Array ( [0] => {{short description|Variety and variability of life forms}} [1] => {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2019}} [2] => {{EngvarB|date=June 2022}} [3] => [[File:Fungi of Saskatchewan.JPG|thumb|An example of the biodiversity of [[fungi]] in a forest in [[Northern Saskatchewan Administration District|North Saskatchewan]] (in this photo, there are also leaf [[lichen]]s and [[moss]]es).]] [4] => [5] => '''Biodiversity''' (or '''biological diversity''') is the variety and variability of [[life|life on Earth]]. It can be measured on various levels. There is for example [[genetic variability]]'','' [[species diversity]], [[ecosystem diversity]] and [[Phylogenetics|phylogenetic]] diversity.{{cite journal |last1=Faith |first1=Daniel P. |title=Conservation evaluation and phylogenetic diversity |journal=Biological Conservation |date=1992 |volume=61 |issue=1 |pages=1–10 |doi=10.1016/0006-3207(92)91201-3 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/0006-3207(92)91201-3 |issn=0006-3207}} Diversity is not distributed evenly on [[Earth]]. It is greater in the [[tropics]] as a result of the warm [[climate]] and high [[primary productivity]] in the region near the [[equator]]. Tropical forest ecosystems cover less than 100 of Earth's terrestrial face and contain about 50% of the world's species.{{Cite journal |last1=Pillay |first1=Rajeev |last2=Venter |first2=Michelle |last3=Aragon-Osejo |first3=Jose |last4=González-del-Pliego |first4=Pamela |last5=Hansen |first5=Andrew J |last6=Watson |first6=James EM |last7=Venter |first7=Oscar |date=2022 |title=Tropical forests are home to over half of the world's vertebrate species |journal=Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment |language=en |volume=20 |issue=1 |pages=10–15 |doi=10.1002/fee.2420 |issn=1540-9295 |pmc=9293027 |pmid=35873358|bibcode=2022FrEE...20...10P }} There are [[latitudinal gradients in species diversity]] for both marine and terrestrial taxa.{{Cite journal |last=Hillebrand |first=Helmut |date=2004 |title=On the Generality of the Latitudinal Diversity graduvation |url=http://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/381004 |journal=The American Naturalist |language=en |volume=163 |issue=2 |pages=192–211 |doi=10.1086/381004 |pmid=14970922 |issn=0003-0147}} [6] => [7] => Since [[Abiogenesis|life began on Earth]], six major [[mass extinctions]] and several minor events have led to large and sudden drops in biodiversity. The [[Phanerozoic]] aeon (the last 540 million years) marked a rapid growth in biodiversity via the [[Cambrian explosion]]. In this period, the majority of [[Multicellular organism|multicellular]] [[Phylum|phyla]] first appeared. The next 400 million years included repeated, massive biodiversity losses. Those events have been classified as [[mass extinction]] events. In the [[Carboniferous]], [[Carboniferous rainforest collapse|rainforest collapse]] led to a great loss of [[plant]] and [[animal]] life. The [[Permian–Triassic extinction event]], 251 million years ago, was the worst; vertebrate recovery took 30 million years. The most recent, the [[Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event]], occurred 65 million years ago. This period has attracted more attention than others because it resulted in the extinction of the {{nowrap|non-avian}} [[dinosaur]]s. [8] => [9] => [[Human impact on the environment|Human activities]] have lead to an ongoing [[biodiversity loss]] and an accompanying loss of [[genetic diversity]]. This process is often referred to as [[Holocene extinction]], or ''sixth mass extinction''. For example, it was estimated in 2007 that up to 30% of all species will be extinct by 2050. [[Habitat destruction|Destroying habitats]] for farming is a key reason why biodiversity is decreasing today. [[Climate change]] also plays a role. This can be seen for example in the [[effects of climate change on biomes]]. [10] => {{TOC limit|3}} [11] => [12] => == History of the term == [13] => [[File:Biodiversity by Dano.jpg|thumb|214x214px|Shown in a museum, various models of species across various taxa and orders visualize the variety of life on earth.]] [14] => * 1916 – The term ''biological diversity'' was used first by [[J. Arthur Harris]] in "The Variable Desert", ''[[Scientific American]]'': "The bare statement that the region contains a flora rich in genera and species and of diverse geographic origin or affinity is entirely inadequate as a description of its real biological diversity."{{Cite journal|jstor = 6182|title = The Variable Desert|last1 = Harris|first1 = J. Arthur|journal = The Scientific Monthly|year = 1916|volume = 3|issue = 1|pages = 41–50}} [15] => * 1967 – [[Raymond F. Dasmann]] used the term biological diversity in reference to the richness of living nature that conservationists should protect in his book A Different Kind of Country.{{Cite web |last=Dasmann |first=Raymond F. |date=1967 |title=A Different Kind of Country |url=https://www.kirkusreviews.com/book-reviews/a/raymond-f-dasmann/a-different-kind-of-country/ |access-date=7 August 2022 |website=Kirkus Reviews}}{{Cite web |last=Brown |first=William Y. Brown |date=9 August 2011 |title=Conserving Biological Diversity |url=https://www.brookings.edu/research/conserving-biological-diversity/ |access-date=7 August 2022 |website=Brookings Institution}} [16] => * 1974 – The term ''natural diversity'' was introduced by [[John Terborgh]].{{cite journal |last=Terbogh |first=John |date=1974 |title=The Preservation of Natural Diversity: The Problem of Extinction Prone Species |journal=BioScience |volume=24 |issue=12 |pages=715–722 |doi=10.2307/1297090|jstor=1297090 }} [17] => * 1980 – [[Thomas Lovejoy]] introduced the term ''biological diversity'' to the scientific community in a book.{{cite book |author1=Soulé, Michael E. |author2=Wilcox, Bruce A. |title=Conservation biology: an evolutionary-ecological perspective |publisher=Sinauer Associates |location=Sunder*land, Mass |year=1980 |isbn=978-0-87893-800-1 }} It rapidly became commonly used.{{cite web |url=http://www.nature.org/aboutus/index.htm |title=Robert E. Jenkins |publisher=Nature.org |date=18 August 2011 |access-date=24 September 2011 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120919011749/http://www.nature.org/aboutus/index.htm |archive-date=19 September 2012 |url-status=dead }} [18] => * 1985 – According to [[Edward O. Wilson]], the contracted form ''biodiversity'' was coined by W. G. Rosen: "The National Forum on BioDiversity ... was conceived by Walter G.Rosen ... Dr. Rosen represented the NRC/NAS throughout the planning stages of the project. Furthermore, he introduced the term ''biodiversity''".{{cite book |last1=Wilson |first1=E. O. |title=Biodiversity |date=1988 |publisher=National Academy Press |page=vi |url=https://www.nap.edu/read/989/chapter/1#v|doi=10.17226/989 |pmid=25032475 |isbn=978-0-309-03739-6 }} [19] => * 1985 – The term "biodiversity" appears in the article, "A New Plan to Conserve the Earth's Biota" by [[Laura Tangley]].{{Cite journal|last=Tangley|first=Laura|date=1985|title=A New Plan to Conserve the Earth's Biota|journal=BioScience|volume=35|issue=6|pages=334–336+341|jstor=1309899|doi=10.1093/bioscience/35.6.334}} [20] => * 1988 – The term biodiversity first appeared in publication.{{cite book|first1=E.O. |last1=Wilson|title=Biodiversity|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=DSGF1xQBYi8C}}|date=1 January 1988|publisher=National Academies Press|isbn=978-0-309-03739-6}} [http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309037395/html/R2.html online edition] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060913154719/http://darwin.nap.edu/books/0309037395/html/R2.html |date=13 September 2006 }}{{cite book|title=Global Biodiversity Assessment: Summary for Policy-makers|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=VKnimgEACAAJ}}|year=1995|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-56481-6}} Annex 6, Glossary. Used as source by [http://www.biodiv.be/glossary_keywords/B "Biodiversity", Glossary of terms related to the CBD] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110910155535/http://www.biodiv.be/glossary_keywords/B |date=10 September 2011 }}, [[Belgium|Belgian]] Clearing-House Mechanism. Retrieved 26 April 2006. [21] => * 1988 to Present – The [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Biological Diversity in began working in November 1988, leading to the publication of the draft [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] in May 1992. Since this time, there have been 15 Conferences of the Parties (COPs) to discuss potential global political responses to biodiversity loss. Most recently [[2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference|COP 15 in Montreal, Canada]] in 2022. [22] => [23] => ==Definitions== [24] => Biologists most often define ''biodiversity'' as the "totality of [[gene]]s, [[species]] and [[ecosystems]] of a region".{{cite book|author=Tor-Björn Larsson|title=Biodiversity evaluation tools for European forests|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=zeTU8QauENcC|page=178}}|access-date=28 June 2011|year=2001|publisher=Wiley-Blackwell|isbn=978-87-16-16434-6|page=178}}{{cite book|author=Davis|title=Intro To Env Engg (Sie), 4E|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=n0FvYeoHtAIC|page=40}}|access-date=28 June 2011|publisher=McGraw-Hill Education (India) Pvt Ltd|isbn=978-0-07-067117-1|pages=4}} An advantage of this definition is that it presents a unified view of the traditional types of biological variety previously identified: [25] => * [[taxonomic diversity]] (usually measured at the species diversity level) [26] => * [[ecological diversity]] (often viewed from the perspective of [[ecosystem diversity]]) [27] => * morphological diversity (which stems from [[genetic diversity]] and [[Molecular biology|molecular diversity]]{{Cite journal |last=Campbell |first=AK |journal=Journal of Applied Ecology |year=2003 |volume=40 |issue=2 | doi = 10.1046/j.1365-2664.2003.00803.x |pages=193–203 |title=Save those molecules: molecular biodiversity and life|bibcode=2003JApEc..40..193C |doi-access=free }}) [28] => * [[Functional group (ecology)|functional diversity]] (which is a measure of the number of functionally disparate species within a population (e.g. different feeding mechanism, different motility, predator vs prey, etc.){{Cite web|title = What is functional diversity, and why do we care?|url = http://jonlefcheck.net/2014/10/20/what-is-functional-diversity-and-why-do-we-care-2/|website = sample(ECOLOGY)|access-date = 22 December 2015|first = Jon|last = Lefcheck|date = 20 October 2014}}) [29] => [30] => ''Biodiversity'' is most commonly used to replace the more clearly-defined and long-established terms, [[species diversity]] and [[species richness]].{{Cite journal |last=Walker |first=Brian H. |date=1992 |title=Biodiversity and Ecological Redundancy |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=6 |issue=1 |pages=18–23 |bibcode=1992ConBi...6...18W |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.1992.610018.x}} [31] => [32] => Other definitions include (in chronological order): [33] => [34] => * An explicit definition consistent with this interpretation was first given in a paper by Bruce A. Wilcox commissioned by the [[International Union for the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources]] (IUCN) for the 1982 World National Parks Conference. Wilcox's definition was "Biological diversity is the variety of life forms...at all levels of biological systems (i.e., molecular, organismic, population, species and ecosystem)...". [35] => Wilcox, Bruce A. 1984. In situ conservation of genetic resources: determinants of minimum area requirements. ''In National Parks, Conservation and Development, Proceedings of the World Congress on National Parks, J.A. McNeely and K.R. Miller'', Smithsonian Institution Press, pp. 18–30. [36] => * A publication by Wilcox in 1984: Biodiversity can be defined genetically as the diversity of alleles, genes and [[organism]]s. They study processes such as [[mutation]] and [[gene transfer]] that drive evolution. [37] => *The 1992 United Nations Earth Summit defined ''biological diversity'' as "the variability among living organisms from all sources, including, inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are part: this includes diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems".