Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Study of birds}} [1] => {{About|the field of zoology|the jazz composition|Ornithology (composition)}} [2] => [[File:Banding_Marbled_Godwit_on_Bowdoin_NWR_(12820314955).jpg|thumb|A [[marbled godwit]] being [[bird ringing|ringed]] for studies on [[bird migration]]]] [3] => {{TopicTOC-Biology}} [4] => [5] => '''Ornithology''' is a branch of [[zoology]] that concerns the study of [[bird]]s.{{Cite book|last1=Newton|first1=Alfred|url=https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/14156|title=A dictionary of birds|last2=Lydekker|first2=Richard|last3=Roy|first3=Charles S.|last4=Shufeldt|first4=Robert W.|date=1896|publisher=A. and C. Black|location=London}} Several aspects of ornithology differ from related disciplines, due partly to the high visibility and the aesthetic appeal of birds.{{cite book|author=Newton, Ian|year=1998|title=Population limitation in birds|publisher=Academic Press|page=2|isbn=978-0-12-517366-7}} It has also been an area with a large contribution made by amateurs in terms of time, resources, and financial support. Studies on birds have helped develop key concepts in biology including evolution, behaviour and ecology such as the definition of [[species]], the process of [[speciation]], [[instinct]], [[learning]], [[ecological niche]]s, [[guild (ecology)|guilds]], [[island biogeography]], [[phylogeography]], and [[bird conservation|conservation]].{{cite journal|author=Mayr, E.|year=1984|title=Commentary: The Contributions of Ornithology to Biology|journal=BioScience|volume=34|issue=4|pages=250–255|doi=10.2307/1309464|jstor=1309464}} [6] => [7] => While early ornithology was principally concerned with descriptions and distributions of species, ornithologists today seek answers to very specific questions, often using birds as models to test hypotheses or predictions based on theories. Most modern biological theories apply across life forms, and the number of scientists who identify themselves as "ornithologists" has therefore declined. A wide range of tools and techniques are used in ornithology, both inside the laboratory and out in the field, and innovations are constantly made. Most biologists who recognise themselves as "ornithologists" study specific biology research areas, such as [[anatomy]], [[physiology]], [[taxonomy]], [[ecology]], or [[Ethology|behaviour]].{{cite book|author=Sutherland, W. J., Newton, Ian and Green, Rhys |year=2004|title=Bird ecology and conservation: a handbook of techniques|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-852086-3}} [8] => [9] => ==Definition and etymology== [10] => [[File:LSU_Museum_of_Natural_Science_-_Study_skins_of_birds.jpg|thumb|A [[bird collections|collection]] of bird skins, belonging to the family [[Cotingidae]] ]] [11] => The word "ornithology" comes from the late 16th-century Latin ''ornithologia'' meaning "bird science" from the [[Greek language|Greek]] ὄρνις ''ornis'' ("bird") and λόγος ''logos'' ("theory, science, thought").{{OEtymD|ornithology}} [12] => [13] => ==History== [14] => {{For timeline}} [15] => The history of ornithology largely reflects the trends in the [[history of biology]], as well as many other scientific disciplines, including [[ecology]], [[anatomy]], [[physiology]], [[paleontology]], and more recently, molecular biology. Trends include the move from mere descriptions to the identification of patterns, thus towards elucidating the processes that produce these patterns. [16] => [17] => ===Early knowledge and study=== [18] => Humans have had an observational relationship with birds since [[prehistory]], with some stone-age drawings being amongst the oldest indications of an interest in birds.{{Cite journal |author=Gurney, JH |year=1921|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924005489558 |title=Early annals of ornithology |journal=Nature|volume=108|issue=2713|pages=268|bibcode=1921Natur.108..268.|doi=10.1038/108268a0|hdl=2027/coo.31924090299532|s2cid=4033666|hdl-access=free}}{{cite book|title=Bird books and bird art|author=Anker, Jean|publisher=Springer-Science|year=1979|pages=1–5}} Birds were perhaps important as food sources, and bones of as many as 80 species have been found in excavations of early [[Stone Age]] settlements.{{cite journal |author=Nadel, K. D., Ehud Weiss, Orit Simchoni, Alexander Tsatskin, Avinoam Danin, and Mordechai |year=2004 |title=Stone Agehut in Israel yields world's oldest evidence of bedding|journal=Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. |volume=101 |issue=17 |pages=6821–6826 |url=http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/0308557101v1.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/0308557101v1.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |doi=10.1073/pnas.0308557101|pmid=15090648 |pmc=404215|bibcode = 2004PNAS..101.6821N |doi-access=free }}{{cite book |author=Newton, Alfred |title=Ornithology. Reprinted from Encyclopædia Britannica (9th Ed.) |year=1884|url=https://archive.org/details/ornithology00newt|publisher=[S.l. : s.n. }}{{cite book |url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofbird00newt |title=A Dictionary of Birds |publisher=Adam & Charles Black, London |year=1893–1896 |author=Newton, Alfred}} [[Waterbird]] and [[seabird]] remains have also been found in [[shell mound]]s on the island of [[Oronsay, Inner Hebrides|Oronsay]] off the coast of [[Scotland]]. [19] => [[File:Facsimile Painting of Geese, Tomb of Nefermaat and Itet MET DT226227.jpg|left|thumb|483x483px|Geese from a wall panel from the tomb of [[Nefermaat]], Egypt {{Circa|2575}}–2551 B.C.]] [20] => Cultures around the world have rich vocabularies related to birds.{{cite web|url=http://www.birdinghawaii.co.uk/Hawaiianbirdnames2.htm|work=birdinghawaii.co.uk/|title=Hawaiian bird names|access-date=11 June 2008|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090604150628/http://www.birdinghawaii.co.uk/Hawaiianbirdnames2.htm|archive-date=4 June 2009}} Traditional bird names are often based on detailed knowledge of the behaviour, with many names being [[onomatopoeic]], and still in use.{{cite book |author1=Gill, Frank |author2=Wright, M. |name-list-style=amp |year=2006 |title=Birds of the world: Recommended English Names |publisher=Princeton University Press |url=http://www.worldbirdnames.org/principles.html |access-date=2007-12-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081020045752/http://worldbirdnames.org/principles.html |archive-date=2008-10-20 |url-status=dead }} Traditional knowledge may also involve the use of birds in folk medicine{{cite journal |author1=Mahawar, M. M. |author2=D. P. Jaroli |name-list-style=amp |year=2007 |title=Traditional knowledge on zootherapeutic uses by the Saharia tribe of Rajasthan, India |journal=Journal of Ethnobiology and Ethnomedicine |volume=3 |page=25|doi=10.1186/1746-4269-3-25 |pmid=17547781 |pmc=1892771 |issue=1 |doi-access=free }} and knowledge of these practices are passed on through oral traditions (see [[Ethnoornithology|ethno-ornithology]]).{{cite web |url=http://www.cvco.org/science/audubon/Sep2004article.html |author=Shapiro, M. |title=Native bird names |publisher=Richmond Audubon Society |access-date=2007-12-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070816032023/http://www.cvco.org/science/audubon/Sep2004article.html |archive-date=2007-08-16 |url-status=dead }}{{cite journal |author=Hohn, E.O. |year=1973|title=Mammal and bird names in the Indian languages of the Lake Athabasca area |journal=Arctic |volume=26 |issue=2|pages=163–171 |url=http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic26-2-163.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://pubs.aina.ucalgary.ca/arctic/Arctic26-2-163.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |doi=10.14430/arctic2912}} Hunting of wild birds as well as their domestication would have required considerable knowledge of their habits. [[Poultry]] farming and [[falconry]] were practised from early times in many parts of the world. Artificial incubation of poultry was practised in China around 246 BC and around at least 400 BC in Egypt.{{cite book |author1=Funk, E. M. |author2=Irwin, M. R. |name-list-style=amp |year=1955 |title=Hatching Operation and Management |publisher=John Wiley & Sons}} The Egyptians also made use of birds in their hieroglyphic scripts, many of which, though stylized, are still identifiable to species.{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/dieantiketierwel02kell#page/n19/mode/2up|title=Die Antike Tierwelt|author=Keller, Otto|publisher=Wilhelm Engelmann|year=1913|volume=2|place=Leipzing|pages=1–43|language=de}}[[File:BelonBirdSkel.jpg|thumb|Belon's comparison of birds and humans in his ''Book of Birds'', 1555]] Early written records provide valuable information on the past distributions of species. For instance, [[Xenophon]] records the abundance of the [[ostrich]] in [[Assyria]] (Anabasis, i. 5); this subspecies from Asia Minor is extinct and all extant ostrich races are today restricted to [[Africa]]. Other old writings such as the [[Vedas]] (1500–800 BC) demonstrate the careful observation of avian life histories and include the earliest reference to the habit of [[brood parasite|brood parasitism]] by the [[Asian koel]] (''Eudynamys scolopaceus'').{{cite journal |author=Ali, S. |year=1979 |title=Bird study in India: its history and its importance |jstor=23001825|journal=India International Centre Quarterly|volume=6|issue=2 |pages=127–139}} Like writing, the early art of China, Japan, Persia, and India also demonstrate knowledge, with examples of scientifically accurate bird illustrations.Lack, David (1965) Enjoying Ornithology. Taylor & Francis. pp. 175–176. [21] => [22] => [[Aristotle]] in 350 BC in his ''[[History of animals]]''{{cite book |author=Aristotle |url=http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/history_anim.6.vi.html |title=Historia Animalium. Translated by D'Arcy Thompson}} noted the habit of [[bird migration]], moulting, egg laying, and lifespans, as well as compiling a list of 170 different bird species. However, he also introduced and propagated several myths, such as the idea that [[swallow]]s [[hibernated]] in winter, although he noted that [[common crane|cranes]] migrated from the steppes of [[Scythia]] to the marshes at the headwaters of the [[Nile]]. The idea of swallow hibernation became so well established that even as late as in 1878, [[Elliott Coues]] could list as many as 182 contemporary publications dealing with the hibernation of swallows and little published evidence to contradict the theory.{{cite report |author-last1=Lincoln |author-first1= Frederick C. |author-last2= Peterson |author-first2= Steven R. |author-last3=Zimmerman |author-first3= John L. |year=1998 |title=Migration of birds |publisher=U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Washington, D.C. Circular 16. Jamestown, ND: Northern Prairie Wildlife Research Center Online. |url=http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/birds/migratio/index.htm |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070518031657/http://www.npwrc.usgs.gov/resource/birds/migratio/index.htm |archive-date=2007-05-18 }}{{cite journal |author=Allen, JA |year=1909 |title=Biographical memoir of Elliott Coues |journal=National Academy of Sciences Biographical Memoirs |volume=6 |pages=395–446|url=http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/ecoues.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://books.nap.edu/html/biomems/ecoues.