Array ( [0] => {{Not to be confused with|Neuroregeneration}}{{short description|Generation of cells within the nervous system}} [1] => {{Infobox embryology [2] => | Name = Neurogenesis [3] => | Latin = [4] => | Image = Journal.pone.0001604.g001 small.jpg [5] => | Caption = A neurosphere of neural stem cells in rat embryo spreads out into a single layer of cells. A) Neurosphere of [[subventricular zone|subventricular zone cells]] after two days in culture. B) Shows the neurosphere at four days in culture and cells migrating away. C) Cells at the periphery of the neurosphere mostly having extending processes. [6] => | Image2 = [7] => | Caption2 = [8] => }} [9] => '''Neurogenesis''' is the process by which [[nervous system]] cells, the [[neuron]]s, are produced by [[neural stem cell]]s (NSCs).{{cite book |last1=Purves |first1=Dale |title=Neuroscience |date=2012 |publisher=Sinauer |location=Sunderland, Mass |isbn=9780878936953 |page=492 |edition=5.}} In short, it is brain growth in relation to its organization.{{citation needed|date=October 2023}} This occurs in all species of animals except the [[porifera]] (sponges) and [[placozoan]]s.{{cite book|editor= Eric R. Kandel|title=Principles of neural science|date=2006|publisher=McGraw Hill|location=Appleton and Lange|isbn=978-0071390118|edition=5.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=s64z-LdAIsEC}} Types of NSCs include [[neuroepithelial cell]]s (NECs), [[radial glial cell]]s (RGCs), basal progenitors (BPs), intermediate neuronal precursors (INPs), [[subventricular zone]] [[astrocyte]]s, and [[subgranular zone]] radial [[astrocyte]]s, among others. [10] => [11] => Neurogenesis is most active during [[embryonic development]] and is responsible for producing all the various types of neurons of the organism, but it continues throughout adult life in a variety of organisms. Once born, neurons do not divide (see [[mitosis]]), and many will live the lifespan of the animal, except under extraordinary and usually pathogenic circumstances.{{cite book|last1=Gilbert|first1=Scott F.|last2=College|first2=Swarthmore|last3=Helsinki|first3=the University of|title=Developmental biology|date=2014|publisher=Sinauer|location=Sunderland, Mass.|isbn=978-0878939787|edition=Tenth|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xf4RA6l3keoC}} [12] => [13] => == Neurogenesis in mammals == [14] => [15] => ===Developmental neurogenesis=== [16] => [[File:Model of inhibitory neurogenesis.png|thumb|Model of mammalian neurogenesis{{Cite journal |last1=Schmitz |first1=Matthew T. |last2=Sandoval |first2=Kadellyn |last3=Chen |first3=Christopher |last4=Mostajo-Radji |first4=Mohammed A. |last5=Seeley |first5=William W. |last6=Nowakowski |first6=Tomasz |last7=Ye |first7=Chun Jimmie |last8=Paredes |first8=Mercedes F. |last9=Pollen |first9=Alex A. |date=2022-03-23 |title=The development and evolution of inhibitory neurons in primate cerebrum |url=https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q111441172 |journal=Nature |language=English |volume=603 |issue=7903 |pages=871–877 |doi=10.1038/S41586-022-04510-W| pmid=35322231|pmc=8967711 |bibcode=2022Natur.603..871S }}]] [17] => During embryonic development, the [[mammal]]ian [[central nervous system]] (CNS; [[brain]] and [[spinal cord]]) is derived from the [[neural tube]], which contains NSCs that will later generate [[neuron]]s. However, neurogenesis doesn't begin until a sufficient population of NSCs has been achieved. These early stem cells are called neuroepithelial cells (NEC)s, but soon take on a highly elongated radial morphology and are then known as radial glial cells (RGC)s. RGCs are the primary stem cells of the mammalian CNS, and reside in the embryonic [[ventricular zone]], which lies adjacent to the central fluid-filled cavity ([[ventricular system]]) of the [[neural tube]].