Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Sugar-rich liquid produced by many flowering plants, that attracts pollinators and insects}} [1] => {{Other uses}} [2] => {{Use dmy dates|date=September 2021}} [3] => [[File:Nectar.jpg|thumb|Nectar of [[camellia]]]] [4] => [[File:Buckwheat flowers macro.jpg|thumb|Orange-yellow nectaries and greenish nectar in [[buckwheat]] flowers]] [5] => [[File:Australian painted lady feeding closeup.jpg|thumb|An [[Australian painted lady]] feeding on a flower's nectar]] [6] => [[File:0rchideen 04.jpg|thumb|''[[Gymnadenia conopsea]]'' flowers with nectar-filled [[Spur (botany)|spur]]]] [7] => '''Nectar''' is a [[viscous]], [[sugar]]-rich [[liquid]] produced by [[Plant|plants]] in glands called '''nectaries''' or '''nectarines''', either within the [[flower]]s with which it attracts [[pollination|pollinating]] animals, or by '''extrafloral nectaries''', which provide a nutrient source to animal [[Mutualism (biology)|mutualists]], which in turn provide [[plant defense against herbivory#Indirect defenses|herbivore protection]]. Common nectar-consuming [[pollinator]]s include [[mosquito]]es, [[hoverfly|hoverflies]], [[wasp]]s, [[bee]]s, [[butterfly|butterflies]] and [[moth]]s, [[hummingbird]]s, [[honeyeater]]s and [[Bat#Fruit and nectar|bats]]. Nectar plays a crucial role in the foraging economics and evolution of nectar-eating species; for example, nectar foraging behavior is largely responsible for the divergent evolution of the African honey bee, [[African bee|''A. m. scutellata'']] and the [[western honey bee]].{{citation needed|date=September 2020}} [8] => [9] => Nectar is an economically important substance as it is the sugar source for [[honey]]. It is also useful in [[agriculture]] and [[horticulture]] because the adult stages of some predatory insects feed on nectar. For example, a number of predacious or [[Parasitoid wasp|parasitoid wasps]] (e.g., the social wasp species ''[[Apoica flavissima]]'') rely on nectar as a primary food source. In turn, these wasps then hunt agricultural pest insects as food for their young. {{Cite web|title=Killer Bees|url=http://www.columbia.edu/itc/cerc/danoff-burg/invasion_bio/inv_spp_summ/Apis_mellifera_scutellata.htm|access-date=2022-01-17|website=www.columbia.edu}} [10] => [11] => Nectar is most often associated with flowering plants [[angiosperms]], but it is also produced by other groups, including [[fern]]s.{{cite journal | pmc=3662509 | date=2013 | last1=Koptur | first1=S. | last2=Palacios-Rios | first2=M. | last3=Díaz-Castelazo | first3=C. | last4=MacKay | first4=W. P. | last5=Rico-Gray | first5=V. | title=Nectar secretion on fern fronds associated with lower levels of herbivore damage: Field experiments with a widespread epiphyte of Mexican cloud forest remnants | journal=Annals of Botany | volume=111 | issue=6 | pages=1277–1283 | doi=10.1093/aob/mct063 | pmid=23609022 }} [12] => [13] => ==Etymology== [14] => ''Nectar'' is derived from [[Greek language|Greek]] ''νεκταρ'', the fabled drink of eternal life.{{cite web|url=https://www.etymonline.com/word/nectar|title=Nectar|publisher=Online Etymology Dictionary, Douglas Harper|date=2018|access-date=28 May 2018}} Some derive the word from νε- or νη- "not" plus κτα- or κτεν- "kill", meaning "unkillable", thus "immortal". The common use of the word "nectar" to refer to the "sweet liquid in flowers", is first recorded in [[AD]] 1600. [15] => [16] => ==Floral nectaries== [17] => [18] => A nectary or nectarine is floral [[tissue (biology)|tissue]] found in different locations in the flower and is one of several secretory floral structures, including [[Elaiophore|elaiophores]] and osmophores, producing nectar, oil and scent respectively. The function of these structures is to attract potential [[pollinator]]s, which may include insects, including [[bee]]s and [[moth]]s, and vertebrates such as [[hummingbird]]s and [[bat]]s. Nectaries can occur on any floral part, but they may also represent a modified part or a novel structure.