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}} Similar misconceptions existed regarding the breeding of [[barnacle geese]]. Their nests had not been seen, and they were believed to grow by transformations of [[goose barnacles]], an idea that became prevalent from around the 11th century and noted by Bishop Giraldus Cambrensis ([[Gerald of Wales]]) in ''[[Topographia Hiberniae]]'' (1187).{{cite journal |author=Payne, S. |year=1929 |title=The Myth of the Barnacle Goose |journal=Int. J. Psycho-Anal. |volume=10 |pages=218–227}} Around 77 AD, [[Pliny the Elder]] described birds, among other creatures, in his ''[[Natural History (Pliny)|Historia Naturalis]]''.{{Cite journal|last=Gudger|first=E. W.|date=1924|title=Pliny's Historia naturalis. The Most Popular Natural History Ever Published|journal=Isis|language=en|volume=6|issue=3|pages=269–281|doi=10.1086/358236|s2cid=144264511|issn=0021-1753}} [23] => [24] => The earliest record of falconry comes from the reign of Sargon II (722–705 BC) in [[Assyria]]. Falconry is thought to have made its entry to Europe only after AD 400, brought in from the east after invasions by the [[Huns]] and [[Alans]]. Starting from the eighth century, numerous Arabic works on the subject and general ornithology were written, as well as translations of the works of ancient writers from Greek and [[Syriac language|Syriac]]. In the 12th and 13th centuries, crusades and conquest had subjugated Islamic territories in southern Italy, central Spain, and the Levant under European rule, and for the first time translations into Latin of the great works of Arabic and Greek scholars were made with the help of Jewish and Muslim scholars, especially in [[Toledo, Spain|Toledo]], which had fallen into Christian hands in 1085 and whose libraries had escaped destruction. [[Michael Scot]]us from Scotland made a Latin translation of Aristotle's work on animals from Arabic here around 1215, which was disseminated widely and was the first time in a millennium that this foundational text on zoology became available to Europeans. Falconry was popular in the [[Normans|Norman]] court in Sicily, and a number of works on the subject were written in [[Palermo]]. [[Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor|Emperor Frederick II of Hohenstaufen]] (1194–1250) learned about an falconry during his youth in Sicily and later built up a [[menagerie]] and sponsored translations of Arabic texts, among which the popular Arabic work known as the ''[[Moamyn|Liber Moaminus]]'' by an unknown author which was translated into Latin by Theodore of Antioch from Syria in 1240-1241 as the ''De Scientia Venandi per Aves'', and also Michael Scotus (who had removed to Palermo) translated [[Avicenna|Ibn Sīnā]]'s ''[[Kitāb al-Hayawān (Aristotle)|Kitāb al-Ḥayawān]]'' of 1027 for the Emperor, a commentary and scientific update of Aristotle's work which was part of Ibn Sīnā's massive ''[[The Book of Healing|Kitāb al-Šifāʾ]]''. Frederick II eventually wrote his own treatise on falconry, the ''[[De arte venandi cum avibus]]'', in which he related his ornithological observations and the results of the hunts and experiments his court enjoyed performing.{{cite journal |author=Egerton, F. |year=2003 |title=A History of the Ecological Sciences, Part 8: Fredrick II of Hohenstaufen: Amateur Avian Ecologist and Behaviorist |journal=Bulletin of the Ecological Society of America |volume=84 |issue=1 |pages=40–44|url=http://esapubs.org/bulletin/current/history_list/history_part8.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://esapubs.org/bulletin/current/history_list/history_part8.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|doi=10.1890/0012-9623(2003)84[40:AHOTES]2.0.CO;2 }}{{cite journal |last=van Oppenraay |first=Aafke M.I. |date=2017 |title=Avicenna's ''Liber de animalibus'' ('''Abbreviatio Avicennae''') - Preliminaries and State of Affairs |url=https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/6003490/Avicenna_s_Liber_de_animalibus_Abbreviatio_Avicennae_._VanOppenraay_2017.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://pure.knaw.nl/ws/files/6003490/Avicenna_s_Liber_de_animalibus_Abbreviatio_Avicennae_._VanOppenraay_2017.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live |journal=Documenti e Studi Sulla Tradizione Filosofica Medievale |volume=28 |pages=401–416 |access-date=4 May 2018}} [25] => [26] => Several early German and French scholars compiled old works and conducted new research on birds. These included [[Guillaume Rondelet]], who described his observations in the Mediterranean, and [[Pierre Belon]], who described the fish and birds that he had seen in France and the Levant. Belon's ''Book of Birds'' (1555) is a folio volume with descriptions of some 200 species. His comparison of the skeleton of humans and birds is considered as a landmark in [[comparative anatomy]].{{cite book |author=Miall, L. C. |year=1911 |title=History of Biology |publisher=Watts and Co. |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofbiology00mialrich}} [[Volcher Coiter]] (1534–1576), a Dutch anatomist, made detailed studies of the internal structures of birds and produced a classification of birds, ''De Differentiis Avium'' (around 1572), that was based on structure and habits.{{cite journal |author=Allen, Elsa G. |author-link=Elsa Guerdrum Allen |year=1951 |title=The History of American Ornithology before Audubon |journal=Transactions of the American Philosophical Society |series=New Series |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=387–591 |doi=10.2307/1005629|jstor=1005629|hdl=2027/uc1.31822011760568 |hdl-access=free }} [[Konrad Gesner]] wrote the ''Vogelbuch'' and ''Icones avium omnium'' around 1557. Like Gesner, [[Ulisse Aldrovandi]], an encyclopedic naturalist, began a 14-volume natural history with three volumes on birds, entitled ''ornithologiae hoc est de avibus historiae libri XII'', which was published from 1599 to 1603. Aldrovandi showed great interest in plants and animals, and his work included 3000 drawings of fruits, flowers, plants, and animals, published in 363 volumes. His ''Ornithology'' alone covers 2000 pages and included such aspects as the [[chicken]] and poultry techniques. He used a number of traits including behaviour, particularly bathing and dusting, to classify bird groups.{{cite journal| last=Beddall|first=Barbara G.| year=1957| title=Historical notes on avian classification| journal=Systematic Zoology| volume=6| issue=3| pages=129–136| doi=10.2307/2411751|jstor=2411751}}{{cite book|author=Lind, L. R.|year=1963|title=Aldrovandi on Chickens: The Ornithology of Ulisse Aldrovandi, vol. 2, Bk xiv, translated and edited by L. R. Lind|publisher=University of Oklahoma Press}}{{cite book |author=Aldrovandi, Ulisse |year=1599 |title=Ornithologiae |url=https://archive.org/details/ARes04102}} [27] => [28] => [[File:AldrovandiOrnithology.jpg|thumb|right|upright|Cover of [[Ulisse Aldrovandi]]'s ''Ornithology'', 1599]] [29] => [30] => [[File:ValliDeTodi1601.jpg|thumb|[[Antonio Valli da Todi]], who wrote on [[aviculture]] in 1601, knew the connections between territory and song{{cite journal |journal=Archives of Natural History |volume=35 |pages=281–305 |doi=10.3366/E0260954108000399 |title=Bird-keeping and the development of ornithological science |year=2008 |author1=Birkhead TR |author2=S van Balen |name-list-style=amp |issue=2}}]] [31] => [[William Turner (ornithologist)|William Turner]]'s ''Historia Avium'' (''History of Birds''), published at [[Cologne]] in 1544, was an early ornithological work from England. He noted the commonness of [[red kite|kite]]s in English cities where they snatched food out of the hands of children. He included folk beliefs such as those of anglers. Anglers believed that the [[osprey]] emptied their fishponds and would kill them, mixing the flesh of the osprey into their fish bait. Turner's work reflected the violent times in which he lived, and stands in contrast to later works such as [[Gilbert White]]'s 1789 ''[[The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne]]'' that were written in a tranquil era.{{cite book |last=White |first=Gilbert |title=The Natural History and Antiquities of Selborne |year= 1887 |orig-year=1789 |location=London |publisher=Cassell & Company| oclc=3423785 |pages=38–39 |url=http://www.gutenberg.org/files/20933/20933-h/20933-h.htm}} [32] => [33] => In the 17th century, [[Francis Willughby]] (1635–1672) and [[John Ray]] (1627–1705) created the first major system of bird classification that was based on function and morphology rather than on form or behaviour. Willughby's ''Ornithologiae libri tres'' (1676) completed by John Ray is sometimes considered to mark the beginning of scientific ornithology. Ray also worked on ''Ornithologia'', which was published posthumously in 1713 as ''Synopsis methodica avium et piscium''.{{cite web |author=White, Jeanne A. |year=1999 |title=Ornithology Collections in the Libraries at Cornell University: A Descriptive Guide |url=http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/ornithology/guide/hillguide.htm |access-date=2007-12-01}} The earliest list of British birds, ''Pinax Rerum Naturalium Britannicarum'', was written by [[Christopher Merrett]] in 1667, but authors such as John Ray considered it of little value.{{cite journal |author=Koinm, Albert J. |year=2000 |title=Christopher Merrett's Use of Experiment |journal=Notes and Records of the Royal Society of London |volume=54 |issue=1 |pages=23–32 |doi=10.1098/rsnr.2000.0093|s2cid=144805851 |doi-access= }} Ray did, however, value the expertise of the naturalist [[Sir Thomas Browne]] (1605–82), who not only answered his queries on ornithological identification and nomenclature, but also those of Willoughby and Merrett in letter correspondence. Browne himself in his lifetime kept an eagle, owl, cormorant, bittern, and ostrich, penned a tract on falconry, and introduced the words "incubation" and "oviparous" into the English language.{{cite book|pages=i–xxv|title=Notes and Letters on the Natural History of Norfolk, more especially on the birds and fishes|author=[[Thomas Browne|Browne, Thomas]] (with notes by [[Thomas Southwell (naturalist)|Thomas Southwell]])|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924024779187#page/n5/mode/2up|publisher=Jarrold & Sons|place=London|year=1902}}{{cite journal|author=Mullens, W.H. |title=Some early British Ornithologists and their works. VII. John Ray (1627-1705) and Francis Willughby (1635-1672)|pages=290–300 |volume=2|issue=9|url=http://britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V02/V02_N09/V02_N09_P290_300_A047.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V02/V02_N09/V02_N09_P290_300_A047.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|journal=British Birds|year=1909}} [34] => [[File:An Experiment on a Bird in an Air Pump by Joseph Wright of Derby, 1768.jpg|thumb|''[[An Experiment on a Bird in the Air Pump]]'', [[Joseph Wright of Derby]], 1768]] [35] => Towards the late 18th century, [[Mathurin Jacques Brisson]] (1723–1806) and [[Georges-Louis Leclerc, Comte de Buffon|Comte de Buffon]] (1707–1788) began new works on birds. Brisson produced a six-volume work ''Ornithologie'' in 1760 and Buffon's included nine volumes (volumes 16–24) on birds ''Histoire naturelle des oiseaux'' (1770–1785) in his work on science ''[[Histoire Naturelle | Histoire naturelle générale et particulière]]'' (1749–1804). Jacob Temminck sponsored [[François Le Vaillant]] [1753–1824] to collect bird specimens in Southern Africa and Le Vaillant's six-volume ''Histoire naturelle des oiseaux d'Afrique'' (1796–1808) included many non-African birds. His other bird books produced in collaboration with the artist Barraband are considered among the most valuable illustrated guides ever produced. [[Louis Pierre Vieillot]] (1748–1831) spent 10 years studying North American birds and wrote the ''Histoire naturelle des oiseaux de l'Amerique septentrionale'' (1807–1808?). Vieillot pioneered in the use of life histories and habits in classification.