{{cite journal|last1=Rakic|first1=P|title=Evolution of the neocortex: a perspective from developmental biology|journal=Nature Reviews. Neuroscience|date=October 2009|volume=10|issue=10|pages=724–35|pmid=19763105|doi=10.1038/nrn2719|pmc=2913577}}{{cite journal|last1=Lui|first1=JH|last2=Hansen|first2=DV|last3=Kriegstein|first3=AR|title=Development and evolution of the human neocortex|journal=Cell|date=8 July 2011|volume=146|issue=1|pages=18–36|pmid=21729779|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2011.06.030|pmc=3610574}} Following RGC proliferation, neurogenesis involves a final cell division of the parent RGC, which produces one of two possible outcomes. First, this may generate a subclass of neuronal progenitors called intermediate neuronal precursors (INP)s, which will divide one or more times to produce neurons. Alternatively, daughter neurons may be produced directly. Neurons do not immediately form neural circuits through the growth of axons and dendrites. Instead, newborn neurons must first [[Neuronal migration|migrate]] long distances to their final destinations, maturing and finally generating neural circuitry. For example, neurons born in the [[ventricular zone]] migrate radially to the [[cortical plate]], which is where neurons accumulate to form the [[cerebral cortex]]. Thus, the generation of neurons occurs in a specific tissue compartment or 'neurogenic niche' occupied by their parent stem cells. [18] => [19] => The rate of neurogenesis and the type of neuron generated (broadly, excitatory or inhibitory) are principally determined by molecular and genetic factors. These factors notably include the [[Notch signaling pathway]], and many [[gene]]s have been linked to Notch pathway [[regulation]].{{cite journal|last1=Kageyama|first1=R|last2=Ohtsuka|first2=T|last3=Shimojo|first3=H|last4=Imayoshi|first4=I|title=Dynamic Notch signaling in neural progenitor cells and a revised view of lateral inhibition|journal=Nature Neuroscience|date=November 2008|volume=11|issue=11|pages=1247–51|pmid=18956012|doi=10.1038/nn.2208|s2cid=24613095}}{{cite journal|last1=Rash|first1=BG|last2=Lim|first2=HD|last3=Breunig|first3=JJ|last4=Vaccarino|first4=FM|title=FGF signaling expands embryonic cortical surface area by regulating Notch-dependent neurogenesis|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience|date=26 October 2011|volume=31|issue=43|pages=15604–17|pmid=22031906|doi=10.1523/jneurosci.4439-11.2011|pmc=3235689}} The genes and mechanisms involved in regulating neurogenesis are the subject of intensive research in academic, [[pharmaceutical]], and government settings worldwide. [20] => [21] => The amount of time required to generate all the neurons of the CNS varies widely across mammals, and brain neurogenesis is not always complete by the time of birth. For example, mice undergo cortical neurogenesis from about embryonic day (post-conceptional day) (E)11 to E17, and are born at about E19.5.{{cite book|last1=Abbott|first1=David M. Jacobowitz, Louise C.|title=Chemoarchitectonic atlas of the developing mouse brain|date=1998|publisher=CRC Press|location=Boca Raton|isbn=9780849326677|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_N5pgT_BpcgC}} Ferrets are born at E42, although their period of cortical neurogenesis does not end until a few days after birth.{{cite journal|last1=Kroenke|first1=CD|last2=Bayly|first2=PV|title=How Forces Fold the Cerebral Cortex|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |date=24 January 2018|volume=38|issue=4|pages=767–775|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.1105-17.2017|pmid=29367287|pmc=5783962}} In contrast, neurogenesis in humans generally begins around gestational week (GW) 10 and ends around GW 25 with birth about GW 38–40.