{{cite journal |author=D. L. Hawksworth|title=Biodiversity: measurement and estimation|journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series B, Biological Sciences|volume=345|issue=1311|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=E0F7zhnx1cgC|page=6}} |doi-access=free |access-date=28 June 2011|year=1996|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-0-412-75220-9|page=6|pmid=7972355|doi=10.1098/rstb.1994.0081}} This definition is used in the [[Convention on Biological Diversity|United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity]]. [38] => * Gaston and Spicer's definition in their book "Biodiversity: an introduction" in 2004 is "variation of life at all levels of biological organization".{{cite book|first1=Kevin J. |last1=Gaston|first2=John I. |last2= Spicer|title=Biodiversity: An Introduction|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=lY8rc4bcIDwC}}|date=13 February 2004|publisher=Wiley|isbn=978-1-4051-1857-6}} [39] => *The [[Food and Agriculture Organization|Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] (FAO) defined biodiversity in 2019 as "the variability that exists among living organisms (both within and between species) and the ecosystems of which they are part."{{Cite book |last1=Bélanger |first1=J. |url=https://www.fao.org/3/CA3129EN/CA3129EN.pdf |title=The State of the World's Biodiversity for Food and Agriculture |last2=Pilling |first2=D. |publisher=FAO |year=2019 |isbn=978-92-5-131270-4 |location=Rome |pages=4}} [40] => [41] => == Number of species == [42] => {{Main|Global biodiversity}} [43] => [[File:Mora 2011 Predicted and Unpredicted species.png|thumb|upright=3.2|center|Discovered and predicted total number of species on land and in the oceans]] [44] => [45] => According to Mora and her colleagues' estimation, there are approximately 8.7 million terrestrial species and 2.2 million oceanic species. The authors note that these estimates are strongest for eukaryotic organisms and likely represent the lower bound of prokaryote diversity.{{cite journal |last=Mora |first=Camilo |author2=Tittensor, Derek P. |author3=Adl, Sina |author4=Simpson, Alastair G. B. |author5=Worm, Boris |author6=Mace, Georgina M. |date=23 August 2011 |title=How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean? |journal=PLOS Biology |volume=9 |issue=8 |pages=e1001127 |doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 |pmc=3160336 |pmid=21886479 |doi-access=free }} Other estimates include: [46] => * 220,000 [[vascular plants]], estimated using the species-area relation method{{cite journal |last=Wilson |first=J. Bastow |author2=Peet, Robert K. |author3=Dengler, Jürgen |author4=Pärtel, Meelis |date=1 August 2012 |title=Plant species richness: the world records |bibcode-access=free |journal=Journal of Vegetation Science |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=796–802 |doi=10.1111/j.1654-1103.2012.01400.x |bibcode=2012JVegS..23..796W |s2cid=53548257|doi-access=free }} [47] => * 0.7-1 million marine species{{cite journal |last=Appeltans |first=W. |author2=Ahyong, S. T. |author3=Anderson, G |author4=Angel, M. V. |author5=Artois, T. |display-authors=et al. |date=2012 |title=The Magnitude of Global Marine Species Diversity |journal=Current Biology |volume=22 |issue=23 |pages=2189–2202 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2012.09.036 |pmid=23159596 |doi-access=free|bibcode=2012CBio...22.2189A |hdl=1942/14524 |hdl-access=free }} [48] => * 10–30 million [[insect]]s;{{cite web |title=Numbers of Insects (Species and Individuals) |url=http://www.si.edu/Encyclopedia_SI/nmnh/buginfo/bugnos.htm |website=Smithsonian Institution |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240115042918/https://www.si.edu/spotlight/buginfo/bugnos |archive-date= Jan 15, 2024 }} (of some 0.9 million we know today){{cite news |last=Galus |first=Christine |date=5 March 2007 |title=Protection de la biodiversité : un inventaire difficile |language=fr |work=Le Monde |url=http://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2006/06/27/protection-de-la-biodiversite-un-inventaire-difficile_788741_3244.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230401134829/https://www.lemonde.fr/planete/article/2006/06/27/protection-de-la-biodiversite-un-inventaire-difficile_788741_3244.html |archive-date= Apr 1, 2023 }} [49] => * 5–10 million [[bacteria]];{{Cite news |date=2006-07-31 |title=Thousands of microbes in one gulp |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5232928.stm |first1=Louisa |last1=Cheung |website=BBC NEWS |language=en-GB |url-status=live |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20221223220931/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/5232928.stm |archive-date= Dec 23, 2022 }} [50] => * 1.5-3 million [[fungi]], estimates based on data from the tropics, long-term non-tropical sites and molecular studies that have revealed [[cryptic species|cryptic speciation]].{{cite journal |last=Hawksworth |first=D. L. |date=24 July 2012 |title=Global species numbers of fungi: are tropical studies and molecular approaches contributing to a more robust estimate? |journal=Biodiversity and Conservation |volume=21 |issue=9 |pages=2425–2433 |doi=10.1007/s10531-012-0335-x |bibcode=2012BiCon..21.2425H |s2cid=15087855}} Some 0.075 million species of fungi had been documented by 2001;{{cite journal |last1=Hawksworth |first1=D |year=2001 |title=The magnitude of fungal diversity: The 1.5 million species estimate revisited |journal=[[Mycological Research]] |volume=105 |issue=12 |pages=1422–1432 |doi=10.1017/S0953756201004725 |s2cid=56122588}} [51] => * 1 million [[mite]]s{{cite web |date=10 November 2003 |title=Acari at University of Michigan Museum of Zoology Web Page |url=http://insects.ummz.lsa.umich.edu/ACARI/index.html |access-date=21 June 2009 |publisher=Insects.ummz.lsa.umich.edu}} [52] => * The number of [[microbial]] species is not reliably known, but the [[Global Ocean Sampling Expedition]] dramatically increased the estimates of genetic diversity by identifying an enormous number of new genes from near-surface [[plankton]] samples at various marine locations, initially over the 2004–2006 period.{{cite web |title=Fact Sheet – Expedition Overview |url=http://www.jcvi.org/cms/fileadmin/site/research/projects/gos/Expedition_Overview.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100629133109/http://www.jcvi.org/cms/fileadmin/site/research/projects/gos/Expedition_Overview.pdf |archive-date=29 June 2010 |access-date=29 August 2010 |publisher=[[J. Craig Venter Institute]]}} The findings may eventually cause a significant change in the way science defines [[species]] and other taxonomic categories.{{cite web |last=Mirsky |first=Steve |date=21 March 2007 |title=Naturally Speaking: Finding Nature's Treasure Trove with the Global Ocean Sampling Expedition |url=http://www.scientificamerican.com/podcast/episode.cfm?id=74F46951-E7F2-99DF-37873C5B678DC19D |access-date=4 May 2011 |work=Scientific American}}{{cite journal |title=Article collections published by the Public Library of Science |url=http://www.ploscollections.org/article/browseIssue.action?issue=info:doi/10.1371/issue.pcol.v06.i02 |url-status=dead |journal= |publisher=PLoS Collections |doi=10.1371/issue.pcol.v06.i02 |doi-broken-date=31 January 2024 |doi-access=free|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120912172234/http://www.ploscollections.org/article/browseIssue.action?issue=info:doi/10.1371/issue.pcol.v06.i02 |archive-date=12 September 2012 |access-date=24 September 2011}} [53] => [54] => Since the rate of extinction has increased, many extant species may become extinct before they are described.{{cite news |last=McKie |first=Robin |date=25 September 2005 |title=Discovery of new species and extermination at high rate |newspaper=The Guardian |location=London |url=https://www.theguardian.com/science/2005/sep/25/taxonomy.conservationandendangeredspecies}} Not surprisingly, in the [[animalia]] the most studied groups are [[birds]] and [[mammals]], whereas [[fishes]] and [[arthropods]] are the least studied [[animals]] groups.{{cite journal |last1=Bautista |first1=Luis M. |last2=Pantoja |first2=Juan Carlos |date=2005 |title=What species should we study next? |journal=Bulletin of the British Ecological Society |volume=36 |issue=4 |pages=27–28 |hdl-access=free |hdl=10261/43928}} [55] => [56] => == Current biodiversity loss == [57] => {{Main|Biodiversity loss|4 = }} [58] => [[File:1970- Decline in species populations - Living Planet Index.svg |thumb|The World Wildlife Fund's Living Planet Report 2022 found that wildlife populations declined by an average 69% since 1970.{{cite web |title=Living Planet Index, World |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-living-planet-index |publisher=Our World in Data |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231008181057/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/global-living-planet-index |archive-date=8 October 2023 |date=13 October 2022 |quote=Data source: World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Zoological Society of London |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=Whiting |first1=Kate |title=6 charts that show the state of biodiversity and nature loss – and how we can go 'nature positive' |url=https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/10/nature-loss-biodiversity-wwf/ |publisher=World Economic Forum |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230925025824/https://www.weforum.org/agenda/2022/10/nature-loss-biodiversity-wwf/ |archive-date=25 September 2023 |date=17 October 2022 |url-status=live}}Regional data from {{cite web |title=How does the Living Planet Index vary by region? |url=https://ourworldindata.org/living-planet-index-region |publisher=Our World in Data |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230920042759/https://ourworldindata.org/living-planet-index-region |archive-date=20 September 2023 |date=13 October 2022 |quote=Data source: Living Planet Report (2022). World Wildlife Fund (WWF) and Zoological Society of London. – |url-status=live}}]] [59] => [60] => During the last century, decreases in biodiversity have been increasingly observed. It was estimated in 2007 that up to 30% of all species will be extinct by 2050.{{cite news |last=Gabriel |first=Sigmar |date=9 March 2007 |title=30% of all species lost by 2050 |work=[[BBC News]] |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/6432217.stm}} Of these, about one eighth of known plant species are threatened with [[extinction]].{{cite web |last=Reid |first=Walter V. |date=1995 |title=Reversing the loss of biodiversity: An overview of international measures |url=http://ag.arizona.edu/OALS/ALN/aln37/reid.html |work=Arid Lands Newsletter |publisher=Ag.arizona.edu |number=37}} Estimates reach as high as 140,000 species per year (based on [[Species-area curve|Species-area theory]]).{{cite journal |last1=Pimm |first1=S. L. |last2=Russell |first2=G. J. |last3=Gittleman |first3=J. L. |last4=Brooks |first4=T. M. |year=1995 |title=The Future of Biodiversity |url=http://cmbc.ucsd.edu/content/1/docs/Pimm_et_al_1995.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Science |volume=269 |issue=5222 |pages=347–350 |bibcode=1995Sci...269..347P |doi=10.1126/science.269.5222.347 |pmid=17841251 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110715114557/http://cmbc.ucsd.edu/content/1/docs/Pimm_et_al_1995.pdf |archive-date=15 July 2011 |access-date=4 May 2011 |s2cid=35154695}} This figure indicates [[sustainability|unsustainable]] ecological practices, because few species emerge each year.