{{cite web |author=White, Jeanne A. |title=Hill Collection — 18th c. French authors & artists |url=http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/ornithology/guide/hillguide10.htm|access-date=2007-12-01|date=1999-06-10 }} [[Alexander Wilson (ornithologist)|Alexander Wilson]] composed a nine-volume work, ''American Ornithology'', published 1808-1814, which is the first such record of North American birds, significantly antedating Audubon. In the early 19th century, [[Lewis and Clark]] studied and identified many birds in the western United States. [[John James Audubon]], born in 1785, observed and painted birds in France and later in the [[Ohio River|Ohio]] and [[Mississippi River|Mississippi]] valleys. From 1827 to 1838, Audubon published ''[[Birds of America (book)|The Birds of America]]'', which was engraved by [[Havell family|Robert Havell Sr.]] and his son Robert Havell Jr. Containing 435 engravings, it is often regarded as the greatest ornithological work in history. [36] => [37] => ===Scientific studies=== [38] => [[File:Bird eggs.jpg|thumb|left|Early bird study focused on collectibles such as eggs and nests.]] [39] => The emergence of ornithology as a scientific discipline began in the 18th century, when [[Mark Catesby]] published his two-volume ''Natural History of Carolina, Florida, and the Bahama Islands'', a landmark work which included 220 hand-painted engravings and was the basis for many of the species [[Carl Linnaeus]] described in the 1758 ''[[10th edition of Systema Naturae|Systema Naturae]]''. Linnaeus' work revolutionised bird taxonomy by assigning every species a [[binomial nomenclature|binomial name]], categorising them into different genera. However, ornithology did not emerge as a specialised science until the Victorian era—with the popularization of natural history, and the collection of natural objects such as bird eggs and skins.{{cite book|author=Allen, David E.|year=1994|title=The naturalist in Britain: a social history|isbn=978-0691036328|publisher=Princeton University Press}}{{cite book|author=Farber, Paul L.|year=1982|title=The Emergence of Ornithology as a Scientific Discipline, 1760–1850|publisher=D. Reidel Publishing Company, Boston}} This specialization led to the formation in Britain of the [[British Ornithologists' Union]] in 1858. In 1859, the members founded its journal ''[[The Ibis]]''. The sudden spurt in ornithology was also due in part to [[colonialism]]. At 100 years later, in 1959, [[Reginald Ernest Moreau|R. E. Moreau]] noted that ornithology in this period was preoccupied with the geographical distributions of various species of birds.{{cite journal|author=Johnson, Kristin|year=2004|title=''The Ibis'': Transformations in a Twentieth Century British Natural History Journal|journal=Journal of the History of Biology|volume=37|pages=515–555| doi=10.1007/s10739-004-1499-3|issue=3|s2cid=83849594}} [40] => {{Quote|No doubt the preoccupation with widely extended geographical ornithology, was fostered by the immensity of the areas over which British rule or influence stretched during the 19th century and for some time afterwards.|Moreau{{cite journal|author=Moreau, R. E.|year=1959|title=The Centenarian Ibis|journal=The Ibis|volume=101|pages=19–38|doi=10.1111/j.1474-919X.1959.tb02353.x}}}} [41] => [42] => The bird collectors of the Victorian era observed the variations in bird forms and habits across geographic regions, noting local specialization and variation in widespread species. The collections of museums and private collectors grew with contributions from various parts of the world. The naming of species with binomials and the organization of birds into groups based on their similarities became the main work of museum specialists. The variations in widespread birds across geographical regions caused the introduction of trinomial names. [43] => [[File:KaupClassification.svg|thumb|Kaup's classification of the crow family]] [44] => The search for patterns in the variations of birds was attempted by many. [[Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling]] (1775–1854), his student [[Johann Baptist von Spix]] (1781–1826), and several others believed that a hidden and innate mathematical order existed in the forms of birds. They believed that a "natural" classification was available and superior to "artificial" ones. A particularly popular idea was the [[Quinarian system]] popularised by [[Nicholas Aylward Vigors]] (1785–1840), [[William Sharp Macleay]] (1792–1865), [[William John Swainson|William Swainson]], and others. The idea was that nature followed a "rule of five" with five groups nested hierarchically. Some had attempted a rule of four, but [[Johann Jakob Kaup]] (1803–1873) insisted that the number five was special, noting that other natural entities such as the senses also came in fives. He followed this idea and demonstrated his view of the order within the crow family. Where he failed to find five genera, he left a blank insisting that a new genus would be found to fill these gaps. These ideas were replaced by more complex "maps" of affinities in works by [[Hugh Edwin Strickland]] and [[Alfred Russel Wallace]].{{cite journal|author=O’Hara, Robert J.|year=1988|title=Diagrammatic classifications of birds, 1819–1901: views of the natural system in 19th-century British ornithology|pages=2746–2759 |journal=Acta XIX Congressus Internationalis Ornithologici|url=http://rjohara.net/cv/1988-ioc}}{{Cite book|year=1975|isbn=978-0-674-64485-4|author=Stresemann, Erwin|title=Ornithology. From Aristotle to the Present|publisher=Harvard University Press|place=Cambridge, Massachusetts|pages=170–191}} A major advance was made by [[Max Fürbringer]] in 1888, who established a comprehensive phylogeny of birds based on anatomy, morphology, distribution, and biology. This was developed further by [[Hans Gadow]] and others.{{cite book|author=Fürbringer, Max |year=1888| title= Untersuchungen zur morphologie und systematik der vogel. Volume II. |place=Amsterdam| publisher= Verlag von TJ. Van Holkema|url= https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/bibliography/51998| language=de}}{{cite journal| author=Stresemann, E. |year=1959| title=The status of avian systematics and its unsolved problems| journal=Auk| volume=76|issue=3| pages=269–280| url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v076n03/p0269-p0280a.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v076n03/p0269-p0280a.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live| doi=10.2307/4081807|jstor=4081807}} [45] => [46] => The [[Galapagos]] [[finch]]es were especially influential in the development of [[Charles Darwin]]'s theory of evolution. His contemporary [[Alfred Russel Wallace]] also noted these variations and the geographical separations between different forms leading to the study of [[biogeography]]. Wallace was influenced by the work of [[Philip Lutley Sclater]] on the distribution patterns of birds.{{cite journal|author=Sclater, P. L.|year=1858|title=On the general geographical distribution of the members of the class Aves|doi=10.1111/j.1096-3642.1858.tb02549.x|journal=Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond.|volume=9|pages=130–136|issue=7}} [47] => [[File:SwainsonQuinarian.jpg|thumb|right|[[Quinarian system]] of bird classification by Swainson]] [48] => For Darwin, the problem was how species arose from a common ancestor, but he did not attempt to find rules for delineation of species. The [[species problem]] was tackled by the ornithologist [[Ernst Mayr]], who was able to demonstrate that geographical isolation and the accumulation of genetic differences led to the [[Allopatric speciation|splitting of species]].{{cite journal|author1=Konishi, Masakazu |author2=Emlen, Stephen T. |author3=Ricklefs, Robert E. |author4=Wingfield, John C. |name-list-style=amp |year=1989|title=Contributions of Bird Studies to Biology|journal=Science|volume=246|issue=4929|pages=465–472|doi=10.1126/science.2683069|pmid=2683069|bibcode = 1989Sci...246..465K }}{{cite journal|title=Ornithology and the genesis of the Synthetic Theory of Evolution|last=Junker|first=Thomas|journal=Avian Science|volume=3|issue=2&3|pages=65–73|year=2003|url=http://www.thomas-junker.homepage.t-online.de/pdf/03tjas.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.thomas-junker.homepage.t-online.de/pdf/03tjas.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}} [49] => [50] => Early ornithologists were preoccupied with matters of species identification. Only systematics counted as true science and field studies were considered inferior through much of the 19th century. In 1901, [[Robert Ridgway]] wrote in the introduction to ''The Birds of North and Middle America'' that: [51] => {{Quote|There are two essentially different kinds of ornithology: systematic or scientific, and popular. The former deals with the structure and classification of birds, their synonymies, and technical descriptions. The latter treats of their habits, songs, nesting, and other facts pertaining to their life histories.}} [52] => This early idea that the study of living birds was merely recreation held sway until ecological theories became the predominant focus of ornithological studies. The study of birds in their habitats was particularly advanced in Germany with [[bird ringing]] stations established as early as 1903. By the 1920s, the ''[[Journal für Ornithologie]]'' included many papers on the behaviour, ecology, anatomy, and physiology, many written by [[Erwin Stresemann]]. Stresemann changed the editorial policy of the journal, leading both to a unification of field and laboratory studies and a shift of research from museums to universities.{{cite journal|journal=Archives of Natural History|volume=35|issue=1|pages=76–87|year=2008|title=The origin of modern ornithology in Europe|last=Haffer|first= Jürgen|author-link=Jürgen Haffer|doi=10.3366/E0260954108000077}} Ornithology in the United States continued to be dominated by museum studies of morphological variations, species identities, and geographic distributions, until it was influenced by Stresemann's student [[Ernst Mayr]].{{cite book|author=Barrow, Mark V.|year=1998|title=A passion for birds: American ornithology after Audubon|publisher=Princeton University Press|isbn=978-0691049540}} In Britain, some of the earliest ornithological works that used the word ecology appeared in 1915.{{cite journal|author=Alexander, H. G.|year=1915|title=A Practical Study of Bird Ecology|journal=British Birds|volume=8|issue=9}} ''The Ibis'', however, resisted the introduction of these new methods of study, and no paper on ecology appeared until 1943. The work of [[David Lack]] on population ecology was pioneering. Newer quantitative approaches were introduced for the study of ecology and behaviour, and this was not readily accepted. For instance, [[Claud Ticehurst]] wrote: [53] => {{Quote|Sometimes it seems that elaborate plans and statistics are made to prove what is commonplace knowledge to the mere collector, such as that hunting parties often travel more or less in circles.