{{cite journal|last1=Malik|first1=S|last2=Vinukonda|first2=G|last3=Vose|first3=LR|last4=Diamond|first4=D|last5=Bhimavarapu|first5=BB|last6=Hu|first6=F|last7=Zia|first7=MT|last8=Hevner|first8=R|last9=Zecevic|first9=N|last10=Ballabh|first10=P|title=Neurogenesis continues in the third trimester of pregnancy and is suppressed by premature birth|journal=The Journal of Neuroscience |date=9 January 2013|volume=33|issue=2|pages=411–23|doi=10.1523/JNEUROSCI.4445-12.2013|pmid=23303921|pmc=3711635}} [22] => [23] => ====Epigenetic modification==== [24] => [25] => As [[Development of the nervous system|embryonic development of the mammalian brain]] unfolds, [[Neural stem cells|neural progenitor and stem cells]] switch from proliferative divisions to [[Cellular differentiation|differentiative divisions]]. This progression leads to the generation of [[neuron]]s and [[glia]] that populate [[cerebral cortex|cortical layers]]. [[Epigenetics|Epigenetic modifications]] play a key role in regulating [[gene expression]] in the [[cellular differentiation]] of [[neural stem cells]]. Epigenetic modifications include [[DNA methylation|DNA cytosine methylation]] to form [[5-methylcytosine]] and [[DNA demethylation|5-methylcytosine demethylation]].{{cite journal|doi=10.2217/epi.15.119|pmid=26950681|pmc=4864063|title=DNA methylation dynamics in neurogenesis|year=2016|last1=Wang|first1=Zhiqin|last2=Tang|first2=Beisha|last3=He|first3=Yuquan|last4=Jin|first4=Peng|journal=Epigenomics|volume=8|issue=3|pages=401–414}}{{cite journal|doi=10.26508/lsa.201900331|pmid=30814272|pmc=6394126|title=Assessment and site-specific manipulation of DNA (Hydroxy-)methylation during mouse corticogenesis|year=2019|last1=Noack|first1=Florian|last2=Pataskar|first2=Abhijeet|last3=Schneider|first3=Martin|last4=Buchholz|first4=Frank|last5=Tiwari|first5=Vijay K.|last6=Calegari|first6=Federico|journal=Life Science Alliance|volume=2|issue=2|pages=e201900331}} These modifications are critical for cell fate determination in the developing and adult mammalian brain. [26] => [27] => [[DNA methylation|DNA cytosine methylation]] is catalyzed by [[DNA methyltransferase|DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs)]]. Methylcytosine demethylation is catalyzed in several stages by [[TET enzymes]] that carry out oxidative reactions (e.g. [[5-methylcytosine]] to [[5-hydroxymethylcytosine]]) and enzymes of the DNA [[base excision repair]] (BER) pathway. [28] => [29] => ===Adult neurogenesis=== [30] => {{Main|Adult neurogenesis}} [31] => Neurogenesis can be a complex process in some mammals. In rodents for example, neurons in the central nervous system arise from three types of neural stem and progenitor cells: neuroepithelial cells, radial glial cells and basal progenitors, which go through three main divisions: symmetric proliferative division; asymmetric neurogenic division; and symmetric neurogenic division. Out of all the three cell types, neuroepithelial cells that pass through neurogenic divisions have a much more extended cell cycle than those that go through proliferative divisions, such as the radial glial cells and basal progenitors.{{Cite journal|last1=Götz|first1=Magdalena|last2=Huttner|first2=Wieland B.|date=October 2005|title=The cell biology of neurogenesis|url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrm1739|journal=Nature Reviews Molecular Cell Biology|language=en|volume=6|issue=10|pages=777–788|doi=10.1038/nrm1739|pmid=16314867|s2cid=16955231|issn=1471-0080}} In the human, [[adult neurogenesis]] has been shown to occur at low levels compared with development, and in only three regions of the brain: the adult [[subventricular zone]] (SVZ) of the [[lateral ventricles]], the [[amygdala]] and the [[dentate gyrus]] of the [[hippocampus]].