{{Citation needed|date=April 2011}} The rate of species loss is greater now than at any time in human history, with extinctions occurring at rates hundreds of times higher than [[background extinction]] rates.{{cite news |date=2 February 2021 |title=Economics of biodiversity review: what are the recommendations? |work=[[The Guardian]] |location= |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/feb/02/economics-of-biodiversity-review-what-are-the-recommendations |access-date=17 December 2021 |vauthors=Carrington D}}{{cite web |last=Dasgupta |first=Partha |author-link=Partha Dasgupta |date=2021 |title=The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review Headline Messages |url=https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf |access-date=16 December 2021 |website= |publisher=UK government |page=1 |quote=Biodiversity is declining faster than at any time in human history. Current extinction rates, for example, are around 100 to 1,000 times higher than the baseline rate, and they are increasing.}} and expected to still grow in the upcoming years.{{cite journal |vauthors=De Vos JM, Joppa LN, Gittleman JL, Stephens PR, Pimm SL |date=April 2015 |title=Estimating the normal background rate of species extinction |url=https://www.zora.uzh.ch/id/eprint/98443/1/Conservation_Biology_2014_early-view.pdf |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=29 |issue=2 |pages=452–62 |doi=10.1111/cobi.12380 |pmid=25159086 |bibcode=2015ConBi..29..452D |s2cid=19121609}}{{cite journal |vauthors=Ceballos G, Ehrlich PR, Raven PH |date=June 2020 |title=Vertebrates on the brink as indicators of biological annihilation and the sixth mass extinction |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America |volume=117 |issue=24 |pages=13596–13602 |bibcode=2020PNAS..11713596C |doi=10.1073/pnas.1922686117 |pmc=7306750 |pmid=32482862 |doi-access=free}} As of 2012, some studies suggest that 25% of all mammal species could be extinct in 20 years.{{cite news |date=7 June 2012 |title=Researches find threat from biodiversity loss equals climate change threat |newspaper=[[Winnipeg Free Press]] |url=http://www.winnipegfreepress.com/arts-and-life/life/sci_tech/researches-find-threat-from-biodiversity-loss-equals-climate-change-threat-157847545.html}} [61] => [62] => In absolute terms, the planet has lost 58% of its biodiversity since 1970 according to a 2016 study by the World Wildlife Fund.{{Cite report |url=https://c402277.ssl.cf1.rackcdn.com/publications/964/files/original/lpr_living_planet_report_2016.pdf?1477582118&_ga=1.148678772.2122160181.1464121326 |title=Living Planet Report 2016 Risk and resilience in a new era |date=2016 |publisher=World Wildlife Fund International |access-date=20 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210807200945/https://c402277.ssl.cf1.rackcdn.com/publications/964/files/original/lpr_living_planet_report_2016.pdf?1477582118&_ga=1.148678772.2122160181.1464121326 |archive-date=7 August 2021 |url-status=live}} The Living Planet Report 2014 claims that "the number of mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, and fish across the globe is, on average, about half the size it was 40 years ago". Of that number, 39% accounts for the terrestrial wildlife gone, 39% for the marine wildlife gone and 76% for the freshwater wildlife gone. Biodiversity took the biggest hit in [[Latin America]], plummeting 83 percent. High-income countries showed a 10% increase in biodiversity, which was canceled out by a loss in low-income countries. This is despite the fact that high-income countries use five times the ecological resources of low-income countries, which was explained as a result of a process whereby wealthy nations are outsourcing [[resource depletion]] to poorer nations, which are suffering the greatest ecosystem losses.{{citation |title=Living Planet Report 2014 |url=http://assets.worldwildlife.org/publications/723/files/original/LPR2014_low_res-2.pdf?1412025775 |access-date=4 October 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141006101711/http://assets.worldwildlife.org/publications/723/files/original/LPR2014_low_res-2.pdf?1412025775 |url-status=dead |publisher=World Wildlife Fund |format=PDF |archive-date=6 October 2014}} [63] => [64] => A 2017 study published in ''[[PLOS One]]'' found that the biomass of insect life in Germany had declined by three-quarters in the last 25 years.{{Cite journal |last1=Hallmann |first1=Caspar A. |last2=Sorg |first2=Martin |last3=Jongejans |first3=Eelke |last4=Siepel |first4=Henk |last5=Hofland |first5=Nick |last6=Schwan |first6=Heinz |last7=Stenmans |first7=Werner |last8=Müller |first8=Andreas |last9=Sumser |first9=Hubert |last10=Hörren |first10=Thomas |last11=Goulson |first11=Dave |date=2017-10-18 |title=More than 75 percent decline over 27 years in total flying insect biomass in protected areas |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=12 |issue=10 |pages=e0185809 |bibcode=2017PLoSO..1285809H |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0185809 |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=5646769 |pmid=29045418 |doi-access=free}} Dave Goulson of [[Sussex University]] stated that their study suggested that humans "appear to be making vast tracts of land inhospitable to most forms of life, and are currently on course for ecological Armageddon. If we lose the insects then everything is going to collapse."{{cite news |last1=Carrington |first1=Damian |date=18 October 2017 |title=Warning of 'ecological Armageddon' after dramatic plunge in insect numbers |newspaper=The Guardian |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/18/warning-of-ecological-armageddon-after-dramatic-plunge-in-insect-numbers |url-status=live |access-date=20 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220711061707/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2017/oct/18/warning-of-ecological-armageddon-after-dramatic-plunge-in-insect-numbers |archive-date=11 July 2022}} [65] => [66] => In 2020 the [[World Wildlife Foundation]] published a report saying that "biodiversity is being destroyed at a rate unprecedented in human history". The report claims that 68% of the population of the examined species were destroyed in the years 1970 – 2016.{{cite news |last1=Briggs |first1=Helen |date=10 September 2020 |title=Wildlife in 'catastrophic decline' due to human destruction, scientists warn |agency=BBC |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/science-environment-54091048 |access-date=3 December 2020}} [67] => [68] => Of 70,000 monitored species, around 48% are experiencing population declines from human activity (in 2023), whereas only 3% have increasing populations.{{cite news |author= |date=May 23, 2023 |title=Biodiversity: Almost half of animals in decline, research shows |work=BBC |location= |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-northern-ireland-65681648 |access-date=June 10, 2023}}{{cite journal |last1=Finn |first1=Catherine |last2=Grattarola |first2=Florencia |last3=Pincheira-Donoso |first3=Daniel |date=2023 |title=More losers than winners: investigating Anthropocene defaunation through the diversity of population trends |url= |journal=Biological Reviews |volume= 98|issue= 5|pages= 1732–1748|doi=10.1111/brv.12974 |pmid=37189305 |s2cid=258717720 |access-date=|doi-access=free }}{{cite news |last=Paddison |first=Laura |date=May 22, 2023 |title=Global loss of wildlife is 'significantly more alarming' than previously thought, according to a new study |work=CNN |location= |url=https://www.cnn.com/2023/05/22/world/wildlife-crisis-biodiversity-scn-climate-intl/index.html |access-date=June 10, 2023}} [69] => [70] => [[File:Summary of major environmental-change categories expressed as a percentage change (red) relative to baseline - fcosc-01-615419-g001.jpg|thumb|Summary of major biodiversity-related environmental-change categories expressed as a percentage of human-driven change (in red) relative to baseline (blue)]]Rates of [[Biodiversity loss|decline in biodiversity]] in the current [[sixth mass extinction]] match or exceed rates of loss in the five previous [[Extinction event|mass extinction events]] in the [[fossil record]].{{refn|{{Cite journal|date = 25 July 2014 | title = Vanishing fauna (Special issue)|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=345|issue=6195| pages = 392–412 |doi= 10.1126/science.345.6195.392| pmid = 25061199| last1 = Vignieri| first1 = S. | bibcode = 2014Sci...345..392V| doi-access = free}}{{cite news|author= |date=13 January 2022 |title=Strong evidence shows Sixth Mass Extinction of global biodiversity in progress |url=https://www.eurekalert.org/news-releases/940163 |work=[[EurekAlert!]] |location= |access-date=17 February 2022}}{{cite journal|last= Dirzo|first= Rodolfo|author2= Hillary S. Young|author3= Mauro Galetti|author4= Gerardo Ceballos|author5= Nick J. B. Isaac|author6= Ben Collen|title= Defaunation in the Anthropocene |journal= [[Science (journal)|Science]]|date= 2014|doi= 10.1126/science.1251817|pmid= 25061202|volume= 345| issue=6195|pages= 401–406|url=http://www.uv.mx/personal/tcarmona/files/2010/08/Science-2014-Dirzo-401-6-2.pdf|quote=In the past 500 years, humans have triggered a wave of extinction, threat, and local population declines that may be comparable in both rate and magnitude with the five previous mass extinctions of Earth’s history.|bibcode= 2014Sci...345..401D|s2cid= 206555761}}{{cite journal |last1=Koh |first1=LP |last2=Dunn |first2=RR |last3=Sodhi |first3=NS |last4=Colwell |first4=RK |last5=Proctor |first5=HC |last6=Smith |first6=VS |year=2004 |title=Species coextinctions and the biodiversity crisis |url=http://www4.ncsu.edu/~rrdunn/KohDunnetal.pdfNCSU.edu |journal=Science |volume=305 |issue=5690 |pages=1632–1634 |bibcode=2004Sci...305.1632K |doi=10.1126/science.1101101 |pmid=15361627 |s2cid=30713492}}{{dead link|date=May 2011|fix-attempted=yes}}{{cite journal |last1=McCallum |first1=Malcolm L. |title=Amphibian Decline or Extinction? Current Declines Dwarf Background Extinction Rate |journal=Journal of Herpetology |date=September 2007 |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=483–491 |doi=10.1670/0022-1511(2007)41[483:ADOECD]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=30162903 }}{{cite journal | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0802812105 | title = Colloquium Paper: Ecological extinction and evolution in the brave new ocean | year = 2008 | last1 = Jackson | first1 = J. B. C. | journal = [[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences]] | volume = 105 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = 11458–11465 | pmid=18695220 | pmc=2556419 | bibcode=2008PNAS..10511458J| doi-access = free }} [71] => {{cite journal |last1=Dunn |first1=Robert R. |title=Modern Insect Extinctions, the Neglected Majority |journal=Conservation Biology |date=August 2005 |volume=19 |issue=4 |pages=1030–1036 |doi=10.1111/j.1523-1739.2005.00078.x |bibcode=2005ConBi..19.1030D |s2cid=38218672 |s2cid-access=free |url=http://www.energy.ca.gov/sitingcases//genesis_solar/documents/others/testimony_centr_biological_diversity/exhibits/Exh.%20811.%20Dunn%202005.%20%20Modern%20Insect%20Extinctions.pdf |via=California Energy Commission |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808122003/http://www.energy.ca.gov/sitingcases//genesis_solar/documents/others/testimony_centr_biological_diversity/exhibits/Exh.%20811.%20Dunn%202005.%20%20Modern%20Insect%20Extinctions.pdf |archive-date= Aug 8, 2017 }}{{cite journal | last1 = Ceballos | first1 = Gerardo| last2 = Ehrlich| first2 = Paul R.| last3 = Barnosky| first3= Anthony D. |author-link3=Anthony David Barnosky| last4 = García | first4 = Andrés| last5 = Pringle | first5 = Robert M.