{{sfn|Rudall|2007|pages=96–98}} The different types of floral nectaries include:{{sfn|Nicolson et al|2017|page=41}} [19] => * [[receptacle (botany)|receptacle]] (receptacular: extrastaminal, intrastaminal, interstaminal) [20] => * [[hypanthium]] (hypanthial) [21] => * [[tepals]] (perigonal, tepal) [22] => * [[sepals]] (sepal) [23] => * [[petal]] (petal, corolla) [24] => * [[stamen]] (staminal, androecial: filament, anther, staminodal) [25] => * [[pistil]] (gynoecial: stigmatic, stylar) [26] => ** pistillodes (pistillodal, carpellodial) [27] => ** [[Ovary (botany)|ovaries]] (ovarian: non-septal, septal, gynopleural) [28] => Most members of [[Lamiaceae]] have a nectariferous disc which surrounds the ovary base and derived from developing ovarian tissue. In most [[Brassicaceae]], the nectary is at the base of the stamen filament. Many [[monocotyledons]] have septal nectaries, which are at the unfused margins of the carpels. These exude nectar from small pores on the surface of the gynoecium. Nectaries may also vary in color, number, and symmetry.Willmer, Pat. Pollination and floral ecology. Princeton University Press, 2011.{{pn|date=December 2023}}{{isbn missing}} Nectaries can also be categorized as structural or non-structural. Structural nectaries refer to specific areas of tissue that exude nectar, such as the types of floral nectaries previously listed. Non-structural nectaries secrete nectar infrequently from non-differentiated tissues.{{sfn|Nicolson et al|2017}} The different types of floral nectaries [[coevolved]] depending on the pollinator that feeds on the plant's nectar. Nectar is secreted from [[Epidermis (botany)|epidermal]] cells of the nectaries, which have a dense [[cytoplasm]], by means of [[trichomes]] or modified [[stomata]]. Adjacent vascular tissue conducts [[phloem]] bringing [[sugars]] to the secretory region, where it is secreted from the cells through [[vesicle (biology and chemistry)|vesicle]]s packaged by the [[endoplasmic reticulum]].{{cite journal |last1=Fahn |first1=Abraham |title=On the Structure of Floral Nectaries |journal=Botanical Gazette |date=1952 |volume=113 |issue=4 |pages=464–470 |doi=10.1086/335735 |jstor=2472434 |s2cid=85332036 }} The adjacent subepidermal cells may also be secretory.{{sfn|Rudall|2007|pages=96–98}} Flowers that have longer nectaries sometimes have a [[vascular]] strand in the nectary to assist in transport over a longer distance.{{cite journal |last1=Wallace |first1=Gary D. |title=Studies of the Monotropoideae (Ericaceae). Floral Nectaries: Anatomy and Function in Pollination Ecology |journal=American Journal of Botany |date=February 1977 |volume=64 |issue=2 |pages=199–206 |doi=10.1002/j.1537-2197.1977.tb15719.x }}{{sfn|Rudall|2007|pages=96–98}} [29] => [30] => Pollinators feed on the nectar and depending on the location of the nectary the pollinator assists in [[fertilization]] and [[outcrossing]] of the plant as they brush against the reproductive organs, the [[stamen]] and [[pistil]], of the plant and pick up or deposit [[pollen]].{{cite journal |last1=Heil |first1=Martin |title=Nectar: generation, regulation and ecological functions |journal=Trends in Plant Science |date=April 2011 |volume=16 |issue=4 |pages=191–200 |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2011.01.003 |pmid=21345715 |s2cid=11206264 |doi-access=free }} Nectar from floral nectaries is sometimes used as a reward to insects, such as [[ant]]s, that protect the plant from predators. Many floral families have evolved a nectar [[spur (botany)|spur]]. These spurs are projections of various lengths formed from different tissues, such as the petals or sepals. They allow for pollinators to land on the elongated tissue and more easily reach the nectaries and obtain the nectar reward. Different characteristics of the spur, such as its length or position in the flower, may determine the type of pollinator that visits the flower.