{{cite journal|last1=Ernst|first1=A|last2=Alkass|first2=K|last3=Bernard|first3=S|last4=Salehpour|first4=M|last5=Perl|first5=S|last6=Tisdale|first6=J|last7=Possnert|first7=G|last8=Druid|first8=H|last9=Frisén|first9=J|title=Neurogenesis in the striatum of the adult human brain|journal=Cell|date=27 February 2014|volume=156|issue=5|pages=1072–83|doi=10.1016/j.cell.2014.01.044|pmid=24561062|doi-access=free}}{{cite journal|last1=Lim|first1=DA|last2=Alvarez-Buylla|first2=A|title=The Adult Ventricular-Subventricular Zone (V-SVZ) and Olfactory Bulb (OB) Neurogenesis|journal=Cold Spring Harbor Perspectives in Biology|date=2 May 2016|volume=8|issue=5|pages=a018820|doi=10.1101/cshperspect.a018820|pmid=27048191|pmc=4852803}}{{cite journal|last1=Alvarez-Buylla|first1=A|last2=Lim|first2=DA|title=For the long run: maintaining germinal niches in the adult brain|journal=Neuron|date=4 March 2004|volume=41|issue=5|pages=683–6|pmid=15003168|doi=10.1016/S0896-6273(04)00111-4|s2cid=17319636|doi-access=free}} [32] => [33] => ====Subventricular zone==== [34] => [35] => In many mammals, including rodents, the [[olfactory bulb]] is a brain region containing [[Olfactory receptor neuron|cells that detect smell]], featuring integration of adult-born neurons, which migrate from the SVZ of the [[striatum]] to the olfactory bulb through the [[rostral migratory stream]] (RMS).{{cite journal|last=Ming|first=GL|author2=Song, H |title=Adult neurogenesis in the mammalian brain: significant answers and significant questions|journal=Neuron|date=May 26, 2011|volume=70|issue=4|pages=687–702|doi=10.1016/j.neuron.2011.05.001|pmid=21609825|pmc=3106107}} The migrating neuroblasts in the olfactory bulb become [[interneuron]]s that help the brain communicate with these sensory cells. The majority of those interneurons are inhibitory [[granule cell]]s, but a small number are [[periglomerular cell]]s. In the adult SVZ, the primary neural stem cells are SVZ astrocytes rather than RGCs. Most of these adult neural stem cells lie dormant in the adult, but in response to certain signals, these dormant cells, or B cells, go through a series of stages, first producing proliferating cells, or C cells. The C cells then produce [[neuroblast]]s, or A cells, that will become neurons. [36] => [37] => ====Hippocampus==== [38] => [39] => Significant neurogenesis also occurs during adulthood in the [[hippocampus]] of many mammals, from [[rodent]]s to some [[primate]]s, although its existence in adult humans is debated.{{cite journal|last1=Sorrells|first1=SF|last2=Paredes|first2=MF|last3=Cebrian-Silla|first3=A|last4=Sandoval|first4=K|last5=Qi|first5=D|last6=Kelley|first6=KW|last7=James|first7=D|last8=Mayer|first8=S|last9=Chang|first9=J|last10=Auguste|first10=KI|last11=Chang|first11=EF|last12=Gutierrez|first12=AJ|last13=Kriegstein|first13=AR|last14=Mathern|first14=GW|last15=Oldham|first15=MC|last16=Huang|first16=EJ|last17=Garcia-Verdugo|first17=JM|last18=Yang|first18=Z|last19=Alvarez-Buylla|first19=A|title=Human hippocampal neurogenesis drops sharply in children to undetectable levels in adults|journal=Nature|date=15 March 2018|volume=555|issue=7696|pages=377–381|doi=10.1038/nature25975|pmid=29513649|pmc=6179355|bibcode=2018Natur.555..377S}}{{cite journal|last1=Boldrini|first1=M|last2=Fulmore|first2=CA|last3=Tartt|first3=AN|last4=Simeon|first4=LR|last5=Pavlova|first5=I|last6=Poposka|first6=V|last7=Rosoklija|first7=GB|last8=Stankov|first8=A|last9=Arango|first9=V|last10=Dwork|first10=AJ|last11=Hen|first11=R|last12=Mann|first12=JJ|title=Human