| last6 = Palmer| first6 =Todd M. | year = 2015 | title = Accelerated modern human–induced species losses: Entering the sixth mass extinction | journal = [[Science Advances]] | volume = 1 | issue = 5 | page = e1400253 | doi = 10.1126/sciadv.1400253 | pmid= 26601195| pmc=4640606| bibcode =2015SciA....1E0253C}}}} Biodiversity loss is in fact "one of the most critical manifestations of the [[Anthropocene]]" (since around the 1950s); the continued decline of biodiversity constitutes "an unprecedented threat" to the continued existence of human civilization.{{cite journal |last1=Dirzo |first1=Rodolfo |last2=Ceballos |first2=Gerardo |last3=Ehrlich |first3=Paul R. |author-link3=Paul R. Ehrlich |date=2022 |title=Circling the drain: the extinction crisis and the future of humanity |url= |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B]] |volume=377 |issue=1857 |pages= |doi=10.1098/rstb.2021.0378 |pmc=9237743 |pmid=35757873 |s2cid=250055843}} The reduction is caused primarily by [[Human impact on the environment|human impacts]], particularly [[habitat destruction]]. [72] => [73] => Loss of biodiversity results in the loss of [[natural capital]] that supplies [[ecosystem services|ecosystem goods and services]]. Species today are being wiped out at a rate 100 to 1,000 times higher than baseline, and the rate of extinctions is increasing. This process destroys the resilience and adaptability of life on Earth.UK Government Official Documents, February 2021, [https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/957629/Dasgupta_Review_-_Headline_Messages.pdf "The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review Headline Messages"] p. 1 [74] => [75] => In 2006, many species were formally classified as [[rare species|rare]] or [[endangered species|endangered]] or [[threatened species|threatened]]; moreover, scientists have estimated that millions more species are at risk which have not been formally recognized. About 40 percent of the 40,177 species assessed using the [[IUCN Red List]] criteria are now listed as threatened with [[extinction]]—a total of 16,119.{{cite web |last=Lovett |first=Richard A. |date=2 May 2006 |title=Endangered Species List Expands to 16,000 |url=http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/05/0502_060502_endangered.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170805153429/http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2006/05/0502_060502_endangered.html |archive-date=5 August 2017 |work=National Geographic |df=dmy-all}} As of late 2022 9251 species were considered part of the IUCN's [[Critically Endangered|critically endangered]].{{Cite web|url=https://www.iucnredlist.org/resources/summary-statistics|title=IUCN Red List of Threatened Species}} [76] => [77] => Numerous scientists and the [[IPBES]] ''[[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]'' assert that [[human population growth]] and [[overconsumption]] are the primary factors in this decline.{{cite journal |last1=Stokstad |first1=Erik |date=6 May 2019 |title=Landmark analysis documents the alarming global decline of nature |journal=Science |doi=10.1126/science.aax9287 |quote=For the first time at a global scale, the report has ranked the causes of damage. Topping the list, changes in land use—principally agriculture—that have destroyed habitat. Second, hunting and other kinds of exploitation. These are followed by climate change, pollution, and invasive species, which are being spread by trade and other activities. Climate change will likely overtake the other threats in the next decades, the authors note. Driving these threats are the growing human population, which has doubled since 1970 to 7.6 billion, and consumption. (Per capita of use of materials is up 15% over the past 5 decades.) |doi-access=free}}{{cite journal |display-authors=6 |vauthors=Pimm SL, Jenkins CN, Abell R, Brooks TM, Gittleman JL, Joppa LN, Raven PH, Roberts CM, Sexton JO |date=May 2014 |title=The biodiversity of species and their rates of extinction, distribution, and protection |journal=Science |volume=344 |issue=6187 |pages=1246752 |doi=10.1126/science.1246752 |pmid=24876501 |s2cid=206552746 |quote=The overarching driver of species extinction is human population growth and increasing per capita consumption.}}{{Cite journal |last1=Cafaro |first1=Philip |last2=Hansson |first2=Pernilla |last3=Götmark |first3=Frank |date=August 2022 |title=Overpopulation is a major cause of biodiversity loss and smaller human populations are necessary to preserve what is left |url=https://www.sustainable.soltechdesigns.com/Overpopulation-and-biodiversty-loss(2022).pdf |journal=[[Biological Conservation (journal)|Biological Conservation]] |volume=272 |at=109646 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109646 |bibcode=2022BCons.27209646C |issn=0006-3207 |s2cid=250185617 |quote=Conservation biologists standardly list five main direct drivers of biodiversity loss: habitat loss, overexploitation of species, pollution, invasive species, and climate change. The ''Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services'' found that in recent decades habitat loss was the leading cause of terrestrial biodiversity loss, while overexploitation (overfishing) was the most important cause of marine losses (IPBES, 2019). All five direct drivers are important, on land and at sea, and all are made worse by larger and denser human populations.}}{{cite journal |last1=Crist |first1=Eileen |last2=Mora |first2=Camilo |last3=Engelman |first3=Robert |date=21 April 2017 |title=The interaction of human population, food production, and biodiversity protection |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/316286860 |journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]] |volume=356 |issue=6335 |pages=260–264 |bibcode=2017Sci...356..260C |doi=10.1126/science.aal2011 |pmid=28428391 |s2cid=12770178 |access-date=2 January 2023}}{{cite journal |last1= Ceballos|first1=Gerardo|last2=Ehrlich|first2=Paul R.|date=2023 |title=Mutilation of the tree of life via mass extinction of animal genera|url= |journal=[[Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America]]|volume=120 |issue=39 |pages=e2306987120|doi=10.1073/pnas.2306987120|pmid=37722053 |pmc=10523489 |bibcode=2023PNAS..12006987C |access-date=}} However, other scientists have criticized this finding and say that loss of habitat caused by "the growth of commodities for export" is the main driver.{{Cite journal |last1=Hughes |first1=Alice C. |last2=Tougeron |first2=Kévin |last3=Martin |first3=Dominic A. |last4=Menga |first4=Filippo |last5=Rosado |first5=Bruno H. P. |last6=Villasante |first6=Sebastian |last7=Madgulkar |first7=Shweta |last8=Gonçalves |first8=Fernando |last9=Geneletti |first9=Davide |last10=Diele-Viegas |first10=Luisa Maria |last11=Berger |first11=Sebastian |last12=Colla |first12=Sheila R. |last13=de Andrade Kamimura |first13=Vitor |last14=Caggiano |first14=Holly |last15=Melo |first15=Felipe |date=2023-01-01 |title=Smaller human populations are neither a necessary nor sufficient condition for biodiversity conservation |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=277 |pages=109841 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2022.109841 |issn=0006-3207 |quote=Through examining the drivers of biodiversity loss in highly biodiverse countries, we show that it is not population driving the loss of habitats, but rather the growth of commodities for export, particularly soybean and oil-palm, primarily for livestock feed or biofuel consumption in higher income economies. |doi-access=free|bibcode=2023BCons.27709841H }} [78] => [79] => Some studies have however pointed out that habitat destruction for the expansion of agriculture and the overexploitation of wildlife are the more significant drivers of contemporary biodiversity loss, not [[climate change]].{{cite news |last=Ketcham |first=Christopher |date=December 3, 2022 |title=Addressing Climate Change Will Not "Save the Planet" |work=[[The Intercept]] |location= |url=https://theintercept.com/2022/12/03/climate-biodiversity-green-energy/ |access-date=December 8, 2022}}{{cite journal |last1=Caro |first1=Tim |last2=Rowe |first2=Zeke |display-authors=etal. |date=2022 |title=An inconvenient misconception: Climate change is not the principal driver of biodiversity loss |url= |journal=[[Conservation Letters]] |volume=15 |issue=3 |pages=e12868 |doi=10.1111/conl.12868 |bibcode=2022ConL...15E2868C |s2cid=246172852 |access-date=|doi-access=free }} [80] => [81] => == Distribution == [82] => [[File:Map latitudinal gradient of biodiversity mannion 2014.png|thumb|upright=1.5|Distribution of living terrestrial vertebrate species, highest concentration of diversity shown in red in equatorial regions, declining polewards (towards the blue end of the spectrum)]] [83] => Biodiversity is not evenly distributed, rather it varies greatly across the globe as well as within regions and seasons. Among other factors, the diversity of all living things ([[biota (ecology)|biota]]) depends on [[temperature]], [[precipitation]], [[altitude]], [[soil]]s, [[geography]] and the interactions between other species.{{Cite journal |last1=Clay |first1=Keith |last2=Holah |first2=Jenny |date=1999-09-10 |title=Fungal Endophyte Symbiosis and Plant Diversity in Successional Fields |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.285.5434.1742 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=285 |issue=5434 |pages=1742–1744 |doi=10.1126/science.285.5434.1742 |pmid=10481011 |issn=0036-8075}} The study of the spatial distribution of [[organism]]s, species and [[ecosystem]]s, is the science of [[biogeography]]. [84] => [85] => Diversity consistently measures higher in the [[tropics]] and in other localized regions such as the [[Cape Floristic Region]] and lower in polar regions generally. [[Rain forests]] that have had wet climates for a long time, such as [[Yasuni National Park|Yasuní National Park]] in [[Ecuador]], have particularly high biodiversity.{{cite news | url=http://dotearth.blogs.nytimes.com/2010/01/20/a-durable-yet-vulnerable-eden-in-amazonia/ | title=A Durable Yet Vulnerable Eden in Amazonia | work=Dot Earth blog, New York Times| date=20 January 2010 | access-date=2 February 2013 }}{{cite journal |title=Global Conservation Significance of Ecuador's Yasuní National Park |author1=Margot S. Bass |author2=Matt Finer |author3=Clinton N. Jenkins |author4=Holger Kreft |author5=Diego F. Cisneros-Heredia |author6=Shawn F. McCracken |author7=Nigel C. A. Pitman |author8=Peter H. English |author9=Kelly Swing |author10=Gorky Villa |author11=Anthony Di Fiore |author12=Christian C. Voigt |author13=Thomas H. Kunz |journal= PLOS ONE|year=2010 |volume=5 |issue=1 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0008767 |bibcode = 2010PLoSO...5.8767B |pages=e8767 |pmid=20098736 |pmc=2808245|doi-access=free }} [86] => [87] => Terrestrial biodiversity is thought to be up to 25 times greater than ocean biodiversity.{{cite journal | author = Benton M. J. | year = 2001 | title = Biodiversity on land and in the sea | journal = Geological Journal | volume = 36 | issue = 3–4| pages = 211–230 | doi = 10.1002/gj.877 | bibcode = 2001GeolJ..36..211B | s2cid = 140675489 }} Forests harbour most of Earth's terrestrial biodiversity. The conservation of the world's biodiversity is thus utterly dependent on the way in which we interact with and use the world's forests.{{Cite book |title=The State of the World's Forests 2020. In brief – Forests, biodiversity and people |publisher=FAO & UNEP |year=2020 |isbn=978-92-5-132707-4 |location=Rome, Italy |doi=10.4060/ca8985en |s2cid=241416114}}text was added from this source which has a Wikipedia-specific [[c:File:The_State_of_the_World’s_Forests_2020._In_brief.pdf|licence statement]] A new method used in 2011, put the total number of species on Earth at 8.7 million, of which 2.1 million were estimated to live in the ocean.