{{cite journal |last1=Pacini |first1=E. |last2=Nepi |first2=M. |last3=Vesprini |first3=J. L. |title=Nectar biodiversity: a short review |journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |date=May 2003 |volume=238 |issue=1–4 |pages=7–21 |doi=10.1007/s00606-002-0277-y |bibcode=2003PSyEv.238....7P |s2cid=29016446 }} [31] => [32] => Defense from [[herbivory]] is often one of the roles of extrafloral nectaries. Floral nectaries can also be involved in defense. In addition to the [[sugars]] found in nectar, certain [[protein]]s may also be found in nectar secreted by floral nectaries. In [[tobacco]] plants, these proteins have [[antimicrobial]] and [[antifungal]] properties and can be secreted to defend the [[gynoecium]] from certain pathogens.{{cite journal |last1=Thornburg |first1=R. W. |last2=Carter |first2=C. |last3=Powell |first3=A. |last4=Mittler |first4=R. |last5=Rizhsky |first5=L. |last6=Horner |first6=H. T. |title=A major function of the tobacco floral nectary is defense against microbial attack |journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |date=May 2003 |volume=238 |issue=1–4 |pages=211–218 |doi=10.1007/s00606-003-0282-9 |bibcode=2003PSyEv.238..211T |s2cid=19339791 }} [33] => [34] => Floral nectaries have [[evolved]] and diverged into the different types of nectaries due to the various pollinators that visit the flowers. In [[Melastomataceae]], different types of floral nectaries have evolved and been lost many times. Flowers that ancestrally produced nectar and had nectaries may have lost their ability to produce nectar due to a lack of nectar consumption by pollinators, such as certain species of [[bee]]s. Instead they focused on energy allocation to [[pollen]] production. Species of [[angiosperms]] that have nectaries use the nectar to attract pollinators that consume the nectar, such as [[bird]]s and [[butterflies]].{{cite journal |last1=Stein |first1=Bruce A. |last2=Tobe |first2=Hiroshi |title=Floral Nectaries in Melastomataceae and Their Systematic and Evolutionary Implications |journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |date=1989 |volume=76 |issue=2 |pages=519–531 |id={{INIST|6608807}} |doi=10.2307/2399498 |jstor=2399498 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/5356 }} In [[Bromeliaceae]], septal nectaries (a form of gynoecial nectary) are common in species that are insect or bird pollinated. In species that are wind pollinated, nectaries are often absent because there is no pollinator.{{cite journal |last1=Sajo |first1=M. G. |last2=Rudall |first2=P. J. |last3=Prychid |first3=C. J. |title=Floral anatomy of Bromeliaceae, with particular reference to the evolution of epigyny and septal nectaries in commelinid monocots |journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |date=August 2004 |volume=247 |issue=3–4 |doi=10.1007/s00606-002-0143-0 |s2cid=20457047 }} In flowers that are generally pollinated by a long-tongued organism such as certain [[flies]], [[moth]]s, butterflies, and birds, nectaries in the ovaries are common because they are able to reach the nectar reward when pollinating. Sepal and petal nectaries are often more common in species that are pollinated by short-tongued insects that cannot reach so far into the flower.{{cite journal |last1=Rudall |first1=Paula J. |last2=Manning |first2=John C. |last3=Goldblatt |first3=Peter |title=Evolution of Floral Nectaries in Iridaceae |journal=Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden |date=2003 |volume=90 |issue=4 |pages=613–631 |doi=10.2307/3298546 |jstor=3298546 |url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/part/10182 }} [35] => [36] => ===Secretion=== [37] => Nectar secretion increases as the flower is visited by pollinators. After pollination, the nectar is frequently reabsorbed into the plant.