|Ticehurst}} [54] => David Lack's studies on population ecology sought to find the processes involved in the regulation of population based on the evolution of optimal clutch sizes. He concluded that population was regulated primarily by [[Density-dependent inhibition|density-dependent controls]], and also suggested that natural selection produces life-history traits that maximize the fitness of individuals. Others, such as [[V. C. Wynne-Edwards|Wynne-Edwards]], interpreted population regulation as a mechanism that aided the [[Group selection|"species" rather than individuals]]. This led to widespread and sometimes bitter debate on what constituted the "unit of selection". Lack also pioneered the use of many new tools for ornithological research, including the idea of using [[Radar ornithology|radar]] to study bird migration.{{cite journal|author=Lack, David|year=1959|title=Watching migration by Radar|url=https://www.britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V52/V52_N08/V52_N08_P258_267_A056.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.britishbirds.co.uk/wp-content/uploads/article_files/V52/V52_N08/V52_N08_P258_267_A056.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|journal=British Birds|volume=52|issue=8|pages=258–267}} [55] => [56] => Birds were also widely used in studies of the niche hypothesis and [[Georgii Gause]]'s [[competitive exclusion]] principle. Work on resource partitioning and the structuring of bird communities through competition were made by [[Robert MacArthur]]. Patterns of [[biodiversity]] also became a topic of interest. Work on the relationship of the number of species to area and its application in the study of [[island biogeography]] was pioneered by [[E. O. Wilson]] and [[Robert MacArthur]]. These studies led to the development of the discipline of [[landscape ecology]]. [57] => [[File:Red-footed Falcon.jpeg|thumb|left|A mounted specimen of a [[red-footed falcon]]]] [58] => [[John Crook (ethologist)|John Hurrell Crook]] studied the behaviour of [[weaverbird]]s and demonstrated the links between ecological conditions, behaviour, and social systems.{{cite journal|author=Crook, J. H.|author-link=John Crook (ethologist)|year=1964|title=The evolution of social organization and visual communication in the weaver birds (Ploceinae)|journal=Behaviour. Supplement|volume=10|pages=1–178}}{{Cite book | last=Crook| first=J. H. | title= The Evolution of Human Consciousness |publisher=Clarendon Press| year=1980| location=Oxford | pages=45–49| isbn=978-0-19-857174-2}} Principles from [[economics]] were introduced to the study of biology by Jerram L. Brown in his work on explaining territorial behaviour. This led to more studies of behaviour that made use of [[cost-benefit analyses]].{{cite journal|author=Brown, J. L.|year=1964|title=The evolution of diversity in avian territorial systems|journal=Wilson Bull.|volume=76|pages=160–169 |url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v076n02/p0160-p0169.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v076n02/p0160-p0169.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}} The rising interest in [[sociobiology]] also led to a spurt of bird studies in this area.{{cite journal|url=https://sora.unm.edu/node/636|title=Contents |journal = The Auk|date = 1981 |volume = 98 | number= 2|publisher = Searchable Ornithological Research Archive }} [59] => [60] => The study of imprinting behaviour in ducks and geese by [[Konrad Lorenz]] and the studies of instinct in [[European herring gull|herring gull]]s by [[Nicolaas Tinbergen]] led to the establishment of the field of [[ethology]]. The study of learning became an area of interest and the study of [[Birdsong|bird songs]] has been a model for studies in neuroethology. The study of hormones and physiology in the control of behaviour has also been aided by bird models. These have helped in finding the [[Proximate and ultimate causation|proximate causes]] of circadian and seasonal cycles. Studies on migration have attempted to answer questions on the evolution of migration, orientation, and navigation. [61] => [62] => The growth of genetics and the rise of molecular biology led to the application of the [[gene-centered view of evolution]] to explain avian phenomena. Studies on kinship and altruism, such as [[helpers at the nest|helpers]], became of particular interest. The idea of [[inclusive fitness]] was used to interpret observations on behaviour and life history, and birds were widely used models for testing hypotheses based on theories postulated by [[W. D. Hamilton]] and others. [63] => [64] => The new tools of molecular biology changed the study of bird systematics, which changed from being based on [[phenotype]] to the underlying [[genotype]]. The use of techniques such as [[DNA-DNA hybridization]] to study evolutionary relationships was pioneered by [[Charles Sibley]] and [[Jon Edward Ahlquist]], resulting in what is called the [[Sibley-Ahlquist taxonomy]]. These early techniques have been replaced by newer ones based on [[mitochondrial DNA]] sequences and [[molecular phylogenetics]] approaches that make use of computational procedures for [[sequence alignment]], construction of [[phylogenetic tree]]s, and calibration of [[molecular clock]]s to infer evolutionary relationships.{{cite journal |author=O'Hara, Robert J.|year=1991|title=Essay review of Phylogeny and Classification of Birds: A Study in Molecular Evolution by Charles G. Sibley and Jon E. Ahlquist|journal=Auk|volume=108|issue=4|pages=990–994|url=http://rjohara.net/cv/1991-auk}}{{cite journal|author=Slack, K.E, Delsuc, F., Mclenachan, P.A., Arnason, U. & D. Penny|year=2007|title=Resolving the root of the avian mitogenomic tree by breaking up long branches|journal=Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution|volume=42|pmid=16854605|issue=1|pages=1–13|url=http://frederic.delsuc.neuf.fr/fd_fichiers/Slack-MolPhylogenetEvol07.pdf|doi=10.1016/j.ympev.2006.06.002|citeseerx=10.1.1.561.5255|s2cid=6683688 |access-date=2007-11-30|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071130233730/http://frederic.delsuc.neuf.fr/fd_fichiers/Slack-MolPhylogenetEvol07.pdf|archive-date=2007-11-30|url-status=dead}} Molecular techniques are also widely used in studies of avian [[population biology]] and ecology.{{cite journal|author=Sorenson, M. D.|year=2002|title=Molecular Genetic Perspectives on Avian Brood Parasitism|journal=Integr. Comp. Biol.|volume=42|pages=388–400|doi=10.1093/icb/42.2.388|issue=2|pmid=21708732|last2=Payne|first2=RB|doi-access=free}} [65] => [66] => ===Rise to popularity=== [67] => The use of [[field glass]]es or [[telescope]]s for bird observation began in the 1820s and 1830s, with pioneers such as [[John Freeman Milward Dovaston|J. Dovaston]] (who also pioneered in the use of bird feeders), but instruction manuals did not begin to insist on the use of optical aids such as "a first-class telescope" or "field glass" until the 1880s.{{cite journal|author=Allen, D. E.|year=1967|doi=10.3366/jsbnh.1967.4.6.277|title=J. Dovaston-a Pioneer of Field Ornithology|journal=Journal of the Society for the Bibliography of Natural History |volume=4|issue=6|page=280}}{{cite journal|author=Hollerbach, Anne Larsen|year=1996|title=Of Sangfroid and Sphinx Moths: Cruelty, Public Relations, and the Growth of Entomology in England, 1800–1840|journal=Osiris |series=2nd Series|volume=11|pages=201–220|doi=10.1086/368760|s2cid=143634420}} [68] => [69] => [[File:VillageBirdsFlorenceMerriam.jpg|thumb|Page from an early field guide by [[Florence Augusta Merriam Bailey]]]] [70] => The rise of field guides for the identification of birds was another major innovation. The early guides such as [[History of British Birds|Thomas Bewick's two-volume guide]] and [[History of British Birds (1843)|William Yarrell's three-volume guide]] were cumbersome, and mainly focused on identifying specimens in the hand. The earliest of the new generation of field guides was prepared by [[Florence Augusta Merriam Bailey|Florence Merriam]], sister of [[Clinton Hart Merriam]], the mammalogist. This was published in 1887 in a series ''Hints to Audubon Workers: Fifty Birds and How to Know Them'' in Grinnell's ''[[Audubon Magazine]]''. These were followed by new field guides,{{cite web|last=Dunlap |first=Tom|title=Tom Dunlap on Early Bird Guides. Environmental History January 2005|url=http://www.historycooperative.org/journals/eh/10.1/gallery.html|access-date=2007-11-24}} [71] => from the pioneering illustrated handbooks of [[Frank Chapman (ornithologist)|Frank Chapman]] to the classic ''[[Field Guide to the Birds]]'' by [[Roger Tory Peterson]] in 1934, to ''[[Birds of the West Indies]]'' published in 1936 by [[James Bond (ornithologist)|Dr. James Bond]] - the same who inspired the amateur ornithologist [[Ian Fleming]] in naming his [[James Bond (literary character)|famous literary spy]].{{cite news |last1=Briand |first1=Frederic |title=From Bird Scientist to Spy: the Name is Bond, James Bond. |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/364995351 |work=National Geographic |date=November 2012}} [72] => [73] => The interest in [[birdwatching]] grew in popularity in many parts of the world, and the possibility for amateurs to contribute to biological studies was soon realized. As early as 1916, [[Julian Huxley]] wrote a two-part article in ''[[The Auk]]'', noting the tensions between amateurs and professionals, and suggested the possibility that the "vast army of bird lovers and bird watchers could begin providing the data scientists needed to address the fundamental problems of biology."{{cite journal|last=Huxley |first=Julian|author-link=Julian Huxley|year=1916|title=Bird-watching and biological science (part 1)|journal=Auk|volume=33|issue=2|pages=142–161|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v033n02/p0142-p0161.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v033n02/p0142-p0161.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|doi=10.2307/4072162|jstor=4072162}}{{cite journal|author=Huxley, J.|year=1916|title=Bird-watching and biological science (part 2)|journal=Auk|volume=33|issue=3|pages=256–270|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v033n03/p0256-p0270.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v033n03/p0256-p0270.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|doi=10.2307/4072322|jstor=4072322}} The amateur ornithologist [[Harold F. Mayfield]] noted that the field was also funded by non-professionals. He noted that in 1975, 12% of the papers in American ornithology journals were written by persons who were not employed in biology related work.{{cite journal|last=Mayfield |first=Harold F.|year=1979|title=The amateur in ornithology|url=https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v096n01/p0168-p0171.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/auk/v096n01/p0168-p0171.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|journal=The Auk|volume=96|issue=1|pages=168–171|doi=10.1093/auk/96.1.168}} [74] => [75] => Organizations were started in many countries, and these grew rapidly in membership, most notable among them being the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]] (RSPB) in Britain and the [[Audubon Society]] in the US, which started in 1885. Both these organizations were started with the primary objective of conservation. The RSPB, born in 1889, grew from a small [[Croydon]]-based group of women, including [[Eliza Phillips]], [[Etta Lemon]], Catherine Hall and [[Hannah Poland]]. Calling themselves the "Fur, Fin, and Feather Folk", the group met regularly and took a pledge "to refrain from wearing the feathers of any birds not killed for the purpose of food, the [[ostrich]] only exempted." The organization did not allow men as members initially, avenging a policy of the [[British Ornithologists' Union]] to keep out women. Unlike the RSPB, which was primarily conservation oriented, the [[British Trust for Ornithology]] was started in 1933 with the aim of advancing ornithological research. Members were often involved in collaborative ornithological projects. These projects have resulted in atlases which detail the distribution of bird species across Britain.