{{cite journal | author= Mora, C. | title=How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean? | journal=PLOS Biology|year= 2011|doi=10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127 | pmid=21886479 | pmc=3160336 | volume=9 | issue=8 | pages=e1001127|display-authors=etal | doi-access=free }} However, this estimate seems to under-represent the diversity of microorganisms.{{Cite journal|date=2019-01-09|title=Acknowledgement to Reviewers of Microorganisms in 2018|journal=Microorganisms|volume=7|issue=1|pages=13|doi=10.3390/microorganisms7010013| pmc=6352028 |doi-access=free|author1=Microorganisms Editorial Office}} Forests provide habitats for 80 percent of amphibian [[species]], 75 percent of bird species and 68 percent of mammal species. About 60 percent of all vascular plants are found in tropical forests. Mangroves provide breeding grounds and nurseries for numerous species of fish and shellfish and help trap sediments that might otherwise adversely affect seagrass beds and coral reefs, which are habitats for many more marine species. Forests span around 4 billion acres (nearly a third of the Earth's land mass) and are home to approximately 80% of the world's biodiversity. About 1 billion hectares are covered by primary forests. Over 700 million hectares of the world's woods are officially protected.{{Cite web |title=Global Forest Resource Assessment 2020 |url=http://www.fao.org/forest-resources-assessment/2020 |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Food and Agriculture Organization |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=The State of the World's Forests 2020: Forests, biodiversity and people [EN/AR/RU] – World {{!}} ReliefWeb |url=https://reliefweb.int/report/world/state-world-s-forests-2020-forests-biodiversity-and-people-enarru |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=reliefweb.int |date=September 2020 |language=en}} [88] => [89] => The biodiversity of forests varies considerably according to factors such as forest type, geography, climate and soils – in addition to human use. Most forest habitats in temperate regions support relatively few animal and plant species and species that tend to have large geographical distributions, while the montane forests of Africa, South America and Southeast Asia and lowland forests of Australia, coastal Brazil, the Caribbean islands, Central America and insular Southeast Asia have many species with small geographical distributions. Areas with dense human populations and intense agricultural land use, such as [[Europe]], parts of Bangladesh, China, India and North America, are less intact in terms of their biodiversity. Northern Africa, southern Australia, coastal Brazil, Madagascar and South Africa, are also identified as areas with striking losses in biodiversity intactness. European forests in EU and non-EU nations comprise more than 30% of Europe's land mass (around 227 million hectares), representing an almost 10% growth since 1990.{{Cite web |title=39% of the EU is covered with forests |url=https://ec.europa.eu/eurostat/web/products-eurostat-news/-/edn-20210321-1 |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=ec.europa.eu |language=en-GB}}{{Cite web |last=Cavallito |first=Matteo |date=2021-04-08 |title=European forests are expanding. But their future is unwritten |url=https://resoilfoundation.org/en/environment/eu-forests-growth/ |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=Re Soil Foundation |language=en-US}} [90] => [91] => ===Latitudinal gradients=== [92] => {{Main|Latitudinal gradients in species diversity}} [93] => [94] => Generally, there is an increase in biodiversity from the [[Geographical pole|poles]] to the [[tropics]]. Thus localities at lower [[latitudes]] have more species than localities at higher [[latitude]]s. This is often referred to as the latitudinal gradient in species diversity. Several ecological factors may contribute to the gradient, but the ultimate factor behind many of them is the greater mean temperature at the equator compared to that at the poles.{{cite journal | url=http://www.soc.hawaii.edu/mora/Publications/Mora%20013.pdf | vauthors=Mora C, Robertson DR | year=2005 | title=Causes of latitudinal gradients in species richness: a test with fishes of the Tropical Eastern Pacific | journal=Ecology | volume=86 | pages=1771–1792 | doi=10.1890/04-0883 | issue=7 | bibcode=2005Ecol...86.1771M | access-date=25 December 2012 | archive-date=4 March 2016 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304084019/http://www.soc.hawaii.edu/mora/Publications/Mora%20013.pdf | url-status=dead }} [95] => [96] => Even though terrestrial biodiversity declines from the equator to the poles,{{cite journal | author = Hillebrand H | year = 2004 | title = On the generality of the latitudinal diversity gradient | url = http://oceanrep.geomar.de/4048/1/Hillebrand_2004_Amer_nat.pdf| journal = The American Naturalist | volume = 163 | issue = 2| pages = 192–211 | doi = 10.1086/381004 | pmid = 14970922 | s2cid = 9886026 }} some studies claim that this characteristic is unverified in [[aquatic ecosystems]], especially in [[marine ecosystems]].{{cite journal|title= How diverse is aquatic biodiversity research? | doi=10.1007/s10452-005-6041-y|volume=39|issue= 3 |journal=Aquatic Ecology|pages=367–375|date= September 2005 |last1= Karakassis |first1= Ioannis |last2= Moustakas |first2= Aristides | bibcode=2005AqEco..39..367M| s2cid=23630051}} The latitudinal distribution of parasites does not appear to follow this rule.{{cite book|first1=Serge |last1=Morand|first2=Boris R. |last2=Krasnov|title=The Biogeography of Host-Parasite Interactions|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=08keK5vc888C|page=93}}|access-date=28 June 2011|date=1 September 2010|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-956135-3|pages=93–94}} Also, in terrestrial ecosystems the soil bacterial diversity has been shown to be highest in temperate climatic zones,{{Cite journal |last1=Bahram |first1=Mohammad |last2=Hildebrand |first2=Falk |last3=Forslund |first3=Sofia K. |last4=Anderson |first4=Jennifer L. |last5=Soudzilovskaia |first5=Nadejda A. |last6=Bodegom |first6=Peter M. |last7=Bengtsson-Palme |first7=Johan |last8=Anslan |first8=Sten |last9=Coelho |first9=Luis Pedro |last10=Harend |first10=Helery |last11=Huerta-Cepas |first11=Jaime |last12=Medema |first12=Marnix H. |last13=Maltz |first13=Mia R. |last14=Mundra |first14=Sunil |last15=Olsson |first15=Pål Axel |date=August 2018 |title=Structure and function of the global topsoil microbiome |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41586-018-0386-6 |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=560 |issue=7717 |pages=233–237 |doi=10.1038/s41586-018-0386-6 |pmid=30069051 |bibcode=2018Natur.560..233B |hdl=1887/73861 |s2cid=256768771 |issn=1476-4687|hdl-access=free }} and has been attributed to carbon inputs and habitat connectivity.{{Cite journal |last1=Bickel |first1=Samuel |last2=Or |first2=Dani |date=2020-01-08 |title=Soil bacterial diversity mediated by microscale aqueous-phase processes across biomes |journal=Nature Communications |language=en |volume=11 |issue=1 |pages=116 |doi=10.1038/s41467-019-13966-w |issn=2041-1723 |pmc=6949233 |pmid=31913270|bibcode=2020NatCo..11..116B }} [97] => [98] => In 2016, an alternative hypothesis ("the [[fractal]] biodiversity") was proposed to explain the biodiversity latitudinal gradient.{{cite journal | last1 = Cazzolla Gatti | first1 = R | year = 2016 | title = The fractal nature of the latitudinal biodiversity gradient | journal = Biologia | volume = 71 | issue = 6| pages = 669–672 | doi = 10.1515/biolog-2016-0077 | bibcode = 2016Biolg..71..669C | s2cid = 199471847 }} In this study, the [[species]] pool size and the fractal nature of ecosystems were combined to clarify some general patterns of this gradient. This hypothesis considers [[temperature]], [[moisture]], and [[net primary production]] (NPP) as the main variables of an ecosystem niche and as the axis of the ecological [[hypervolume]]. In this way, it is possible to build fractal hyper volumes, whose [[fractal dimension]] rises to three moving towards the [[equator]].{{Citation|last=Cogitore, Clément (1983–....).|title=Hypothesis|date=January 1988|isbn=9780309037396|oclc=968249007}} [99] => [100] => ===Biodiversity Hotspots=== [101] => A [[biodiversity hotspot]] is a region with a high level of [[Endemism|endemic]] species that have experienced great [[Habitat destruction|habitat loss]].{{cite web|url= http://www.biodiversitya-z.org/content/biodiversity-hotspots | author = Biodiversity A–Z | title = Biodiversity Hotspots}} The term hotspot was introduced in 1988 by [[Norman Myers]].{{cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF02240252 | author = Myers N | year = 1988 | title = Threatened biotas: 'hot spots' in tropical forests | journal = Environmentalist | volume = 8 | issue = 3| pages = 187–208 | pmid = 12322582 | s2cid = 2370659 }}{{cite journal | doi = 10.1007/BF02239720 | author = Myers N | year = 1990 | title = The biodiversity challenge: expanded hot-spots analysis | url = http://planet.botany.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Gwen%27s%20Files/Biodiversity/Chapters/Info%20to%20use/Chapter%207/biodiversityhotspotMyers.pdf | journal = Environmentalist | volume = 10 | issue = 4 | pages = 243–256 | pmid = 12322583 | bibcode = 1990ThEnv..10..243M | citeseerx = 10.1.1.468.8666 | s2cid = 22995882 | access-date = 1 November 2017 | archive-date = 9 September 2022 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220909133447/https://planet.botany.uwc.ac.za/nisl/Gwen%27s%20Files/Biodiversity/Chapters/Info%20to%20use/Chapter%207/biodiversityhotspotMyers.pdf | url-status = dead }}{{cite journal | url=http://www.soc.hawaii.edu/mora/Publications/Mora%20027.pdf | author=Tittensor D. | year=2011 | title=Global patterns and predictors of marine biodiversity across taxa | journal=Nature | volume=466 | pages=1098–1101 | doi=10.1038/nature09329 | pmid=20668450 | issue=7310 | display-authors=etal | bibcode=2010Natur.466.1098T | s2cid=4424240 | access-date=25 December 2012 | archive-date=31 August 2021 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210831013803/http://www.soc.hawaii.edu/mora/Publications/Mora%20027.pdf | url-status=dead }}{{cite book|first=Jeffrey K. |last=McKee|title=Sparing Nature: The Conflict Between Human Population Growth and Earth's Biodiversity|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=omgIyInG8qEC|page=108}}|access-date=28 June 2011|date=December 2004|publisher=Rutgers University Press|isbn=978-0-8135-3558-6|page=108}} While hotspots are spread all over the world, the majority are forest areas and most are located in the [[tropics]].{{Cite web |title=Explore the Biodiversity Hotspots {{!}} CEPF |url=https://www.cepf.net/our-work/biodiversity-hotspots |access-date=2024-03-10 |website=www.cepf.net |language=en}} [102] => [103] => [[Brazil]]'s [[Atlantic Forest]] is considered one such hotspot, containing roughly 20,000 plant species, 1,350 vertebrates and millions of insects, about half of which occur nowhere else.{{Cite book|title=The Atlantic Forest of South America: Biodiversity Status, Threats, and Outlook|last=Galindo-Leal|first=Carlos|publisher=Island Press|year=2003|isbn=978-1-55963-988-0|location=Washington|pages=35}}{{cite journal | last1 = Myers | first1 = Norman | last2 = Mittermeier | first2 = Russell A. | last3 = Mittermeier | first3 = Cristina G. | last4 = da Fonseca | first4 = Gustavo A. B. | last5 = Kent | first5 = Jennifer | title = Biodiversity hotspots for conservation priorities | journal = Nature | date = February 2000 | volume = 403 | issue = 6772 | pages = 853–858 | issn = 0028-0836 | eissn = 1476-4687 | doi = 10.1038/35002501 | pmid = 10706275 | bibcode = 2000Natur.403..853M | s2cid = 4414279 | url = https://www.nature.com/articles/35002501|access-date=9 August 2022}} The island of [[Madagascar]] and [[India]] are also particularly notable. [[Colombia]] is characterized by high biodiversity, with the highest rate of species by area unit worldwide and it has the largest number of endemics (species that are not found naturally anywhere else) of any country. About 10% of the species of the Earth can be found in Colombia, including over 1,900 species of bird, more than in Europe and North America combined, Colombia has 10% of the world's mammals species, 14% of the amphibian species and 18% of the bird species of the world.