{{sfn|Thornburg|2001}} The amount of nectar in flowers at any given time is variable due to many factors, including flower age,{{Cite journal |last=Corbet |first=Sarah A. |date=2003-01-01 |title=Nectar sugar content: estimating standing crop and secretion rate in the field |journal=Apidologie |language=en |volume=34 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1051/apido:2002049 |issn=0044-8435|doi-access=free }} plant location,{{Cite journal |last1=Pleasants |first1=John M. |last2=Zimmerman |first2=Michael |date=1979-08-01 |title=Patchiness in the dispersion of nectar resources: Evidence for hot and cold spots |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00377432 |journal=Oecologia |language=en |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=283–288 |doi=10.1007/BF00377432 |pmid=28309765 |bibcode=1979Oecol..41..283P |s2cid=41950102 |issn=1432-1939}} and habitat management.{{Cite journal |last1=Geest |first1=Emily A. |last2=Baum |first2=Kristen A. |date=2022 |title=The Impact of Fire on Nectar Quality and Quantity for Insect Pollinator Communities |url=https://bioone.org/journals/the-american-midland-naturalist/volume-187/issue-2/0003-0031-187.2.268/The-Impact-of-Fire-on-Nectar-Quality-and-Quantity-for/10.1674/0003-0031-187.2.268.full |journal=The American Midland Naturalist |volume=187 |issue=2 |pages=268–278 |doi=10.1674/0003-0031-187.2.268 |s2cid=248300845 |issn=0003-0031}} [38] => [39] => ==Extrafloral nectaries== [40] => {{See also|Myrmecophily|Plant defenses against herbivory}} [41] => {{multiple image [42] => | direction = vertical [43] => | width = 220 [44] => | image1 =Extrafloral nectaries of a Wild Cherry.jpg|. [45] => | alt1 = [46] => | align=left [47] => | caption1 =Extrafloral nectaries with droplets of nectar on the petiole of a wild cherry (''[[Prunus avium]]'') leaf [48] => | image2 =Prunus africana nectaries.jpg [49] => | alt2 = [50] => | caption2 =Extrafloral nectaries on a red stinkwood (''[[Prunus africana]]'') leaf [51] => }} [52] => Extrafloral nectaries (also known as extranuptial nectaries) are specialised nectar-secreting plant glands that develop outside of flowers and are not involved in [[pollination]], generally on the [[leaf]] or [[Petiole (botany)|petiole]] (foliar nectaries) and often in relation to the [[leaf venation]].{{sfn|Rudall|2007|pages=66–68}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Heil | first1 = M.| last2 = Fiala | first2 = B.| last3 = Baumann | first3 = B. | last4 = Linsenmair | first4 = K.E. | title = Temporal, spatial and biotic variations in extrafloral nectar secretion by ''Macaranga tanarius'' | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2435.2000.00480.x | journal = Functional Ecology | volume = 14 | issue = 6 | pages = 749 | year = 2000 | bibcode = 2000FuEco..14..749M| doi-access = }} They are highly diverse in form, location, size, and mechanism. They have been described in virtually all above-ground plant parts—including [[stipule]]s, [[cotyledon]]s, [[fruit]]s, and [[Plant stem|stem]]s, among others. They range from single-celled [[trichome]]s to complex cup-like structures that may or may not be [[Vascular tissue|vascularized]]. Like floral nectaries, they consist of groups of glandular trichomes (e.g., ''[[Hibiscus]]'' spp.) or elongated secretory epidermal cells. The latter are often associated with underlying vascular tissue. They may be associated with specialised pockets ([[domatia]]), pits or raised regions (e.g., [[Euphorbiaceae]]). The leaves of some tropical [[eudicots]] (e.g., [[Fabaceae]]) and [[magnoliids]] (e.g., [[Piperaceae]]) possess pearl glands or bodies which are globular trichomes specialised to attract ants. They secrete matter that is particularly rich in carbohydrates, proteins and lipids.{{sfn|Rudall|2007|pages=66–68}}{{Cite journal | last1 = Weber | first1 = M. G. | last2 = Keeler | first2 = K. H. | title = The phylogenetic distribution of extrafloral nectaries in plants | doi = 10.1093/aob/mcs225 | journal = Annals of Botany | year = 2012 | pmid = 23087129| pmc = 3662505| volume=111 | issue = 6 | pages=1251–1261}} [53] => [54] => [[File:Ants on Drynaria.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Ant]]s on extrafloral nectaries in the lower surface of a young ''[[Drynaria|Drynaria quercifolia]]'' [[frond]]]] [55] => While their function is not always clear, and may be related to regulation of sugars, in most cases they appear to facilitate plant insect relationships.