher [[Jean-Paul Sartre]] noted that "the Intellectual is someone who meddles in what does not concern them" ({{Lang|fr|L'intellectuel est quelqu'un qui se mêle de ce qui ne le regarde pas}}).Annie Cohen-Solal, ''Sartre'', Gallimard, 1989{{rp|588–9}} [106] => [107] => [[Noam Chomsky]] expressed the view that "intellectuals are specialists in [[defamation]], they are basically [[political commissar]]s, they are the ideological administrators, the most threatened by [[Dissident|dissidence]]."{{cite book |last1=Chomsky |first1=Noam |title=Understanding Power |date=2003 |publisher=Penguin Books India |isbn=9780143029915 |page=206}} In his 1967 article "[[The Responsibility of Intellectuals]]", Chomsky analyzes the intellectual culture in the U.S., and argues that it is largely subservient to [[Power (social and political)|power]]. He is particularly critical of [[Social Science|social scientist]]s and technocrats, who provide a [[Pseudo-science|pseudo-scientific]] justification for the [[State crime|crimes of the state]]. [108] => [109] => In "An Interview with Milton Friedman" (1974), the American economist [[Milton Friedman]] said that [[businessmen]] and intellectuals are enemies of [[capitalism]]: most intellectuals believed in socialism while businessmen expected economic privileges. In his essay "Why Do Intellectuals Oppose Capitalism?" (1998), the American [[Libertarianism in the United States|libertarian]] philosopher [[Robert Nozick]] of the [[Cato Institute]] argued that intellectuals become embittered leftists because their superior intellectual work, much rewarded at school and at university, are undervalued and underpaid in the capitalist [[market economy]]. Thus, intellectuals turn against capitalism despite enjoying more socioeconomic status than the average person.{{cite journal |url=http://www.cato.org/pubs/policy_report/cpr-20n1-1.html |title=Why do intellectuals oppose capitalism? |first=Robert |last=Nozick |journal=Cato Policy Report |volume=20 |issue=1 |date=January–February 1998 |pages=1, 9–11 }} [110] => [111] => The economist [[Thomas Sowell]] wrote in his book ''[[Intellectuals and Society]]'' (2010) that intellectuals, who are producers of knowledge, not material goods, tend to speak outside their own areas of expertise, and yet expect social and professional benefits from the [[halo effect]] derived from possessing professional expertise. In relation to other professions, public intellectuals are socially detached from the negative and [[unintended consequences]] of [[public policy]] derived from their ideas. Sowell gives the example of [[Bertrand Russell]] (1872–1970), who advised the British government against national rearmament in the years before the [[Second World War]].{{cite book|author-last=Sowell| author-first=Thomas|author-link=Thomas Sowell|title=Intellectuals and Society |date=2010|publisher=Basic Books}}{{rp|218–276}} [112] => [113] => == References == [114] => {{reflist|30em}} [115] => [116] => === Bibliography === [117] => {{refbegin|30em}} [118] => * [[Raymond Aron|Aron, Raymond]] (1962) ''The Opium of the Intellectuals.'' New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. [119] => * Basov, Nikita ''et al''. (2010). ''The Intellectual: A Phenomenon in Multidimensional Perspectives'', [http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/ikp3ever10607101.pdf Inter-Disciplinary Press] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924035614/http://www.inter-disciplinary.net/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/ikp3ever10607101.pdf |date=24 September 2015 }}. [120] => * Bates, David, ed., (2007). ''Marxism, Intellectuals and Politics.'' London: Palgrave. [121] => * Benchimol, Alex. (2016) ''Intellectual Politics and Cultural Conflict in the Romantic Period: Scottish Whigs, English Radicals and the Making of the British Public Sphere'' (London: Routledge). [122] => * [[Julien Benda|Benda, Julien]] (2003). ''The Treason of the Intellectuals.'' New Brunswick, N.J.: Transaction Publishers. [123] => * Camp, Roderic (1985). ''Intellectuals and the State in Twentieth-Century Mexico.'' Austin: University of Texas Press. [124] => * [[Peter Coleman|Coleman, Peter]] (2010) ''The Last Intellectuals.'' Sydney: Quadrant Books. [125] => * Di Leo, Jeffrey R., and Peter Hitchcock, eds. (2016) ''The New Public Intellectual: Politics, Theory, and the Public Sphere''. (Springer). [126] => * [[Alain Finkielkraut|Finkielkraut, Alain]] (1995). ''The Defeat of the Mind.'' Columbia University Press. [127] => * Gella, Aleksander, Ed., (1976). ''The Intelligentsia and the Intellectuals.'' California: Sage Publication. [128] => * [[Alvin Ward Gouldner|Gouldner, Alvin W.]] (1979). [https://archive.org/stream/futureofintellec00goulrich ''The Future of the Intellectuals and the Rise of the New Class.''] New York: The Seabury Press. [129] => * [[John Gross|Gross, John]] (1969). ''The Rise and Fall of the Man of Letters''. New York: Macmillan. [130] => * Huszar, George B. de, ed., (1960). ''The Intellectuals: A Controversial Portrait''. Glencoe, Illinois: The Free Press. Anthology with many contributors. [131] => * [[Paul Johnson (writer)|Johnson, Paul]] (1990). ''Intellectuals''. New York: Harper Perennial {{ISBN|0-06-091657-5}}. Highly ideological criticisms of [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau|Rousseau]], [[Percy Bysshe Shelley|Shelley]], [[Karl Marx|Marx]], [[Henrik Ibsen|Ibsen]], [[Leo Tolstoy|Tolstoy]], [[Ernest Hemingway|Hemingway]], [[Bertrand Russell]], [[Bertolt Brecht|Brecht]], [[Jean-Paul Sartre|Sartre]], [[Edmund Wilson]], [[Victor Gollancz]], [[Lillian Hellman]], [[Cyril Connolly]], [[Norman Mailer]], [[James Baldwin (writer)|James Baldwin]], [[Kenneth Tynan]], [[Noam Chomsky]], and others. [132] => * Kennedy, Michael D. (2015). ''Globalizing knowledge: Intellectuals, universities and publics in transformation'' (Stanford University Press). 424pp [http://journals.sfu.ca/cjhe/index.php/cjhe/article/viewFile/187569/pdf online review]. [133] => * Konrad, George ''et al''. (1979). ''The Intellectuals On The Road To Class Power.'' Sussex: Harvester Press. [134] => * [[Christopher Lasch|Lasch, Christopher]] (1997). ''The New Radicalism in America, 1889–1963: The Intellectual as a Social Type.'' New York: W.W. Norton & Co. [135] => * Lemert, Charles (1991). ''Intellectuals and Politics.'' Newbury Park, Calif.: Sage Publications. [136] => * McCaughan, Michael (2000). ''True Crime: Rodolfo Walsh and the Role of the Intellectual in Latin American Politics.'' Latin America Bureau {{ISBN|1-899365-43-5}}. [137] => * Michael, John (2000). ''Anxious Intellects: Academic Professionals, Public Intellectuals, and Enlightenment Values.'' Duke University Press. [138] => * Misztal, Barbara A. (2007). ''Intellectuals and the Public Good.'' Cambridge University Press. [139] => * [[Thomas Molnar|Molnar, Thomas]] (1961). [http://hdl.handle.net/2027/mdp.49015000956855 ''The Decline of the Intellectual.''] Cleveland: The World Publishing Company. [140] => * Piereson, James (2006). [https://web.archive.org/web/20141105013200/http://www.manhattan-institute.org/html/miarticle.htm?id=5759#.VFk6s2fYvKc "The Rise & Fall of the Intellectual,"] ''The New Criterion'', Vol. XXV, p. 52. [141] => * [[Richard A. Posner|Posner, Richard A.]] (2002). ''Public Intellectuals: A Study of Decline.'' Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press {{ISBN|0-674-01246-1}}. [142] => * [[Philip Rieff|Rieff, Philip]], Ed., (1969). [https://archive.org/stream/onintellectualst00riefrich ''On Intellectuals'']. New York: Doubleday & Co. [143] => * Sawyer, S., and Iain Stewart, eds. (2016) ''In Search of the Liberal Moment: Democracy, Anti-totalitarianism, and Intellectual Politics in France since 1950'' (Springer). [144] => * Showalter, Elaine (2001). ''Inventing Herself: Claiming A Feminist Intellectual Heritage.'' London: Picador. [145] => * [[Peter Viereck|Viereck, Peter]] (1953). ''Shame and Glory of the Intellectuals.'' Boston: Beacon Press. [146] => {{refend}} [147] => [148] => == Further reading == [149] => {{refbegin|30em}} [150] => * Aczél, Tamás & [[Tibor Méray|Méray, Tibor]]. (1959) ''The Revolt of the Mind.'' New York: Frederick A. Praeger. [151] => * [[Jacques Barzun|Barzun, Jacques]] (1959). ''The House of Intellect''. New York: Harper. [152] => * [[Paul Berman|Berman, Paul]] (2010). ''The Flight of the Intellectuals.'' New York: Melville House. [153] => * Carey, John (2005). ''The Intellectuals And The Masses: Pride and Prejudice Among the Literary Intelligentsia, 1880–1939.'' Chicago Review Press. [154] => * [[Noam Chomsky|Chomsky, Noam]] (1968). "The Responsibility of Intellectuals." In: ''The Dissenting Academy'', ed. Theolord Roszak. New York: Pantheon Books, pp. 254–298. [155] => * [[A. C. Grayling|Grayling, A.C.]] (2013). [http://www.prospectmagazine.co.uk/magazine/public-intellectual-world-thinkers-ac-grayling/ "Do Public Intellectuals Matter?,"] ''Prospect Magazine,'' No. 206. [156] => * Hamburger, Joseph (1966). ''Intellectuals in Politics.'' New Haven: Yale University Press. [157] => * [[Friedrich Hayek|Hayek, F.A.]] (1949). "The Intellectuals and Socialism," ''The University of Chicago Law Review,'' Vol. XVI, No. 3, pp. 417–433. [158] => * [[Johan Huizinga|Huizinga, Johan]] (1936). ''In the Shadows of Tomorrow.'' New York: W.W. Norton & Company. [159] => * Kidder, David S., Oppenheim, Noah D., (2006). ''[[The Intellectual Devotional]].'' Emmaus, Pennsylvania: Rodale Books {{ISBN|1-59486-513-2}}. [160] => * [[François Laruelle|Laruelle, François]] (2014). ''Intellectuals and Power.'' Cambridge: Polity Press. [161] => * Lilla, Mark (2003). ''The Reckless Mind – Intellectuals in Politics.'' New York: New York Review Books. [162] => * [[John Lukacs|Lukacs, John A.]] (1958). "Intellectuals, Catholics, and the Intellectual Life," ''Modern Age,'' Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 40–53. [163] => * [[Heather Mac Donald|MacDonald, Heather]] (2001). ''The Burden of Bad Ideas.'' New York: Ivan R. Dee. [164] => * [[Czeslaw Milosz|Milosz, Czeslaw]] (1990). ''[[The Captive Mind]].'' New York: Vintage Books. [165] => * [[Thomas Molnar|Molnar, Thomas]] (1958). "Intellectuals, Experts, and the Classless Society," ''Modern Age,'' Vol. II, No. 1, pp. 33–39. [166] => * Moses, A. Dirk (2009) ''German Intellectuals and the Nazi Past.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. [167] => * [[Murray Rothbard|Rothbard, Murray N.]] (1989). "World War I as Fulfillment: Power and the Intellectuals," ''The Journal of Libertarian Studies,'' Vol. IX, No. 1, pp. 81–125. [168] => * Sapiro, Gisèle. (2014). ''The French Writers' War 1940–1953'' (1999; English edition 2014); highly influential study of intellectuals in the French Resistance [http://www.h-france.net/vol15reviews/vol15no68atack.pdf online review]. [169] => * [[J. Salwyn Schapiro|Shapiro, J. Salwyn]] (1920). [https://archive.org/stream/atlanticmonthly04unkngoog#page/n826/mode/2up "The Revolutionary Intellectual,"] ''The Atlantic Monthly,'' Vol. CXXV, pp. 320–330. [170] => * Shenfield, Arthur A. (1970). "The Ugly Intellectual," ''The Modern Age'', Vol. XVI, No. 1, pp. 9–14. [171] => * [[Vladimir Shlapentokh|Shlapentokh, Vladimir]] (1990) ''Soviet Intellectuals and Political Power.'' Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. [172] => * [[Marci Shore|Shore, Marci]] (2009). ''Caviar and Ashes.'' New Haven: Yale University Press. [173] => * Small, Helen (2002). ''The Public Intellectual.'' Oxford: Blackwell Publishing. [174] => * [[Simeon Strunsky|Strunsky, Simeon]] (1921). [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924057673398;view=1up;seq=162 "Intellectuals and Highbrows,"] [http://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=coo.31924057673398;view=1up;seq=206 Part II], ''Vanity Fair'', Vol. XV, pp. 52, 92. [175] => * Whittington-Egan, Richard (2003-08-01). ''"The Vanishing Man of Letters: Part One"''. Contemporary Review. [176] => * Whittington-Egan, Richard (2003-10-01). ''"The Vanishing Man of Letters: Part Two"''. Contemporary Review. [177] => * [[Richard Wolin|Wolin, Richard]] (2010). ''The