{{cite journal|last=Bibby |first=Colin J.|year=2003|title=Fifty years of Bird Study: Capsule Field ornithology is alive and well, and in the future can contribute much more in Britain and elsewhere|journal=Bird Study|volume=50|issue=3|pages=194–210|doi=10.1080/00063650309461314 |s2cid=87377120}} In Canada, citizen scientist [[Elsie Cassels]] studied migratory birds and was involved in establishing Gaetz Lakes bird sanctuary.{{Cite book|url=https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/62181407|title=Fish, fur & feathers : fish and wildlife conservation in Alberta 1905-2005.|date=2005|publisher=Fish and Wildlife Historical Society|others=Federation of Alberta Naturalists., Fish and Wildlife Historical Society.|isbn=0-9696134-7-4|location=Edmonton|oclc=62181407}} In the United States, the [[Breeding bird survey|Breeding Bird Surveys]], conducted by the [[United States Geological Survey]], have also produced atlases with information on breeding densities and changes in the density and distribution over time. Other volunteer collaborative ornithology projects were subsequently established in other parts of the world.{{cite web|url=http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/BBS/|title=North American Breeding Bird Survey}} [76] => [77] => ==Techniques== [78] => The tools and techniques of ornithology are varied, and new inventions and approaches are quickly incorporated. The techniques may be broadly dealt under the categories of those that are applicable to specimens and those that are used in the field, but the classification is rough and many analysis techniques are usable both in the laboratory and field or may require a combination of field and laboratory techniques. [79] => [80] => ===Collections=== [81] => {{main|Bird collections}} [82] => [[File:Godwit prep.jpg|thumb|left|Bird-preservation techniques]] [83] => The earliest approaches to modern bird study involved the collection of eggs, a practice known as [[oology]]. While collecting became a pastime for many amateurs, the labels associated with these early egg collections made them unreliable for the serious study of bird breeding. To preserve eggs, a tiny hole was made and the contents extracted. This technique became standard with the invention of the blow drill around 1830. Egg collection is no longer popular; however, historic museum collections have been of value in determining the effects of [[pesticide]]s such as [[DDT]] on physiology.{{cite book|author=Newton, I.|year=1979|title=Population ecology of raptors|isbn=978-0856610233|publisher=T. & A. D. Poyser, Berkhamsted}}{{cite journal|author1=Green, Rhys E.|author2=Scharlemann, Jörn P. W.|name-list-style=amp|year=2003|title=Egg and skin collections as a resource for long-term ecological studies|journal=Bull. B.O.C.|volume=123A|pages=165–176|url=http://www.boc-online.org/PDF/124GreenEggAndSkin.pdf|access-date=2007-05-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630190602/http://www.boc-online.org/PDF/124GreenEggAndSkin.pdf|archive-date=2007-06-30|url-status=dead}} Museum [[bird collections]] continue to act as a resource for taxonomic studies.{{cite journal|author=Winker, K.|year=2004|title=Natural history museums in a postbiodiversity era|journal=BioScience|volume=54|pages=455–459|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2004)054[0455:NHMIAP]2.0.CO;2|issue=5|doi-access=free}} [84] => [[File:BirdMorpho.svg|thumb|Morphometric measurements of birds are important in systematics.]] [85] => The use of bird skins to document species has been a standard part of systematic ornithology. Bird skins are prepared by retaining the key bones of the wings, legs, and skull along with the skin and feathers. In the past, they were treated with [[arsenic]] to prevent fungal and insect (mostly [[Dermestidae|dermestid]]) attack. Arsenic, being toxic, was replaced by less-toxic [[borax]]. Amateur and professional collectors became familiar with these skinning techniques and started sending in their skins to museums, some of them from distant locations. This led to the formation of huge collections of bird skins in museums in Europe and North America. Many private collections were also formed. These became references for comparison of species, and the ornithologists at these museums were able to compare species from different locations, often places that they themselves never visited. [[Morphometrics]] of these skins, particularly the lengths of the tarsus, bill, tail, and wing became important in the descriptions of bird species. These skin collections have been used in more recent times for studies on [[molecular phylogenetics]] by the extraction of [[ancient DNA]]. The importance of [[biological type|type specimens]] in the description of species make skin collections a vital resource for systematic ornithology. However, with the rise of molecular techniques, establishing the taxonomic status of new discoveries, such as the [[Bulo Burti boubou]] (''Laniarius liberatus'', no longer a valid species) and the [[Bugun liocichla]] (''Liocichla bugunorum''), using blood, DNA and feather samples as the [[holotype]] material, has now become possible. [86] => [87] => Other methods of preservation include the storage of specimens in spirit. Such wet specimens have special value in physiological and anatomical study, apart from providing better quality of DNA for molecular studies.{{cite journal|author=Livezey, Bradley C.|year=2003|title=Avian spirit collections: attitudes, importance and prospects|journal=Bull. B. O. C.|volume=123A|pages=35–51|url=http://www.carnegiemnh.net/birds/Livezey%20(2003).pdf|access-date=2007-05-20|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630190602/http://www.carnegiemnh.net/birds/Livezey%20(2003).pdf|archive-date=2007-06-30|url-status=dead}} [[Freeze drying]] of specimens is another technique that has the advantage of preserving stomach contents and anatomy, although it tends to shrink, making it less reliable for morphometrics.{{cite journal|author=Winker, K.|year=1993|title=Specimen shrinkage in Tennessee warblers and Traill's flycatchers|journal=J. Field Ornithol.|volume=64|issue=3|pages=331–336|url=http://www.uaf.edu/museum/bird/personnel/KWinker/Winker%20shrinkage%20JFO%201993.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070630190602/http://www.uaf.edu/museum/bird/personnel/KWinker/Winker%20shrinkage%20JFO%201993.pdf|archive-date=2007-06-30}}{{cite journal|author=Bjordal, H.|year=1983|title=Effects of deep freezing, freeze-drying and skinning on body dimensions of House Sparrows (''Passer domesticus'')|journal=Cinclus|volume=6|pages=105–108}} [88] => [89] => ===In the field=== [90] => The study of birds in the field was helped enormously by improvements in optics. Photography made it possible to document birds in the field with great accuracy. High-power spotting scopes today allow observers to detect minute morphological differences that were earlier possible only by examination of the specimen "in the hand".{{cite book|author1=Hayman, Peter |author2=Marchant, John |author3=Prater, Tony |name-list-style=amp |year=1986|title=Shorebirds: An Identification Guide to the Waders of the World|isbn=978-0395602379|publisher=Croom Helm, London}} [91] => [[File:Mist net kinglet.jpg|thumb|left|A bird caught in a [[mist net]]]] [92] => The capture and marking of birds enable detailed studies of life history. Techniques for capturing birds are varied and include the use of [[birdlime|bird liming]] for perching birds, [[mist net]]s for woodland birds, [[cannon netting]] for open-area flocking birds, the ''[[bal-chatri]]'' trap for raptors,{{cite journal|author1=Berger D. D. |author2=Mueller, H. C. |name-list-style=amp |year=1959|title=The Bal-Chatri: a trap for the birds of prey|journal=Bird-Banding|volume=30|issue=1 |pages=19–27|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v030n01/p0018-p0026.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v030n01/p0018-p0026.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|doi=10.2307/4510726|jstor=4510726 }} decoys and [[Heligoland trap|funnel traps]] for water birds.{{cite web|url=http://www.pwrc.usgs.gov/resshow/perry/scoters/CaptureTechniques.htm|publisher=USGS|title=Techniques to capture Seaducks in the Chesapeake Bay and Restigouche River|access-date=2007-12-01}}{{cite book|author1=Ralph, C. John |author2=Geupel, Geoffrey R. |author3=Pyle, Peter |author4=Martin, Thomas E. |author5=DeSante, David F. |name-list-style=amp |year=1993|title=Handbook of field methods for monitoring landbirds. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-144-www. Albany, CA|publisher=Pacific Southwest Research Station, Forest Service, U.S. Department of Agriculture|url=http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr144/psw_gtr144.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/psw_gtr144/psw_gtr144.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}} [93] => [[File:Monitoreo de Aves a Largo Plazo.jpg|thumb|A researcher measures a wild woodpecker. The bird's right leg has a metal identification tag.]] [94] => The bird in the hand may be examined and [[morphometrics|measurements]] can be made, including standard lengths and weights. Feather moult and skull ossification provide indications of age and health. Sex can be determined by examination of anatomy in some sexually nondimorphic species. Blood samples may be drawn to determine hormonal conditions in studies of physiology, identify DNA markers for studying genetics and kinship in studies of breeding biology and phylogeography. Blood may also be used to identify pathogens and [[arthropod-borne virus]]es. [[Ectoparasite]]s may be collected for studies of coevolution and [[zoonoses]].{{cite journal|author1=Walther, B. A. |author2=Clayton, D. H. |name-list-style=amp |year=1997|title=Dust-ruffling: A simple method for quantifying ectoparasite loads of live birds|journal=J. Field Ornithol.|volume=68|issue=4|pages=509–518|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v068n04/p0509-p0518.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v068n04/p0509-p0518.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live }} In many cryptic species, measurements (such as the relative lengths of wing feathers in warblers) are vital in establishing identity.[[File:Condor in flight.JPG|thumb|A [[California condor]] marked with wing tags]] Captured birds are often marked for future recognition. [[bird ringing|Rings or bands]] provide long-lasting identification, but require capture for the information on them to be read. Field-identifiable marks such as coloured bands, wing tags, or dyes enable short-term studies where individual identification is required. [[Mark and recapture]] techniques make [[demographic]] studies possible. Ringing has traditionally been used in the study of migration. In recent times, satellite transmitters provide the ability to track migrating birds in near-real time.