Hippocampal Neurogenesis Persists throughout Aging|journal=Cell Stem Cell|date=5 April 2018|volume=22|issue=4|pages=589–599.e5|doi=10.1016/j.stem.2018.03.015|pmid=29625071|pmc=5957089}}{{Cite journal |last1=Zhou |first1=Yi |last2=Su |first2=Yijing |last3=Li |first3=Shiying |last4=Kennedy |first4=Benjamin C. |last5=Zhang |first5=Daniel Y. |last6=Bond |first6=Allison M. |last7=Sun |first7=Yusha |last8=Jacob |first8=Fadi |last9=Lu |first9=Lu |last10=Hu |first10=Peng |last11=Viaene |first11=Angela N. |last12=Helbig |first12=Ingo |last13=Kessler |first13=Sudha K. |last14=Lucas |first14=Timothy |last15=Salinas |first15=Ryan D. |date=July 2022 |title=Molecular landscapes of human hippocampal immature neurons across lifespan |journal=Nature |volume=607 |issue=7919 |pages=527–533 |doi=10.1038/s41586-022-04912-w |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=9316413 |pmid=35794479|bibcode=2022Natur.607..527Z }} The hippocampus plays a crucial role in the formation of new declarative memories, and it has been theorized that the reason human infants cannot form declarative memories is because they are still undergoing extensive neurogenesis in the hippocampus and their memory-generating circuits are immature.{{Cite journal|last1=Josselyn|first1=Sheena A.|last2=Frankland|first2=Paul W.|date=2012-09-01|title=Infantile amnesia: A neurogenic hypothesis|journal=Learning & Memory|language=en|volume=19|issue=9|pages=423–433|doi=10.1101/lm.021311.110|issn=1072-0502|pmid=22904373|doi-access=free}} Many environmental factors, such as exercise, stress, and antidepressants have been reported to change the rate of neurogenesis within the hippocampus of rodents.{{Cite journal|last1=Hanson|first1=Nicola D.|last2=Owens|first2=Michael J.|last3=Nemeroff|first3=Charles B.|date=2011-12-01|title=Depression, Antidepressants, and Neurogenesis: A Critical Reappraisal|journal=Neuropsychopharmacology|language=en|volume=36|issue=13|pages=2589–2602|doi=10.1038/npp.2011.220|issn=0893-133X|pmc=3230505|pmid=21937982}}{{Cite journal|last1=Santarelli|first1=Luca|last2=Saxe|first2=Michael|last3=Gross|first3=Cornelius|last4=Surget|first4=Alexandre|last5=Battaglia|first5=Fortunato|last6=Dulawa|first6=Stephanie|last7=Weisstaub|first7=Noelia|last8=Lee|first8=James|last9=Duman|first9=Ronald|date=2003-08-08|title=Requirement of Hippocampal Neurogenesis for the Behavioral Effects of Antidepressants|journal=Science|language=en|volume=301|issue=5634|pages=805–809|doi=10.1126/science.1083328|issn=0036-8075|pmid=12907793|bibcode=2003Sci...301..805S|s2cid=9699898}} Some evidence indicates postnatal neurogenesis in the human hippocampus decreases sharply in newborns for the first year or two after birth, dropping to "undetectable levels in adults." [40] => [41] => == Neurogenesis in other organisms == [42] => [43] => Neurogenesis has been best characterized in [[model organism]]s such as the fruit fly ''[[Drosophila melanogaster]]''. Neurogenesis in these organisms occur in the medulla cortex region of their optic lobes. These organisms can represent a model for the genetic analysis of adult neurogenesis and brain regeneration. There has been research that discuss how the study of “damage-responsive progenitor cells” in Drosophila can help to identify regenerative neurogenesis and how to find new ways to increase brain rebuilding. Recently, a study was made to show how “low-level adult neurogenesis” has been identified in Drosophila, specifically in the medulla cortex region, in which neural precursors could increase the production of new neurons, making neurogenesis occur.