Wind from the East: French Intellectuals, the Culture Revolution and the Legacy of the 1960s.'' Princeton, N.J.: Princeton University Press. [178] => {{refend}} [179] => [180] => == External links == [181] => {{Wiktionary|intellectual|literati|public intellectual}} [182] => {{Wikiquote}} [183] => * [https://chomsky.info/19670223/ The Responsibility of Intellectuals], by [[Noam Chomsky]], 23 February 1967. [184] => * {{cite web|url=http://home.uchicago.edu/~rposner/TABLE%20II.pdf|title=Richard Posner's table of 600+ public intellectuals|access-date=1 August 2006|archive-date=22 September 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150922083823/http://home.uchicago.edu/~rposner/TABLE%20II.pdf|url-status=dead}} {{small|(105 KB)}} classified by profession, discipline, scholastic citations, media affiliation, number of web hits and sex. [185] => * {{cite news |url=https://www.theguardian.com/uk/2004/jul/02/britishidentity.gender |title=Here's a Few You Missed |author-link=Laura Barton |last=Barton |first=Laura |newspaper=[[The Guardian]] |location=London |date=2 July 2004}} [186] => * [http://www.newhavenadvocate.com/arts-literature-articles/the-optimist-s-book-club-040596 "The Optimist's Book Club"], ''The New Haven Advocate''—discussion of public intellectuals in the 21st century. [187] => [188] => {{social class}} [189] => {{authority control}} [190] => [191] => [[Category:Intellectualism| ]] [192] => [[Category:1810s neologisms]] [193] => [[Category:Academia]] [194] => [[Category:Intellectual history]] [195] => [[Category:Lord Byron]] [196] => [[Category:Occupations]] [197] => [[Category:Positions of authority]] [198] => [[Category:Social classes]] [199] => [[Category:Sociology of culture]] [200] => [[Category:Stereotypes]] [201] => [[Category:Thought]] [] => )
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Intellectual

Intellectual is a term that refers to a person engaged in mental activities, particularly those related to critical thinking, analysis, and creativity. The Wikipedia page on "Intellectual" provides a comprehensive overview of this concept, covering its historical development, social significance, and various perspectives on its definition.

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The Wikipedia page on "Intellectual" provides a comprehensive overview of this concept, covering its historical development, social significance, and various perspectives on its definition. The page begins by tracing the origins of the term "intellectual" and its evolution throughout history. It delves into ancient Greek and Roman philosophers who played a crucial role in shaping intellectual discourse and lays out the transformation of the concept during the Enlightenment period. The impact of key intellectual movements, such as Romanticism, Existentialism, and Marxism, is also discussed. The page further explores the social and cultural roles of intellectuals, examining their influence and contributions in academia, politics, the arts, and various other fields. Intellectuals' involvement in social and political activism is emphasized, highlighting their influence in shaping public opinion and driving social change. Different viewpoints on the definition of an intellectual are presented, reflecting the divergent perspectives within academia and society at large. The page covers various cultural and disciplinary understandings of intellectualism, including theoretical analyses, self-identification, and the public perception of intellectuals. Furthermore, the page addresses criticisms and debates surrounding intellectuals, discussing the impact of their ideas and actions on society and exploring the assertion that some intellectuals may become disconnected from the concerns of ordinary citizens. Overall, the Wikipedia page on "Intellectual" presents a thorough examination of the concept, offering a comprehensive overview of its historical context, social significance, and diverse interpretations.

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