{{sfn|Rudall|2007|pages=66–68}} In contrast to floral nectaries, nectar produced outside the flower generally have a defensive function. The nectar attracts predatory insects which will eat both the nectar and any [[herbivore|plant-eating]] insects around, thus functioning as "bodyguards".[http://www.cambridge.org/uk/catalogue/catalogue.asp?isbn=0521819415 Plant-Provided Food for Carnivorous Insects – Cambridge University Press] Foraging predatory insects show a preference for plants with extrafloral nectaries, particularly some species of [[ant]]s and [[wasp]]s, which have been observed to defend the plants bearing them. ''[[Acacia]]'' is one example of a plant whose nectaries attract ants, which protect the plant from other insect [[herbivores]].{{sfn|Rudall|2007|pages=66–68}} Among [[Passiflora|passion flowers]], for example, extrafloral nectaries prevent herbivores by attracting ants and deterring two species of butterflies from laying eggs.{{cite web|last=Sezen|first=Uzay|title=Ants defending extrafloral nectaries of the passion flower (''Passiflora incarnata'')|url=http://vimeo.com/34448448|access-date=6 January 2012}} In many [[carnivorous plant]]s, extrafloral nectaries are also used to attract insect [[prey]].Merbach, M. 2001. Nectaries in ''Nepenthes''. In: C.M. Clarke ''[[Nepenthes of Sumatra and Peninsular Malaysia]]''. Natural History Publications (Borneo), Kota Kinabalu.{{pn|date=December 2023}} [56] => [[File:Loxura atymnus-Kadavoor-2018-06-18-001.jpg|thumb|left|''[[Loxura atymnus]]'' butterflies and [[yellow crazy ant]]s consuming nectar secreted from the extrafloral nectaries of a ''[[Spathoglottis plicata]]'' bud]] [57] => [58] => [[Charles Darwin]] understood that extrafloral nectar "though small in quantity, is greedily sought by insects" but believed that "their visits do not in any way benefit the plant".{{Cite journal | last1 = Mancuso | first1 = S. | title = Federico Delpino and the foundation of plant biology | doi = 10.4161/psb.5.9.12102 | journal = Plant Signaling & Behavior | volume = 5 | issue = 9 | pages = 1067–1071 | year = 2010 | pmid = 21490417| pmc = 3115070| bibcode = 2010PlSiB...5.1067M }} Instead, he believed that extrafloral nectaries were [[Excretion|excretory]] in nature ([[hydathode]]s). Their defensive functions were first recognized by the [[Italian people|Italian]] [[botanist]] [[Federico Delpino]] in his important [[monograph]] ''Funzione mirmecofila nel regno vegetale'' (1886). Delpino's study was inspired by a disagreement with Darwin, with whom he corresponded regularly. [59] => [60] => Extrafloral nectaries have been reported in over 3941 species of [[vascular plant]]s belonging to 745 [[genus|genera]] and 108 [[family (biology)|families]], 99.7% of which belong to [[flowering plant]]s (angiosperms), comprising 1.0 to 1.8% of all known species. They are most common among [[eudicot]]s, occurring in 3642 species (of 654 genera and 89 families), particularly among [[rosids]] which comprise more than half of the known occurrences. The families showing the most recorded occurrences of extrafloral nectaries are [[Fabaceae]], with 1069 species, [[Passifloraceae]], with 438 species, and [[Malvaceae]], with 301 species. The genera with the most recorded occurrences are ''[[Passiflora]]'' (322 species, Passifloraceae), ''[[Inga]]'' (294 species, Fabaceae), and ''[[Acacia]]'' (204 species, Fabaceae). Other genera with extrafloral nectaries include ''[[Salix]]'' ([[Salicaceae]]), ''[[Prunus]]'' ([[Rosaceae]]) and ''[[Gossypium]]'' ([[Malvaceae]]). [61] => [62] => [[File:Nylanderia flavipes extrafloral nectary.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Nylanderia flavipes]]'' ant visiting extrafloral nectaries of ''[[Senna (plant)|Senna]]'']] [63] => Foliar nectaries have also been observed in 101 species of [[fern]]s belonging to eleven genera and six families, most of them belonging to [[Cyatheales]] (tree ferns) and [[Polypodiales]].