{{Cite journal|last1=Fernández-Hernández|first1=Ismael|last2=Rhiner|first2=Christa|last3=Moreno|first3=Eduardo|date=2013-06-27|title=Adult neurogenesis in Drosophila|journal=Cell Reports|volume=3|issue=6|pages=1857–1865|doi=10.1016/j.celrep.2013.05.034|issn=2211-1247|pmid=23791523|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal|last1=Simões|first1=Anabel R.|last2=Rhiner|first2=Christa|date=2017|title=A Cold-Blooded View on Adult Neurogenesis|journal=Frontiers in Neuroscience|language=en|volume=11|doi=10.3389/fnins.2017.00327|pmid=28642678|issn=1662-453X|doi-access=free|pmc=5462949|page=327}}{{Cite journal|last1=Eriksson|first1=Peter S.|last2=Perfilieva|first2=Ekaterina|last3=Björk-Eriksson|first3=Thomas|last4=Alborn|first4=Ann-Marie|last5=Nordborg|first5=Claes|last6=Peterson|first6=Daniel A.|last7=Gage|first7=Fred H.|date=November 1998|title=Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus|journal=Nature Medicine|language=en|volume=4|issue=11|pages=1313–1317|doi=10.1038/3305|pmid=9809557|issn=1546-170X|doi-access=free}} In Drosophila, Notch signaling was first described, controlling a cell-to-cell signaling process called [[Lateral inhibition#Embryology|lateral inhibition]], in which neurons are selectively generated from [[epithelial cell]]s.{{cite journal|last1=Axelrod|first1=JD|title=Delivering the lateral inhibition punchline: it's all about the timing|journal=Science Signaling|date=26 October 2010|volume=3|issue=145|pages=pe38|doi=10.1126/scisignal.3145pe38|pmid=20978236|s2cid=38362848}}{{Cite book|last1=Huang|first1=C|title=BHLH Transcription Factors in Development and Disease|last2=Chan|first2=JA|last3=Schuurmans|first3=C|date=2014|volume=110|pages=75–127|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-405943-6.00002-6|pmid=25248474|series=Current Topics in Developmental Biology|isbn=9780124059436|chapter=Proneural bHLH Genes in Development and Disease}} In some vertebrates, regenerative neurogenesis has also been shown to occur.{{cite journal|last1=Alunni|first1=A|last2=Bally-Cuif|first2=L|title=A comparative view of regenerative neurogenesis in vertebrates|journal=Development|date=1 March 2016|volume=143|issue=5|pages=741–753|doi=10.1242/dev.122796|pmid=26932669|pmc=4813331}} [44] => [45] => ==Substance-induced neurogenesis== [46] => An in vitro and in vivo study found that [[N,N-Dimethyltryptamine|DMT]] present in the ayahuasca infusion promotes neurogenesis on the [[subgranular zone]] of the [[dentate gyrus]] in the hippocampus.{{cite journal |last1=Morales-Garcia |first1=JA |last2=Calleja-Conde |first2=J |last3=Lopez-Moreno |first3=JA |last4=Alonso-Gil |first4=S |last5=Sanz-SanCristobal |first5=M |last6=Riba |first6=J |last7=Perez-Castillo |first7=A |title=N,N-dimethyltryptamine compound found in the hallucinogenic tea ayahuasca, regulates adult neurogenesis in vitro and in vivo. |journal=Translational Psychiatry |date=28 September 2020 |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=331 |doi=10.1038/s41398-020-01011-0 |pmid=32989216|pmc=7522265 }} A study showed that a low dose (0.1 mg/kg) of psilocybin given to mice increased neurogenesis in the hippocampus 2 weeks after administration, while a high dose (1 mg/kg) significantly decreased neurogenesis.