{{cite journal|doi=10.2307/4512291|author1=Marion, W. R. |author2=Shamis, J. D. |name-list-style=amp |year=1977|title=An annotated bibliography of bird marking techniques|journal=Bird-Banding|volume=48|issue=1|pages=42–61|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v048n01/p0042-p0061.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/jfo/v048n01/p0042-p0061.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|jstor=4512291}} [95] => [96] => Techniques for estimating [[population density]] include [[Avian ecology field methods#Point counts and area searches|point count]]s, [[transect]]s, and territory mapping. Observations are made in the field using carefully designed protocols and the data may be analysed to estimate bird diversity, relative abundance, or absolute population densities.{{cite book|author1=Bibby C., Jones M.|author2=Marsden, S.|name-list-style=amp|year=1998|title=Expedition Field Techniques – Bird Surveys|publisher=Expedition Advisory Centre, Royal Geographical Society, London.|url=http://conservation.bp.com/advice/field.asp|access-date=2007-11-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071206063639/http://conservation.bp.com/advice/Field.asp|archive-date=2007-12-06|url-status=dead}} These methods may be used repeatedly over large timespans to monitor changes in the environment.{{cite book|year=2006|title=Monitoring bird populations in small geographic areas|publisher=Canadian Wildlife Service|url=http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/CW66-259-2006E.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://dsp-psd.pwgsc.gc.ca/Collection/CW66-259-2006E.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live|vauthors=Dunn EH, Bart J, Collins BT, Craig B, Dale B, Downes CM, Francis CM, Woodley S }} [[Camera trap]]s have been found to be a useful tool for the detection and documentation of elusive species, nest predators and in the quantitative analysis of frugivory, seed dispersal and behaviour.{{cite book|author=Winarni, N., Carroll, J.P. & O'Brien, T.G|year=2005|title=The application of camera traps to the study of Galliformes in southern Sumatra, Indonesia. pp. 109–121 in: Fuller, R.A. & Browne, S.J. (eds) 2005. Galliformes 2004. Proceedings of the 3rd International Galliformes Symposium|publisher=World Pheasant Association, Fordingbridge, UK}}{{cite journal|author1=O'Brien, Timothy G. |author2=Kinnaird, Margaret F. |name-list-style=amp |year=2008|title= A picture is worth a thousand words: the application of camera trapping to the study of birds|journal=Bird Conservation International|volume=18|pages=S144–S162|doi=10.1017/S0959270908000348 |doi-access=free}} [97] => [98] => ===In the laboratory=== [99] => Many aspects of bird biology are difficult to study in the field. These include the study of behavioural and physiological changes that require a long duration of access to the bird. Nondestructive samples of blood or feathers taken during field studies may be studied in the laboratory. For instance, the variation in the ratios of stable hydrogen isotopes across latitudes makes establishing the origins of migrant birds possible using [[mass spectrometry|mass spectrometric]] analysis of feather samples.{{cite journal|author=Hobson, K. A. Hobson, Steven Van Wilgenburg, Leonard I. Wassenaar, Helen Hands, William P. Johnson, Mike O'Meilia & Philip Taylor|year=2006|title=Using Stable Hydrogen Isotope Analysis of Feathers to Delineate Origins of Harvested Sandhill Cranes in the Central Flyway of North America|journal=Waterbirds|volume=29|issue=2|pages=137–147|doi=10.1675/1524-4695(2006)29[137:USHIAO]2.0.CO;2|s2cid=54943028 }} These techniques can be used in combination with other techniques such as ringing.{{cite book|author=Berthold, P., Gwinner, Eberhard and Sonnenschein, Edith |year=2003|title=Avian Migration|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-3540434085}} [100] => [101] => The first attenuated vaccine developed by [[Louis Pasteur]], for fowl cholera, was tested on poultry in 1878.{{cite journal|author=Pasteur, Louis|year=1880|title=De l'attenuation du virus du chokra des poules|journal=Comptes Rendus de l'Académie des Sciences|volume=91|pages=673–680|url=http://www.asm.org/ccLibraryFiles/FILENAME/0000000222/1880p126.pdf|access-date=2010-08-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100612200422/http://asm.org/ccLibraryFiles/FILENAME/0000000222/1880p126.pdf|archive-date=2010-06-12|url-status=dead}} Anti-malarials were tested on birds which harbour avian-malarias.{{cite journal| author=Manwell, Reginald D. |year=1949| title= Malaria, birds and war. |jstor=9773656|journal=American Scientist |volume=37| issue=1| pages=60–68|pmid=18123477}} Poultry continues to be used as a model for many studies in non-mammalian immunology.{{Cite book|author=Davison, Fred, Bernd Kaspers & Karel Schat (Eds.)|year=2008|publisher=Academic Press|isbn=978-0-12-370634-8|title=Avian Immunology}} [102] => [103] => Studies in bird behaviour include the use of tamed and trained birds in captivity. Studies on [[bird intelligence]] and [[bird vocalization#Learning|song learning]] have been largely laboratory-based. Field researchers may make use of a wide range of techniques such as the use of dummy owls to elicit mobbing behaviour, and dummy males or the use of call playback to elicit territorial behaviour and thereby to establish the boundaries of bird territories.{{cite journal|author=Slater, P. J. B.|year=2003|title=Fifty years of bird song research: a case study in animal behaviour|journal=Animal Behaviour|volume=65|pages=633–639|doi=10.1006/anbe.2003.2051|issue=4|s2cid=53157104|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/6bz1v7pf}}[[File:EmlenFunnel.svg|thumb|An Emlen funnel is used to study the orientation behaviour of migratory birds in a laboratory. Experimenters sometimes place the funnel inside a planetarium to study night migration.]] Studies of [[bird migration]] including aspects of navigation, orientation, and physiology are often studied using captive birds in special cages that record their activities. The [[Emlen funnel]], for instance, makes use of a cage with an inkpad at the centre and a conical floor where the ink marks can be counted to identify the direction in which the bird attempts to fly. The funnel can have a transparent top and visible cues such as the direction of sunlight may be controlled using mirrors or the positions of the stars simulated in a [[planetarium]].{{cite journal|author1=Emlen, S. T. |author2=Emlen, J. T. |name-list-style=amp |year=1966|title=A technique for recording migratory orientation of captive birds|jstor=4083048|url=http://sora.unm.edu/node/21524|journal=Auk|volume=83|pages=361–367|doi=10.2307/4083048|issue=3|doi-access=free}} [104] => [105] => The entire genome of the domestic fowl (''[[Gallus gallus]]'') was sequenced in 2004, and was followed in 2008 by the genome of the zebra finch (''[[Taeniopygia guttata]]'').{{cite web |url=http://songbirdgenome.org/ |title=Zebra finch genome assembly release |access-date=7 May 2009 |date=6 Aug 2008 |publisher=The songbird genome sequencing project |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090805084309/http://songbirdgenome.org/ |archive-date=5 August 2009 |url-status=dead }} Such whole-genome sequencing projects allow for studies on evolutionary processes involved in [[speciation]].{{cite journal|title=Identification of Birds through DNA Barcodes|vauthors=Hebert PD, Stoeckle MY, Zemlak TS, Francis CM |journal=PLOS Biology|volume= 2|issue=10|pages=e312|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.0020312|year=2004|pmid=15455034|pmc=518999 |doi-access=free }} Associations between the expression of genes and behaviour may be studied using candidate genes. Variations in the exploratory behaviour of great tits (''[[Parus major]]'') have been found to be linked with a gene orthologous to the human gene ''[[DRD4]]'' (Dopamine receptor D4) which is known to be associated with novelty-seeking behaviour.{{cite journal |vauthors=Fidler AE, van Oers K, Drent PJ, Kuhn S, Mueller JC, Kempenaers B |title=Drd4 gene polymorphisms are associated with personality variation in a passerine bird |journal=Proc. Biol. Sci. |volume=274 |issue=1619 |pages=1685–91 |year=2007 |pmid=17472912 |pmc=1914334 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.0337 }} The role of gene expression in developmental differences and morphological variations have been studied in [[Darwin's finches]]. The difference in the expression of ''Bmp4'' have been shown to be associated with changes in the growth and shape of the beak.{{cite journal|last1=Abzhanov |first1=Arhat | last2=Protas | first2=Meredith |last3=Grant | first3=Peter R. | last4=Tabin | first4=Clifford J. |year=2004|title=Bmp4 and morphological variation of beaks in Darwin's finches|journal=Science|volume=305|pages=1462–1465|doi=10.1126/science.1098095|pmid=15353802|issue=5689|bibcode = 2004Sci...305.1462A |s2cid=17226774 }}{{cite journal|title=High-speed developments in avian genomics|last1=Bonneaud | first1=Camille | last2=Burnside | first2=Joan |last3=Edwards | first3=Scott V. |name-list-style=amp |journal=BioScience|year=2008|volume=58|issue=7|pages=587–595|doi=10.1641/B580706|s2cid=17239411 |url=https://dash.harvard.edu/bitstream/handle/1/2665788/Edwards_High-speedDevelopments.pdf?sequence=2|doi-access=free}} [106] => [107] => The chicken has long been a [[model organism]] for studying vertebrate [[developmental biology]]. As the embryo is readily accessible, its development can be easily followed (unlike [[house mouse|mice]]). This also allows the use of [[electroporation]] for studying the effect of adding or silencing a gene. Other tools for perturbing their genetic makeup are chicken [[embryonic stem cell]]s and [[viral vector]]s.{{cite journal |last=Stern | first=Claudio D. |title=The chick; a great model system becomes even greater |journal=Dev. Cell |volume=8 |issue=1 |pages=9–17 |date=January 2005 |pmid=15621526 |doi=10.1016/j.devcel.2004.11.018|doi-access=free }} [108] => [109] => ===Collaborative studies=== [110] => [[File:CanadaGooseSummer19942003.png|thumb|right|Summer distribution and abundance of [[Canada goose]] using data from the North American Breeding Bird Surveys 1994–2003]] [111] => With the widespread interest in birds, use of a large number of people to work on collaborative ornithological projects that cover large geographic scales has been possible.{{cite journal|first1=Caren B. | last1=Cooper | author-link=Caren Cooper | first2=Janis | last2=Dickinson | first3=Tina | last3=Phillips | first4=Rick | last4=Bonney|year=2007|title=Citizen science as a tool for conservation in residential ecosystems|journal=Ecology and Society|volume=12|issue=2|page=11|doi=10.5751/ES-02197-120211|doi-access=free|hdl=10535/2968|hdl-access=free}}{{cite journal|author=Greenwood, J.J.D.|year=2007|title=Citizens, science and bird conservation|journal=Journal of Ornithology|volume=148|issue=1|pages=77–124|doi=10.1007/s10336-007-0239-9|s2cid=21914046|url=http://www.dof.dk/sider/images/stories/gu/vu/dokumenter/greenwood_vu.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110719123722/http://www.dof.dk/sider/images/stories/gu/vu/dokumenter/greenwood_vu.pdf|archive-date=2011-07-19}} These [[citizen science]] projects include nationwide projects such as the [[Christmas Bird Count]],{{cite book|author=Wing, L.|year=1947|title=Christmas census summary 1900–1939|publisher=State College of Washington, Pullman. Mimeograph.