[https://bsapubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ajb2.1781 Nectaries in ferns: their taxonomic distribution, structure, function, and sugar composition] They are absent in [[bryophyte]]s, [[gymnosperm]]s, early [[angiosperm]]s, [[magnoliids]], and members of [[Apiales]] among the eudicots. [[Phylogenetic]] studies and the wide distribution of extrafloral nectaries among vascular plants point to multiple independent [[evolution]]ary origins of extrafloral nectaries in at least 457 independent lineages. [64] => [65] => ==Components== [66] => [67] => The main ingredients in nectar are sugars in varying proportions of [[sucrose]], [[glucose]], and [[fructose]].{{cite journal|last1=Chalcoff|first1=Vanina|title=Nectar Concentration and Composition of 26 Species from the Temperate Forest of South America|journal=Annals of Botany|date=March 2006|volume=97|issue=3|pages=413–421|doi=10.1093/aob/mcj043|pmc=2803636|pmid=16373370}} In addition, nectars have diverse other [[phytochemical]]s serving to both attract pollinators and discourage predators.{{cite journal|pmc=2802787|year=2009|last1=González-Teuber|first1=M.|title=Nectar chemistry is tailored for both attraction of mutualists and protection from exploiters|journal=Plant Signaling & Behavior|volume=4|issue=9|pages=809–813|last2=Heil|first2=M.|pmid=19847105|doi=10.4161/psb.4.9.9393|bibcode=2009PlSiB...4..809G }}{{sfn|Nicolson et al|2017}} [[Carbohydrate]]s, [[amino acid]]s, and [[Volatile organic compound|volatiles]] function to attract some species, whereas [[alkaloid]]s and [[polyphenol]]s appear to provide a protective function. [68] => The ''Nicotiana attenuata'', a tobacco plant native to the US state of [[Utah]], uses several [[volatility (chemistry)|volatile]] aromas to attract pollinating birds and moths. The strongest such aroma is [[benzylacetone]], but the plant also adds bitter [[nicotine]], which is less aromatic, so may not be detected by the bird until after taking a drink. Researchers speculate the purpose of this addition is to discourage the forager after only a sip, motivating it to visit other plants, therefore maximizing the pollination efficiency gained by the plant for a minimum nectar output.{{sfn|Nicolson et al|2017}}{{cite news |last1=Everts |first1=Sarah |title=Two-Faced Flowers |url=https://cendevqa.acs.org/articles/86/i35/Two-Faced-Flowers.html |work=Chemical & Engineering News |date=1 September 2008 }} [[Neurotoxin]]s such as [[aesculin]] are present in some nectars such as that of the [[California buckeye]].[http://www.globaltwitcher.com/artspec_info.asp?thingid=82383 C.Michael Hogan (2008) ''Aesculus californica'', Globaltwitcher.com, ed. N. Stromberg] Nectar contains water, [[Essential oil|essential oils]], [[carbohydrate]]s, [[amino acid]]s, [[ion|ions,]] and numerous other compounds.{{sfn|Thornburg|2001}}{{sfn|Nicolson et al|2017}}{{sfn|Park |Thornburg|2009}} [69] => [70] => == Similar attractive substances == [71] => [72] => Some insect pollinated plants lack nectaries, but attract pollinators through other secretory structures. Elaiophores are similar to nectaries but are oil secreting. Osmophores are modified structural structures that produce volatile scents. In [[orchids]], these have [[pheromone]] qualities. Osmophores have thick domed or [[papillate]] epidermis and dense cytoplasm. ''[[Platanthera bifolia]]'' produces a nocturnal scent from the [[Labellum (botany)|labellum]] epidermis. ''[[Ophrys]]'' labella have dome-shaped, papillate, dark-staining epidermal cells forming osmophores. ''[[Narcissus (plant)|Narcissus]]'' emit pollinator specific volatiles from the [[corona (perianth)|corona]].{{sfn|Rudall|2007|pages=96–98}} [73] => [74] => ==See also== [75] => *[[Nectar guide]] [76] => *[[Nectar source]] [77] => *[[Nectarivore]] [78] => *[[Northern American nectar sources for honey bees]] [79] => [80] => ==References== [81] => {{Reflist}} [82] => [83] => ==Bibliography== [84] => {{refbegin|30em}} [85] => ;Books [86] => * Baker, H.G. and Baker, I. (1975) Studies of nectar-constitution and pollinator-plant coevolution. In Coevolution of animals and plants. Gilbert, L.E. and Raven, P.H. ed. Univ. of Texas Press, Austin, 100–140. [87] => * Esau, K. (1977) Anatomy of seed plants. John Wiley & Sons, New York. [88] => * {{Cite book|editor-last1=Nicolson|editor-first1=Susan W.