{{Cite journal |last1=Catlow |first1=Briony J. |last2=Song |first2=Shijie |last3=Paredes |first3=Daniel A. |last4=Kirstein |first4=Cheryl L. |last5=Sanchez-Ramos |first5=Juan |date=August 2013 |title=Effects of psilocybin on hippocampal neurogenesis and extinction of trace fear conditioning |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23727882 |journal=Experimental Brain Research |volume=228 |issue=4 |pages=481–491 |doi=10.1007/s00221-013-3579-0 |issn=1432-1106 |pmid=23727882|s2cid=9577760 }} No orally-available drugs are known to elicit neurogenesis outside of the already neurogenic niches. [47] => [48] => ==Other findings== [49] => [50] => There is evidence that new neurons are produced in the dentate gyrus of the adult mammalian hippocampus, the brain region important for learning, motivation, memory, and emotion. A study reported that newly made cells in the adult mouse hippocampus can display passive membrane properties, action potentials and synaptic inputs similar to the ones found in mature dentate granule cells. These findings suggested that these newly made cells can mature into more practical and useful neurons in the adult mammalian brain.{{Cite journal|last1=van Praag|first1=Henriette|last2=Schinder|first2=Alejandro F.|last3=Christie|first3=Brian R.|last4=Toni|first4=Nicolas|last5=Palmer|first5=Theo D.|last6=Gage|first6=Fred H.|date=February 2002|title=Functional neurogenesis in the adult hippocampus|journal=Nature|language=en|volume=415|issue=6875|pages=1030–1034|doi=10.1038/4151030a|pmid=11875571|pmc=9284568 |bibcode=2002Natur.415.1030V|s2cid=4403779|issn=1476-4687}} Recent studies confirm that [[microglia]], the resident immune cell of the brain, establish direct contacts with the cell bodies of developing neurons, and through these connections, regulate neurogenesis, migration, integration and the formation of neuronal networks.{{cite journal |last1=Cserép |first1=Csaba |last2=Schwarcz |first2=Anett D. |last3=Pósfai |first3=Balázs |last4=László |first4=Zsófia I. |last5=Kellermayer |first5=Anna |last6=Környei |first6=Zsuzsanna |last7=Kisfali |first7=Máté |last8=Nyerges |first8=Miklós |last9=Lele |first9=Zsolt |last10=Katona |first10=István |last11=Dénes |first11=Ádám |title=Microglial control of neuronal development via somatic purinergic junctions |journal=Cell Reports |date=20 September 2022 |volume=40 |issue=12 |page=111369 |doi=10.1016/j.celrep.2022.111369|pmid=36130488 |pmc=9513806 |s2cid=252416407 }} [51] => [52] => == See also == [53] => * [[Neurulation]] [54] => * [[Gliogenesis]] [55] => * [[Neuronal migration disorder]] [56] => [57] => == References == [58] => {{reflist|2}} [59] => [60] => ==External links== [61] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20161209034820/http://sites.lafayette.edu/neur401-sp10/what-is-neurogenesis/a-timeline-of-research-adult-mammalian-neurogenesis/ A Brief History and Timeline | Neurogenesis] [62] => * [http://thebrain.mcgill.ca/flash/capsules/histoire_bleu05.html History Module: The Growth of New Neurons in the Adult Human Brain] [63] => * [http://www.nature.com/nm/journal/v4/n11/abs/nm1198_1313.html Article: Nature Medicine 4, 1313 - 1317 (1998) doi:10.1038/3305 Neurogenesis in the adult human hippocampus] [64] => {{Neuroscience}} [65] => [66] => [[Category:Neuroscience]] [67] => [[Category:Animal developmental biology]] [68] => [[Category:Stem cells]] [] => )
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Neurogenesis

Neurogenesis is the process by which nervous system cells, the neurons, are produced by neural stem cells (NSCs). In short, it is brain growth in relation to its organization.

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The Wikipedia page for Mammal provides an overview of this diverse group of animals that includes humans, as well as cats, dogs, whales, and many others.

Mitosis

Mitosis is a process of cell division that occurs in eukaryotic cells, leading to the production of two identical daughter cells.

Neuron

A neuron, also known as a nerve cell, is a fundamental unit of the nervous system.

Pharmaceutical

Primate

The Wikipedia page for "Primate" provides a comprehensive overview of the order of mammals known as primates.