}} Backyard Bird Count,{{cite web|url=http://www.birdsource.org/gbbc|title=Great Backyard Bird Count}} the North American [[Breeding Bird Survey]], the Canadian EPOQ{{cite web|url=http://www.oiseauxqc.org/epoq.html|title=Étude des populations d'oiseaux du Québec|work=oiseauxqc.org}} or regional projects such as the Asian Waterfowl Census and [http://www.springalive.net/world Spring Alive] in Europe. These projects help to identify distributions of birds, their population densities and changes over time, arrival and departure dates of migration, breeding seasonality, and even population genetics.{{cite web|url=http://www.birds.cornell.edu/programs/urbanbirds/ubs_PIWMainEN.html|title=Project PigeonWatch}} The results of many of these projects are published as [[bird atlas]]es. Studies of migration using bird ringing or colour marking often involve the cooperation of people and organizations in different countries.[http://www.euring.org/ EURING Coordinated bird-ringing in Europe]. Euring.org. Retrieved on 2013-02-22. [112] => [113] => ==Applications== [114] => {{main|Bird strike|Bird conservation}} [115] => Wild birds impact many human activities, while domesticated birds are important sources of eggs, meat, feathers, and other products. Applied and economic ornithology aim to reduce the ill effects of problem birds and enhance gains from beneficial species. [116] => [[File:Red-billed quelea flocking at waterhole.jpg|thumb|[[Red-billed quelea]]s are a major agricultural pest in parts of Africa.]] [117] => The role of some species of birds as [[Pest (organism)|pest]]s has been well known, particularly in agriculture. [[Seed predation|Granivorous]] birds such as the [[quelea]]s in Africa are among the most numerous birds in the world, and foraging flocks can cause devastation.{{cite journal|author=Elliott, Clive C.H. |year=2006|title=Bird population explosions in agroecosystems — the quelea, ''Quelea quelea'', case history|journal=Acta Zoologica Sinica|volume=52|pages=554–560|url=http://www.actazool.org/temp/%7B14724209-A6A1-4075-9861-ED5203430D9F%7D.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www.actazool.org/temp/%7B14724209-A6A1-4075-9861-ED5203430D9F%7D.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live}}{{cite journal|author1=Jaegar, Michael |author2=William A. Erickson |name-list-style=amp |year=1980|title=Levels of bird damage to Sorghum in the Awash basin of Ethiopia and the effects of the control of Quelea nesting colonies|journal=Proceedings of the 9th Vertebrate Pest Conference|url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1017&context=vpc9 }} Many insectivorous birds are also noted as beneficial in agriculture. Many early studies on the benefits or damages caused by birds in fields were made by analysis of stomach contents and observation of feeding behaviour.{{cite journal|author=Kalmbach, E. R.|author-link=Edwin Richard Kalmbach|year=1934|title=Field observation in economic ornithology|journal=The Wilson Bulletin|volume=46|issue=2|pages=73–90|url=http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v046n02/p0073-p0090.pdf |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://sora.unm.edu/sites/default/files/journals/wilson/v046n02/p0073-p0090.pdf |archive-date=2022-10-09 |url-status=live }} Modern studies aimed to manage birds in agriculture make use of a wide range of principles from ecology.{{cite journal|author1=Ormerod, S. J. |author2=A. R. Watkinson |name-list-style=amp |year=2000|title=Editors' Introduction: Birds and Agriculture|journal=The Journal of Applied Ecology|volume=37|issue=5|pages=699–705|doi=10.1046/j.1365-2664.2000.00576.x|bibcode=2000JApEc..37..699O |doi-access=free}} Intensive [[aquaculture]] has brought humans in conflict with fish-eating birds such as [[cormorant]]s.{{cite journal|author1=Glahn, James F. |author2=Kristin E. Brugger |year=1995|title=The Impact of Double-Crested Cormorants on the Mississippi Delta Catfish Industry: A Bioenergetics Model|journal=Colonial Waterbirds|volume=18|issue=1|pages=168–175|doi=10.2307/1521537|jstor=1521537}} [118] => [119] => Large flocks of pigeons and starlings in cities are often considered as a nuisance, and techniques to reduce their populations or their impacts are constantly innovated.{{cite journal|author=Geis, Aelred D.|year=1976|title=Effect of building design and quality on nuisance bird problems|journal = Proceedings of the 7th Vertebrate Pest Conference |url=http://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1020&context=vpc7 }}{{cite journal|author=Belant, Jerrold L., Paul P. Woronecki, [[Richard Dolbeer]] & Thomas W. Seamans|year=1998|jstor=3784047|title=Ineffectiveness of Five Commercial Deterrents for Nesting Starlings|journal=Wildlife Society Bulletin|volume=26|issue=2|pages=264–268}} Birds are also of medical importance, and their role as carriers of human diseases such as [[Japanese encephalitis]], [[West Nile virus]], and influenza [[H5N1]] have been widely recognized.{{cite web|url=https://www.cdc.gov/flu/avian/gen-info/facts.htm|publisher=CDC|title=Factsheet on Avian Influenza|date=2017-04-13}}{{cite journal|author=Reed, K. D., Jennifer K. Meece, James S. Henkel & Sanjay K. Shukla|year=2003|title=Birds, Migration and Emerging Zoonoses: West Nile Virus, Lyme Disease, Influenza A and Enteropathogens|journal=Clin. Med. Res.|volume=1|issue=1|pages=5–12 |pmid=15931279|doi=10.3121/cmr.1.1.5 |pmc= 1069015}} [[Bird strike]]s and the damage they cause in [[aviation]] are of particularly great importance, due to the fatal consequences and the level of economic losses caused. The airline industry incurs worldwide damages of an estimated US$1.2 billion each year.{{cite journal|author=Allan, J., Orosz, A.|year=2001 |title=The Costs of Birdstrikes to Commercial Aviation|journal=Proceedings of Birdstrike 2001, Joint Meeting of Birdstrike Committee USA/Canada. Calgary, Alberta}} [120] => [121] => Many species of birds have been driven to [[List of extinct birds|extinction]] by human activities. Being conspicuous elements of the ecosystem, they have been considered as indicators of ecological health.{{Cite journal|last=Gregory|first=R. D.|author2=Noble, D.|author3=Field, R.|author4=Marchant, J.|author5=Raven, M.|author6=Gibbons, D. W.|year=2003|title=Using birds as indicators of biodiversity|journal=Ornis. Hung.|volume=12–13|pages=11–24|url=http://www.ebcc.info/wpimages/other/bio-iindicators.pdf|access-date=2009-05-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081227061919/http://www.ebcc.info/wpimages/other/bio-iindicators.pdf|archive-date=2008-12-27|url-status=dead}} They have also helped in gathering support for [[habitat conservation]].{{cite journal|title=The Role of Ornithology in Conservation of the American West|first=Carl E.|last=Bock|journal=The Condor|volume=99|issue=1|year=1997|pages=1–6|doi=10.2307/1370218|jstor=1370218|doi-access=free}} Bird conservation requires specialized knowledge in aspects of biology and ecology, and may require the use of very location-specific approaches. Ornithologists contribute to [[conservation biology]] by studying the ecology of birds in the wild and identifying the key threats and ways of enhancing the survival of species.{{Cite book|author=BirdLife International|year=2000|title=Threatened Birds of the World: The official source for birds on the IUCN Red List|publisher=Lynx Edicions, Barcelona, and BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK|isbn=978-0946888399}} Critically endangered species such as the California condor have had to be captured and bred in captivity. Such [[ex-situ conservation|''ex situ'' conservation]] measures may be followed by reintroduction of the species into the wild.{{cite journal|author1=Whitfort, Harriet L. |author2=Robert J. Young |name-list-style=amp |year=2004|title=Trends in the captive breeding of threatened and endangered birds in British zoos, 1988–1997|journal=Zoo Biology|volume=23|issue=1|pages=85–89|doi=10.1002/zoo.10122}} [122] => [123] => ==See also== [124] => {{col div|colwidth=40em}} [125] => * [[Avian ecology field methods]] [126] => * [[Bird observatory]] [127] => * [[List of birdwatchers]] [128] => * [[List of ornithological societies]] [129] => * [[List of ornithologists]] [130] => * [[List of ornithologists abbreviated names]] [131] => * [[List of ornithology awards]] [132] => * [[List of ornithology journals]] [133] => {{colend}} [134] => [135] => ==References== [136] => {{Reflist}} [137] => [138] => ==Additional sources== [139] => * {{cite book|author1=Birkhead T, Wimpenny J |author2=Montgomerie B|title=Ten Thousand Birds: Ornithology since Darwin|publisher=Princeton University Press|date=2014|isbn=9780691151977}} [140] => *{{cite book |title=History of Ornithology|last=Chansigaud|first=Valerie|year=2009|publisher=New Holland Publishers|location=[[London]]|isbn=978-1-84773-433-4}} [141] => *{{Cite journal|last=Gurney|first=John Henry|year=1921|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924005489558|title=Early annals of ornithology|journal=Nature|volume=108|issue=2713|pages=268|access-date=19 November 2010|bibcode=1921Natur.108..268.|doi=10.1038/108268a0|hdl=2027/coo.31924090299532|s2cid=4033666|hdl-access=free}} [142] => *{{cite book|last=Newton|first=Alfred|title=Ornithology|year=1884|url=https://archive.org/details/ornithology00newt|publisher=[S.l. : s.n.}}(Reprinted from the 1884 [[Encyclopædia Britannica]]) [143] => * {{cite book |title=Handbook of Bird Biology|last1= Podulka|first1=Sandy|last2=Eckhardt|first2=Marie|last3=Otis|first3=Daniel|editor1-last=Podulka|editor1-first=Sandy|editor2-last=Rohrbaugh|editor2-first=Ronald W.|editor3-last=Bonney|editor3-first=Rick|chapter=Birds and Humans: A Historical Perspective|year=2001|publisher=[[Cornell Lab of Ornithology]]|location=[[Ithaca, NY]]|isbn=978-0-938027-62-1|edition=2nd|pages=H1–H42}} [144] => *{{cite book |title=A Concise History of Ornithology|last=Walters|first=Michael|year=2005|publisher=[[Yale University Press]]|location=[[New Haven, CT]]|isbn=978-1-84773-433-4}} [145] => [146] => ==External links== [147] => {{Commons category|Ornithology}} [148] => * Lewis, Daniel. ''The Feathery Tribe: Robert Ridgway and the Modern Study of Birds.'' [[Yale University Press]]. [http://yalepress.yale.edu/yupbooks/book.asp?isbn=9780300175523]. [149] => *''[http://www.sil.si.edu/DigitalCollections/NHRareBooks/Martinet/martinet.htm Ornithologie]'' (1773–1792) Francois Nicholas Martinet Digital Edition Smithsonian Digital Libraries [150] => *{{cite web |url=http://www.westmidlandbirdclub.com/club/older.htm |title=West Midland Bird Club: Older Organisations |access-date=May 23, 2004 |url-status=unfit |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130509151558/http://www.westmidlandbirdclub.com/club/older.htm |archive-date=May 9, 2013 }} [151] => *[https://web.archive.org/web/20070520023052/http://www.bioweb.uncc.edu/Bierregaard/ornith__in_na.htm History of ornithology in North America] [152] => *[http://cv.vic.gov.au/stories/land-and-ecology/time-flies-in-museum-collections-ornithology-in-victoria/ History of ornithology and ornithology collections in Victoria, Australia] on Culture Victoria [153] => *[http://www.scricciolo.com/cina01.htm History of ornithology in China] [154] => *[http://rmc.library.cornell.edu/ornithology/guide/hillguide07.htm Hill ornithology collections] [155] => [156] => {{Birds|state=collapsed}} [157] => {{Zoology}} [158] => {{Branches of biology}} [159] => {{Portal bar|Birds|Zoology}} [160] => {{Authority control}} [161] => [162] => [[Category:Ornithology| ]] [163] => [[Category:Subfields of zoology]] [164] => [[Category:Scoutcraft]] [] => )
good wiki