{{cite web [104] => |url=http://www.humboldt.org.co/iavh_en/index.php/component/k2/item/129-colombia-in-the-world.html [105] => |title=Colombia in the World [106] => |publisher=Alexander von Humboldt Institute for Research on Biological Resources [107] => |access-date=30 December 2013 [108] => |url-status=dead [109] => |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029194602/http://www.humboldt.org.co/iavh_en/index.php/component/k2/item/129-colombia-in-the-world.html [110] => |archive-date=29 October 2013 [111] => }} [[Madagascar dry deciduous forests]] and lowland rainforests possess a high ratio of [[endemism]].{{cite web|last1=godfrey|first1=laurie|title=isolation and biodiversity|url=http://www.pbs.org/edens/madagascar/eden.htm|website=pbs.org|access-date=22 October 2017}}{{Citation|last=Harrison|first=Susan P.|title=Plant Endemism in California|date=2013-05-15|work=Plant and Animal Endemism in California|pages=43–76|publisher=University of California Press|doi=10.1525/california/9780520275546.003.0004|isbn=978-0-520-27554-6}} Since the island separated from mainland [[Africa]] 66 million years ago, many species and ecosystems have evolved independently.{{Cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/edens/madagascar/eden.htm|title=Madagascar – A World Apart: Eden Evolution|website=www.pbs.org|access-date=6 June 2019}} [[Indonesia]]'s 17,000 islands cover {{convert|735355|sqmi}} and contain 10% of the world's [[flowering plant]]s, 12% of mammals and 17% of [[reptile]]s, [[amphibian]]s and [[bird]]s—along with nearly 240 million people.{{cite journal |last1=Normile |first1=Dennis |title=Saving Forests to Save Biodiversity |journal=Science |date=10 September 2010 |volume=329 |issue=5997 |pages=1278–1280 |doi=10.1126/science.329.5997.1278 |pmid=20829464 |bibcode=2010Sci...329.1278N |doi-access=free }} Many regions of high biodiversity and/or endemism arise from specialized [[habitat]]s which require unusual adaptations, for example, [[alpine climate|alpine]] environments in high [[mountain]]s, or [[Northern Europe]]an peat [[bog]]s. [112] => [113] => Accurately measuring differences in biodiversity can be difficult. [[Selection bias]] amongst researchers may contribute to biased empirical research for modern estimates of biodiversity. In 1768, Rev. [[Gilbert White]] succinctly observed of his [[Selborne|Selborne, Hampshire]] ''"all nature is so full, that that district produces the most variety which is the most examined."''{{cite book|first=Gilbert |last=White|title=The Natural History of Selborne: With A Naturalist's Calendar & Additional Observations|chapter-url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=q7UOQQAACAAJ}}|year=1887|chapter=letter xx|publisher=Scott}} [114] => [115] => ==Evolution over geologic timeframes== [116] => {{Main|Evolution}}Biodiversity is the result of 3.5 billion years of [[evolution]].{{cite journal |last=Algeo |first=T. J. |author2=Scheckler, S. E. |date=29 January 1998 |title=Terrestrial-marine teleconnections in the Devonian: links between the evolution of land plants, weathering processes, and marine anoxic events |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=353 |issue=1365 |pages=113–130 |doi=10.1098/rstb.1998.0195 |pmc=1692181}} The [[origin of life]] has not been established by science, however, some evidence suggests that life may already have been well-established only a few hundred million years after the [[age of the Earth|formation of the Earth]]. Until approximately 2.5 billion years ago, all life consisted of [[microorganism]]s – [[archaea]], [[bacteria]], and [[unicellular organism|single-celled]] [[protozoan]]s and [[protist]]s. [117] => {{Life timeline}} [118] => [[File:Phanerozoic Biodiversity.png|thumb|left|upright=1.35|Apparent marine fossil diversity during the Phanerozoic{{Cite journal | title = No climate paradox under the faint early Sun | first4 = C. | last4 = Bjerrum | volume = 464| issue = 7289| journal = Nature| pages = 744–747 | first3 = N.| last3 = Sleep| year = 2010| pmid = 20360739| last1 = Rosing | first1 = M. | first2 = D.| last2 = Bird| doi = 10.1038/nature08955|bibcode = 2010Natur.464..744R | s2cid = 205220182 }}]] [119] => [120] => Biodiversity grew fast during the [[Phanerozoic]] (the last 540 million years), especially during the so-called [[Cambrian explosion]]—a period during which nearly every [[phylum (biology)|phylum]] of [[multicellular organism]]s first appeared. However, recent studies suggest that this diversification had started earlier, at least in the [[Ediacaran]], and that it continued in the [[Ordovician]].{{cite journal |last1=Servais |first1=Thomas |last2=Cascales-Miñana |first2=Borja |last3=Harper |first3=David A. T. |last4=Lefebvre |first4=Bertrand |last5=Munnecke |first5=Axel |last6=Wang |first6=Wenhui |last7=Zhang |first7=Yuandong |title=No (Cambrian) explosion and no (Ordovician) event: A single long-term radiation in the early Palaeozoic |journal=Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology |date=1 August 2023 |volume=623 |pages=111592 |doi=10.1016/j.palaeo.2023.111592 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.palaeo.2023.111592 |issn=0031-0182}} Over the next 400 million years or so, [[invertebrate]] diversity showed little overall trend and [[vertebrate]] diversity shows an overall exponential trend.{{Cite journal| doi=10.1098/rsbl.2009.1024| last1=Sahney |first1=S. |last2=Benton |first2=M.J. |first3=Paul |last3=Ferry | year = 2010 | title = Links between global taxonomic diversity, ecological diversity and the expansion of vertebrates on land | journal = Biology Letters | volume=6| issue=4| pages=544–547 | pmid=20106856| pmc=2936204}} This dramatic rise in diversity was marked by periodic, massive losses of diversity classified as [[mass extinction]] events. A significant loss occurred in anamniotic limbed vertebrates when rainforests collapsed in the [[Carboniferous]],{{cite journal |author=Sahney, S. |author2=Benton, M.J. |author3=Falcon-Lang, H.J. |name-list-style=amp |year=2010 |title=Rainforest collapse triggered Pennsylvanian tetrapod diversification in Euramerica |journal=Geology |volume=38 |issue=12 |pages=1079–1082 |bibcode=2010Geo....38.1079S |doi=10.1130/G31182.1}} but [[Amniote|amniotes]] seem to have been little affected by this event; their diversification slowed down later, around the [[Asselian]]/[[Sakmarian]] boundary, in the early [[Cisuralian]] (Early [[Permian]]), about 293 Ma ago.{{cite journal |last1=Didier |first1=Gilles |last2=Laurin |first2=Michel |title=Testing extinction events and temporal shifts in diversification and fossilization rates through the skyline Fossilized Birth‐Death (FBD) model: The example of some mid‐Permian synapsid extinctions |journal=Cladistics |date=23 April 2024 |doi=10.1111/cla.12577 |url=https://doi.org/10.1111/cla.12577 |language=en |issn=0748-3007}} The worst was the [[Permian-Triassic extinction event]], 251 million years ago.{{cite journal |last1=Viglietti |first1=Pia A. |last2=Benson |first2=Roger B. J. |last3=Smith |first3=Roger M. H. |last4=Botha |first4=Jennifer |last5=Kammerer |first5=Christian F. |last6=Skosan |first6=Zaituna |last7=Butler |first7=Elize |last8=Crean |first8=Annelise |last9=Eloff |first9=Bobby |last10=Kaal |first10=Sheena |last11=Mohoi |first11=Joël |last12=Molehe |first12=William |last13=Mtalana |first13=Nolusindiso |last14=Mtungata |first14=Sibusiso |last15=Ntheri |first15=Nthaopa |last16=Ntsala |first16=Thabang |last17=Nyaphuli |first17=John |last18=October |first18=Paul |last19=Skinner |first19=Georgina |last20=Strong |first20=Mike |last21=Stummer |first21=Hedi |last22=Wolvaardt |first22=Frederik P. |last23=Angielczyk |first23=Kenneth D. |title=Evidence from South Africa for a protracted end-Permian extinction on land |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |date=27 April 2021 |volume=118 |issue=17 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2017045118 |url=https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.2017045118 |language=en |issn=0027-8424}}{{cite journal |last1=Kammerer |first1=Christian F. |last2=Viglietti |first2=Pia A. |last3=Butler |first3=Elize |last4=Botha |first4=Jennifer |title=Rapid turnover of top predators in African terrestrial faunas around the Permian-Triassic mass extinction |journal=Current Biology |date=June 2023 |volume=33 |issue=11 |pages=2283–2290.e3 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.007 |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2023.04.007 |issn=0960-9822}} Vertebrates took 30 million years to recover from this event.{{cite journal |author1=Sahney, S. |author2=Benton, M.J. |name-list-style=amp |year=2008 |title=Recovery from the most profound mass extinction of all time |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=275 |issue=1636 |pages=759–765 |doi=10.1098/rspb.2007.1370 |pmc=2596898 |pmid=18198148}} [121] => [122] => The biodiversity of the past is called Paleobiodiversity. The [[fossil record]] suggests that the last few million years featured the greatest biodiversity in [[History of Earth|history]]. However, not all scientists support this view, since there is uncertainty as to how strongly the fossil record is biased by the greater availability and preservation of recent [[geology|geologic]] sections.{{Cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |last2=Kudryavtsev |first2=Anatoliy B. |last3=Czaja |first3=Andrew D. |last4=Tripathi |first4=Abhishek B. |date=5 October 2007 |title=Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils |journal=Precambrian Research |series=Earliest Evidence of Life on Earth |volume=158 |issue=3–4 |pages=141–155 |bibcode=2007PreR..158..141S |doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009}} Some scientists believe that corrected for sampling artifacts, modern biodiversity may not be much different from biodiversity 300 million years ago,{{cite journal | pmid = 11353852 | year = 2001 | last1 = Alroy | first1 = J | last2 = Marshall | first2 = CR | last3 = Bambach | first3 = RK | last4 = Bezusko | first4 = K | last5 = Foote | first5 = M | last6 = Fursich | first6 = FT | last7 = Hansen | first7 = TA | last8 = Holland | first8 = SM | last9 = Ivany | first9 = LC | title = Effects of sampling standardization on estimates of Phanerozoic marine diversification | volume = 98 | issue = 11 | pages = 6261–6266 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.111144698 | pmc = 33456 | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America|bibcode = 2001PNAS...98.6261A | display-authors = 8| doi-access = free }} whereas others consider the fossil record reasonably reflective of the diversification of life.{{cite journal |last1=Marjanović |first1=David |last2=Laurin |first2=Michel |title=Assessing Confidence Intervals for Stratigraphic Ranges of Higher Taxa: The Case of Lissamphibia |journal=Acta Palaeontologica Polonica |date=September 2008 |volume=53 |issue=3 |pages=413–432 |doi=10.4202/app.2008.0305}} Estimates of the present global macroscopic species diversity vary from 2 million to 100 million, with a best estimate of somewhere near 9 million, the vast majority [[arthropod]]s.{{cite web |url=http://www.unep.org/ourplanet/imgversn/85/heywood.html |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070214082246/http://www.unep.org/OurPlanet/imgversn/85/heywood.html |url-status=dead |archive-date=14 February 2007 |title=Mapping the web of life |publisher=Unep.org |access-date=21 June 2009 }} Diversity appears to increase continually in the absence of natural selection.