|editor-last2=Nepi|editor-first2= Massimo|editor-last3=Pacini|editor-first3=Ettore|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0L1cTNozMw8C|title=Nectaries and Nectar| publisher= [[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer Publications]]|location=Dordrecht|year= 2007 |isbn=978-1-4020-5937-7|ref={{harvid|Nicolson et al|2017}}}} [89] => * Roshchina, V.V. and Roshchina, V.D. (1993) The excretory function of higher plants. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. 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Ecol. | volume = 5 | issue = 3| pages = 369–379 | doi=10.2307/2389808| jstor = 2389808 | bibcode = 1991FuEco...5..369B }} [96] => * {{cite journal | last1 = Carter | first1 = C. | last2 = Graham | first2 = R. | last3 = Thornburg | first3 = R.W. | year = 1999 | title = Nectarin I is a novel, soluble germin-like protein expressed in the nectar of Nicotiana sp. | journal = Plant Mol. 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Publ. Ecol. Soc. Am. | volume = 71 | issue = 1| pages = 107–115 | doi=10.2307/1940251| jstor = 1940251 | bibcode = 1990Ecol...71..107S }} [110] => * Vogel, S. (1969) Flowers offering fatty oil instead of nectar. Abstracts XIth Internatl. Bot. Congr. Seattle. [111] => ;Websites [112] => * {{cite web |last1=Thornburg |first1=Robert |title=Nectar |url=http://www.bb.iastate.edu/necgex/Nectar.htm |website=Nectary Gene Expression Index. |publisher=Department of Biochemistry, Biophysics and Molecular Biology,Iowa State University |access-date=11 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20030910162730/http://www.bb.iastate.edu/necgex/Nectar.htm |archive-date=10 September 2003|date=4 June 2001}} [113] => {{refend}} [114] => [115] => ==External links== [116] => {{Commons category|Nectar}} [117] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140323210940/http://en.lamieldeabejas.com/la-miel.html Overview and summary of the honey bee (and Nectar) information. (News, Economy, Trade, Problems, etc)] [118] => * [http://cubits.org/hummingbirdgardening/db/hummingbirdplants/index.php Hummingbird Plants Database] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110725213745/http://cubits.org/hummingbirdgardening/db/hummingbirdplants/index.php |date=25 July 2011 }} [119] => [120] => {{botany}} [121] => {{Authority control}} [122] => [123] => [[Category:Flowers]] [124] => [[Category:Greek mythology]] [125] => [[Category:Honey]] [126] => [[Category:Insect ecology]] [127] => [[Category:Mount Olympus]] [128] => [[Category:Plant physiology]] [129] => [[Category:Pollination]] [] => )
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Nectar

Nectar is a sweet, viscous substance that is produced by many types of flowering plants. It is highly attractive to pollinators such as bees, butterflies, and birds, and serves as a reward for their assistance in the process of pollination.

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It is highly attractive to pollinators such as bees, butterflies, and birds, and serves as a reward for their assistance in the process of pollination. Nectar is composed primarily of sugars, water, and various chemical compounds that give it its characteristic flavor and aroma. This substance plays a crucial role in the reproduction and survival of flowering plants, as it allows for the transfer of pollen from one flower to another. Additionally, nectar has been harvested and used by humans for centuries for its medicinal and culinary properties. In modern times, it is commercially produced as a popular natural sweetener and is also an ingredient in various food and beverage products.

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