Ornithology

Ornithology is the branch of zoology that focuses on the study of birds. It involves the scientific understanding of their behavior, physiology, ecology, and evolution.

More about us

About

It involves the scientific understanding of their behavior, physiology, ecology, and evolution. Ornithologists utilize a variety of methods to observe and study birds, including fieldwork, laboratory analysis, and data collection. This Wikipedia page on ornithology provides an extensive overview of the field, covering various topics such as bird classification, anatomy, and flight. It delves into the different techniques and equipment used in bird watching and research, including bird banding and tracking. The page also discusses the importance of bird conservation and the role of ornithologists in studying and protecting endangered bird species. Further sections of the Wikipedia page explore specific subfields of ornithology, such as avian behavior, migration patterns, and bird vocalizations. It also highlights notable ornithologists and their contributions to the field, as well as significant ornithological organizations and research institutions. Overall, this comprehensive Wikipedia page on ornithology provides a valuable resource for both amateur bird enthusiasts and professional scientists interested in studying birds. It covers a wide range of topics, giving readers a well-rounded understanding of the fascinating world of ornithology.

Expert Team

Vivamus eget neque lacus. Pellentesque egauris ex.

Award winning agency

Lorem ipsum, dolor sit amet consectetur elitorceat .

10 Year Exp.

Pellen tesque eget, mauris lorem iupsum neque lacus.

You might be interested in

Africa

Africa is the second-largest continent on Earth, covering about 30.

Aristotle

Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath who lived from 384 to 322 BC.

Aviation

Aviation is a branch of technology that deals with the design, development, production, operation, and use of aircraft.

Avicenna

Avicenna, also known as Ibn Sina, was a renowned Persian physician, philosopher, and scientist who lived during the Islamic Golden Age.

Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms on Earth, encompassing the different species, ecosystems, and genetic variations that exist.

Biogeography

Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.

Bird

Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates characterized by feathers, beaks, wings, and the ability to lay eggs.

Birdwatching

Birdwatching, or birding, is the observing of birds, either as a recreational activity or as a form of citizen science.

Ecology

Ecology is the branch of biology that studies the interactions between living organisms and their environment.

LONDON

London is the capital city of England and the United Kingdom, located on the banks of the River Thames.

Paleontology

Paleontology is a scientific field that explores the history of life on Earth by studying fossils and ancient organisms.

Physiology

Physiology is the scientific study of the functions and processes of living organisms.

Taxonomy

Taxonomy is the science of classifying and naming living organisms based on their similarities and differences.

Telescope

A telescope is an optical instrument designed to magnify and focus light for observation of distant objects.