{{Cite journal| pages = 318| issue = 7304| doi = 10.1038/466318a| year = 2010| journal = Nature| volume = 466| title = Does diversity always grow?| last1 = Okasha | first1 = S.|bibcode = 2010Natur.466..318O | doi-access = free}} [123] => [124] => ===Diversification=== [125] => The existence of a ''global carrying capacity'', limiting the amount of life that can live at once, is debated, as is the question of whether such a limit would also cap the number of species. While records of life in the sea show a [[logistic function|logistic]] pattern of growth, life on land (insects, plants and tetrapods) shows an [[exponential growth|exponential]] rise in diversity. As one author states, "Tetrapods have not yet invaded 64 percent of potentially habitable modes and it could be that without human influence the ecological and [[Taxonomy (biology)|taxonomic]] diversity of tetrapods would continue to increase exponentially until most or all of the available eco-space is filled." [126] => [127] => It also appears that the diversity continues to increase over time, especially after mass extinctions.{{cite web|url=https://biox.stanford.edu/highlight/stanford-researchers-discover-animal-functional-diversity-started-out-poor-became-richer|title=Stanford researchers discover that animal functional diversity started poor, became richer over time |website=biox.stanford.edu|date=11 March 2015 }} [128] => [129] => On the other hand, changes through the [[Phanerozoic]] correlate much better with the [[Hyperbolic growth|hyperbolic]] model (widely used in [[population biology]], [[demography]] and [[macrosociology]], as well as [[fossil]] biodiversity) than with exponential and logistic models. The latter models imply that changes in diversity are guided by a first-order [[positive feedback]] (more ancestors, more descendants) and/or a [[negative feedback]] arising from resource limitation. Hyperbolic model implies a second-order positive feedback. Differences in the strength of the second-order feedback due to different intensities of interspecific competition might explain the faster rediversification of [[ammonoids]] in comparison to [[bivalves]] after the [[end-Permian extinction]].{{cite journal |last1=Hautmann |first1=Michael |last2=Bagherpour |first2=Borhan |last3=Brosse |first3=Morgane |last4=Frisk |first4=Åsa |last5=Hofmann |first5=Richard |last6=Baud |first6=Aymon |last7=Nützel |first7=Alexander |last8=Goudemand |first8=Nicolas |last9=Bucher |first9=Hugo |last10=Brayard |first10=Arnaud |title=Competition in slow motion: the unusual case of benthic marine communities in the wake of the end-Permian mass extinction |journal=Palaeontology |date=2015 |volume=58 |issue=5 |pages=871–901 |doi=10.1111/pala.12186|bibcode=2015Palgy..58..871H |s2cid=140688908 |doi-access=free }} The hyperbolic pattern of the [[world population]] growth arises from a second-order positive feedback between the population size and the rate of technological growth.{{cite journal | pmid = 18677962 | year = 2008 | last1 = Markov | first1 = AV | last2 = Korotaev | first2 = AV | title = Hyperbolic growth of marine and continental biodiversity through the phanerozoic and community evolution | volume = 69 | issue = 3 | pages = 175–194 | journal = Journal of General Biology | url=http://elementy.ru/genbio/abstracts?artid=177}} The hyperbolic character of biodiversity growth can be similarly accounted for by a feedback between diversity and community structure complexity. The similarity between the curves of biodiversity and human population probably comes from the fact that both are derived from the interference of the hyperbolic trend with cyclical and [[stochastic]] dynamics. [130] => {{cite journal | doi=10.1016/j.palwor.2007.01.002 | title=Phanerozoic marine biodiversity follows a hyperbolic trend | year=2007 | last1=Markov | first1=A | last2=Korotayev | first2=A | journal=[[Palaeoworld]] | volume=16 | issue=4 | pages=311–318 }} [131] => [132] => Most biologists agree however that the period since human emergence is part of a new mass extinction, named the [[Holocene extinction event]], caused primarily by the impact humans are having on the environment.[http://www.amnh.org/museum/press/feature/biofact.html National Survey Reveals Biodiversity Crisis] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070607101209/http://www.amnh.org/museum/press/feature/biofact.html |date=7 June 2007 }} American Museum of Natural History It has been argued that the present rate of extinction is sufficient to eliminate most species on the planet Earth within 100 years.{{cite book|first=Edward O. |last=Wilson|title=The Future of Life|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Guosshxltn4C}}|date=1 January 2002|publisher=Alfred A. Knopf|isbn=978-0-679-45078-8}} [133] => [134] => New species are regularly discovered (on average between 5–10,000 new species each year, most of them [[insect]]s) and many, though discovered, are not yet classified (estimates are that nearly 90% of all [[arthropod]]s are not yet classified). Most of the terrestrial diversity is found in [[tropical forest]]s and in general, the land has more species than the ocean; some 8.7 million species may exist on Earth, of which some 2.1 million live in the ocean. [135] => [136] => === Species diversity in geologic time frames === [137] => {{Further|History of life|Earliest known life forms}} [138] => [139] => It is estimated that 5 to 50 billion species have existed on the planet.{{Cite journal |last=Barry |first=John C. |date=1992 |title=Extinction: Bad genes or bad luck? By David M. Raup. New York: W. W. Norton. 1991. xvii + 210 pp. ISBN 0-393-03008-3. $19.95 (cloth) |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/ajpa.1330880410 |journal=American Journal of Physical Anthropology |volume=88 |issue=4 |pages=563–564 |doi=10.1002/ajpa.1330880410 |issn=0002-9483}} Assuming that there may be a maximum of about 50 million species currently alive,{{Cite journal |last=May |first=Robert M. |date=1988-09-16 |title=How Many Species Are There on Earth? |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.241.4872.1441 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=241 |issue=4872 |pages=1441–1449 |doi=10.1126/science.241.4872.1441 |pmid=17790039 |bibcode=1988Sci...241.1441M |issn=0036-8075}} it stands to reason that greater than 99% of the planet's species went extinct prior to the evolution of humans.{{Citation |last=McKinney |first=Michael L. |title=How do rare species avoid extinction? A paleontological view |date=1997 |work=The Biology of Rarity: Causes and consequences of rare—common differences |pages=110–129 |editor-last=Kunin |editor-first=William E. |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-5874-9_7 |access-date=2024-03-10 |series=Population and Community Biology Series |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-5874-9_7 |isbn=978-94-011-5874-9 |editor2-last=Gaston |editor2-first=Kevin J.}} Estimates on the number of Earth's current [[species]] range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about 1.2 million have been documented and over 86% have not yet been described.{{cite book|author1=G. Miller|author2=Scott Spoolman |title=Environmental Science - Biodiversity Is a Crucial Part of the Earth's Natural Capital |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYEJAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA62 |date=2012 |publisher=[[Cengage Learning]] |isbn=978-1-133-70787-5 |page=62 |accessdate=27 December 2014 }} However, a May 2016 scientific report estimates that 1 trillion species are currently on Earth, with only one-thousandth of one percent described.{{cite news |author=Staff |title=Researchers find that Earth may be home to 1 trillion species |url=https://www.nsf.gov/news/news_summ.jsp?cntn_id=138446 |date=2 May 2016 |work=[[National Science Foundation]] |accessdate=6 May 2016 }} The total amount of related [[DNA]] [[base pair]]s on Earth is estimated at 5.0 x 1037 and weighs 50 billion [[tonne]]s. In comparison, the total [[Biomass (ecology)|mass]] of the [[biosphere]] has been estimated to be as much as four trillion tons of [[carbon]].{{cite web |author=Staff |title=The Biosphere |url=http://www.agci.org/classroom/biosphere/index.php |date=2014 |work=[[The Given Institute|Aspen Global Change Institute]] |access-date=10 November 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141110164609/http://www.agci.org/classroom/biosphere/index.php |archive-date=10 November 2014 |url-status=live }} In July 2016, scientists reported identifying a set of 355 [[gene]]s from the [[last universal common ancestor]] (LUCA) of all [[organism]]s living on Earth.{{cite news |last=Wade |first=Nicholas |authorlink=Nicholas Wade |title=Meet Luca, the Ancestor of All Living Things |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/07/26/science/last-universal-ancestor.html |date=25 July 2016 |work=[[New York Times]] |accessdate=25 July 2016 }} [140] => [141] => The [[age of Earth]] is about 4.54 billion years.{{cite web |url=http://pubs.usgs.gov/gip/geotime/age.html |title=Age of the Earth |date=9 July 2007 |publisher=[[United States Geological Survey]] |accessdate=2006-01-10}}{{cite journal |last=Dalrymple |first=G. Brent | authorlink=Brent Dalrymple | title=The age of the Earth in the twentieth century: a problem (mostly) solved | journal=Special Publications, Geological Society of London | date=2001 | volume=190 | issue=1 | pages=205–221 | doi=10.1144/GSL.SP.2001.190.01.14 |bibcode = 2001GSLSP.190..205D }}{{cite journal |last1=Manhesa |first1=Gérard |last2=Allègre |first2=Claude J. |authorlink2=Claude Allègre |last3=Dupréa |first3=Bernard |last4=Hamelin |first4=Bruno |date=May 1980 |title=Lead isotope study of basic-ultrabasic layered complexes: Speculations about the age of the earth and primitive mantle characteristics |journal=[[Earth and Planetary Science Letters]] |location=Amsterdam, the Netherlands |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |volume=47 |issue=3 |pages=370–382 |bibcode=1980E&PSL..47..370M |doi=10.1016/0012-821X(80)90024-2 |issn=0012-821X}} The earliest undisputed evidence of [[life]] dates at least from 3.7 billion years ago, during the [[Eoarchean]] era after a geological [[Crust (geology)|crust]] started to solidify following the earlier molten [[Hadean]] eon.{{cite journal |last1=Schopf |first1=J. William |authorlink1=J. William Schopf |last2=Kudryavtsev |first2=Anatoliy B. |last3=Czaja |first3=Andrew D. |last4=Tripathi |first4=Abhishek B. |date=5 October 2007 |title=Evidence of Archean life: Stromatolites and microfossils |journal=[[Precambrian Research]] |location=Amsterdam, the Netherlands |publisher=Elsevier |volume=158 |pages=141–155 |issue=3–4 |doi=10.1016/j.precamres.2007.04.009 |issn=0301-9268|bibcode=2007PreR..158..141S }}{{cite journal |last=Schopf |first=J. William |date=29 June 2006 |title=Fossil evidence of Archaean life |journal=[[Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B]] |location=London |publisher=[[Royal Society]] |volume=361 |issue=1470 |pages=869–885 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2006.1834 |issn=0962-8436 |pmid=16754604 |pmc=1578735}}{{cite book |last1=Raven |first1=Peter H. |authorlink1=Peter H. Raven |last2=Johnson |first2=George B. |authorlink2=George B. Johnson |year=2002 |title=Biology |edition=6th |location=Boston, MA |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Education|McGraw-Hill]] |isbn=0-07-112261-3 |lccn=2001030052 |oclc=45806501 |page=68}} There are [[microbial mat]] [[fossils]] found in 3.48 billion-year-old [[sandstone]] discovered in [[Western Australia]]. Other early physical evidence of a [[biogenic substance]] is [[graphite]] in 3.7 billion-year-old [[Metasediment|meta-sedimentary rocks]] discovered in [[Western Greenland]]..{{cite journal |last1=Ohtomo |first1=Yoko |last2=Kakegawa |first2=Takeshi |last3=Ishida |first3=Akizumi |last4=Nagase |first4=Toshiro |last5=Rosing |first5=Minik T. |display-authors=3 |date=January 2014 |title=Evidence for biogenic graphite in early Archaean Isua metasedimentary rocks |journal=[[Nature Geoscience]] |volume=7 |issue=1 |pages=25–28 |bibcode=2014NatGe...7...25O |doi=10.1038/ngeo2025 |issn=1752-0894 |s2cid=54767854}}{{Cite journal |last1=Hassenkam |first1=T. |last2=Rosing |first2=M. T. |date=2017-11-02 |title=3.7 billion year old biogenic remains |journal=Communicative & Integrative Biology |language=en |volume=10 |issue=5–6 |pages=e1380759 |doi=10.1080/19420889.2017.1380759 |issn=1942-0889 |pmc=5731516 |pmid=29260796}} More recently, in 2015, "remains of [[Biotic material|biotic life]]" were found in 4.1 billion-year-old rocks in Western [[Australia]]. According to one of the researchers, "If life arose relatively quickly on Earth...then it could be common in the [[universe]]."{{cite web |date=2015-10-23 |title=Excite News – Hints of life on what was thought to be desolate early Earth |url=http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151023200248/http://apnews.excite.com/article/20151019/us-sci--earliest_life-a400435d0d.html |archive-date=2015-10-23 |access-date=2022-09-05 |website=apnews.excite.com}} [142] => [143] => ==Role and benefits of biodiversity == [144] => [[File:Field Hamois Belgium Luc Viatour.jpg|thumb|upright|Summer field in [[Belgium]] (Hamois). The blue flowers are ''[[Centaurea cyanus]]'' and the red are ''[[Papaver rhoeas]]''.]] [145] => [146] => ===General ecosystem services=== [147] => {{further|Ecosystem services}} [148] => [149] => From the perspective of the method known as [[Natural economy|Natural Economy]] the economic value of 17 ecosystem services for Earth's [[biosphere]] (calculated in 1997) has an estimated value of US$33 trillion (3.3x1013) per year.{{Cite journal |last1=Costanza |first1=R. |last2=d'Arge |first2=R. |last3=de Groot |first3=R. |last4=Farberk |first4=S. |last5=Grasso |first5=M. |last6=Hannon |first6=B. |last7=Limburg |first7=Karin |last8=Naeem |first8=Shahid |last9=O'Neill |first9=Robert V. |display-authors=8 |year=1997 |title=The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital |url=http://www.uvm.edu/giee/publications/Nature_Paper.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=Nature |volume=387 |issue=6630 |pages=253–260 |bibcode=1997Natur.387..253C |doi=10.1038/387253a0 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091226124242/http://www.uvm.edu/giee/publications/Nature_Paper.pdf |archive-date=26 December 2009 |s2cid=672256}} [150] => [151] => "Ecosystem services are the suite of benefits that ecosystems provide to humanity."{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/nature11148 | title=Biodiversity loss and its impact on humanity | year=2012 | last1=Cardinale | first1=Bradley | journal=Nature | volume=486 | pages=59–67|bibcode = 2012Natur.486...59C | pmid=22678280 | issue=7401| s2cid=4333166 |display-authors=etal| url=https://pub.epsilon.slu.se/10240/7/wardle_d_etal_130415.pdf }} The natural species, or biota, are the caretakers of all ecosystems. It is as if the natural world is an enormous bank account of capital assets capable of paying life sustaining dividends indefinitely, but only if the capital is maintained.Wright, Richard T., and Bernard J. Nebel. ''Environmental Science : toward a Sustainable Future''. Eighth ed., Upper Saddle River, N.J., Pearson Education, 2002. [152] => These services come in three flavors: [153] => # Provisioning services which involve the production of renewable resources (e.g.: food, wood, fresh water) [154] => # Regulating services which are those that lessen environmental change (e.g.: climate regulation, pest/disease control) [155] => # Cultural services represent human value and enjoyment (e.g.: landscape aesthetics, cultural heritage, outdoor recreation and spiritual significance){{cite journal|last=Daniel|first=T. C.|title=Contributions of cultural services to the ecosystem services agenda|journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences|date=21 May 2012|volume=109|issue=23|pages=8812–8819|doi=10.1073/pnas.1114773109|bibcode = 2012PNAS..109.8812D |display-authors=etal|pmid=22615401|pmc=3384142|doi-access=free}} [156] => [157] => There have been many claims about biodiversity's effect on these ecosystem services, especially provisioning and regulating services. After an exhaustive survey through peer-reviewed literature to evaluate 36 different claims about biodiversity's effect on ecosystem services, 14 of those claims have been validated, 6 demonstrate mixed support or are unsupported, 3 are incorrect and 13 lack enough evidence to draw definitive conclusions. [158] => [159] => ====Services enhanced==== [160] => [161] => ; Provisioning services [162] => Greater species diversity [163] => * of plants increases fodder yield (synthesis of 271 experimental studies).{{cite journal|last=Cardinale|first=Bradley. J.|title=The functional role of producer diversity in ecosystems|journal=[[American Journal of Botany]]|date=March 2011|volume=98|issue=3|pages=572–592|doi=10.3732/ajb.1000364|display-authors=etal|pmid=21613148|hdl=2027.42/141994|s2cid=10801536 |url=https://scholarworks.wm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1654&context=vimsarticles|hdl-access=free}} [164] => * of plants (i.e. diversity within a single species) increases overall [[crop yield]] (synthesis of 575 experimental studies).{{cite journal|last=Kiaer|first=Lars P.|author2=Skovgaard, M. |author3=Østergård, Hanne|title=Grain yield increase in cereal variety mixtures: A meta-analysis of field trials|journal=Field Crops Research|date=1 December 2009|volume=114|issue=3|pages=361–373|doi=10.1016/j.fcr.2009.09.006}} Although another review of 100 experimental studies reports mixed evidence.{{cite journal|last=Letourneau|first=Deborah K.|s2cid=11439673|title=Does plant diversity benefit agroecosystems? A synthetic review|journal=[[Ecological Applications]]|date=1 January 2011|volume=21|issue=1|pages=9–21|doi=10.1890/09-2026.1|pmid=21516884|bibcode=2011EcoAp..21....9L }} [165] => * of trees increases overall [[wood production]] (Synthesis of 53 experimental studies).{{cite journal|last=Piotto|first=Daniel|title=A meta-analysis comparing tree growth in monocultures and mixed plantations|journal=[[Forest Ecology and Management]]|date=1 March 2008|volume=255|issue=3–4|pages=781–786|doi=10.1016/j.foreco.2007.09.065}} However, there is not enough data to draw a conclusion about the effect of tree trait diversity on wood production. [166] => [167] => ; Regulating services [168] => Greater species diversity [169] => * of fish increases the stability of [[fisheries]] yield (Synthesis of 8 observational studies) [170] => * of natural pest enemies decreases herbivorous pest populations (Data from two separate reviews; Synthesis of 266 experimental and observational studies;{{cite book|title=Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics: Vol 40 2009|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=2zifbwAACAAJ|page=573}}|date=1 January 2009|publisher=Annual Reviews|isbn=978-0-8243-1440-8|editor-first1=Douglas J. |editor-last1=Futuyma |editor-first2=H. Bradley |editor-last2=Shaffer |editor-first3=Daniel |editor-last3=Simberloff |location=Palo Alto, Calif.|pages=573–592}} Synthesis of 18 observational studies.{{cite journal |last=Philpott |first=Stacy M. |author-link=Stacy Philpott |author2=Soong, Oliver |author3=Lowenstein, Jacob H. |author4=Pulido, Astrid Luz |author5=Lopez, Diego Tobar |date=1 October 2009 |others=Flynn, Dan F. B.; DeClerck, Fabrice |title=Functional richness and ecosystem services: bird predation on arthropods in tropical agroecosystems |journal=Ecological Applications |volume=19 |issue=7 |pages=1858–1867 |doi=10.1890/08-1928.1 |pmid=19831075 |bibcode=2009EcoAp..19.1858P |s2cid=9867979}}{{cite journal|last=Van Bael|first=Sunshine A|title=Birds as predators in tropical agroforestry systems|journal=Ecology|date=Apr 2008|volume=89|issue=4|pages=928–934|doi=10.1890/06-1976.1|pmid=18481517|bibcode=2008Ecol...89..928V |display-authors=etal|hdl=1903/7873|hdl-access=free}} Although another review of 38 experimental studies found mixed support for this claim, suggesting that in cases where mutual intraguild predation occurs, a single predatory species is often more effective{{cite journal|last=Vance-Chalcraft|first=Heather D.|s2cid=21458500|title=The Influence of Intraguild Predation on Prey Suppression and Prey Release: A Meta-analysis|journal=Ecology|date=1 November 2007|volume=88|issue=11|pages=2689–2696|doi=10.1890/06-1869.1|pmid=18051635|bibcode=2007Ecol...88.2689V |display-authors=etal}} [171] => * of plants decreases disease prevalence on plants (Synthesis of 107 experimental studies){{cite journal|last=Quijas|first=Sandra|author2=Schmid, Bernhard |author3=Balvanera, Patricia|title=Plant diversity enhances provision of ecosystem services: A new synthesis|journal=Basic and Applied Ecology|date=1 November 2010|volume=11|issue=7|pages=582–593|doi=10.1016/j.baae.2010.06.009|bibcode=2010BApEc..11..582Q |citeseerx=10.1.1.473.7444}} [172] => * of plants increases resistance to [[plant invasion]] (Data from two separate reviews; Synthesis of 105 experimental studies; Synthesis of 15 experimental studies{{cite journal|last=Levine|first=Jonathan M.|author2=Adler, Peter B. |author3=Yelenik, Stephanie G.|s2cid=85852363|title=A meta-analysis of biotic resistance to exotic plant invasions|journal=Ecology Letters|date=6 September 2004|volume=7|issue=10|pages=975–989|doi=10.1111/j.1461-0248.2004.00657.x|bibcode=2004EcolL...7..975L }}) [173] => * of plants increases [[carbon sequestration]], but note that this finding only relates to actual uptake of carbon dioxide and not long-term storage, see below; Synthesis of 479 experimental studies) [174] => * plants increases [[soil nutrient]] [[remineralization]] (Synthesis of 103 experimental studies) [175] => * of plants increases soil organic matter (Synthesis of 85 experimental studies) [176] => [177] => ====Services with mixed evidence==== [178] => [179] => ; Provisioning services [180] => * None to date [181] => [182] => ; Regulating services [183] => * Greater species diversity of plants may or may not decrease herbivorous pest populations. Data from two separate reviews suggest that greater diversity decreases pest populations (Synthesis of 40 observational studies;{{cite journal|last=Crowder|first=David W.|title=Organic agriculture promotes evenness and natural pest control|journal=Nature|volume=466|issue=7302|pages=109–112|doi=10.1038/nature09183|bibcode = 2010Natur.466..109C |display-authors=etal|pmid=20596021|year=2010|s2cid=205221308}} Synthesis of 100 experimental studies). One review found mixed evidence (Synthesis of 287 experimental studies{{cite journal|last=Andow|first=D A|title=Vegetational Diversity and Arthropod Population Response|journal=Annual Review of Entomology|date=1 January 1991|volume=36|issue=1|pages=561–586|doi=10.1146/annurev.en.36.010191.003021}}), while another found contrary evidence (Synthesis of 100 experimental studies) [184] => * Greater species diversity of animals may or may not decrease disease prevalence on those animals (Synthesis of 45 experimental and observational studies),{{cite journal|last=Keesing|first=Felicia|title=Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases|journal=Nature|volume=468|issue=7324|pages=647–652|doi=10.1038/nature09575|bibcode = 2010Natur.468..647K |display-authors=etal|pmid=21124449|date=Dec 2010|pmc=7094913}} although a 2013 study offers more support showing that biodiversity may in fact enhance disease resistance within animal communities, at least in amphibian frog ponds.{{cite journal|last=Johnson|first=Pieter T. J.|title=Biodiversity decreases disease through predictable changes in host community competence|journal=Nature|date=13 February 2013|volume=494|issue=7436|pages=230–233|doi=10.1038/nature11883|bibcode = 2013Natur.494..230J |display-authors=etal|pmid=23407539|s2cid=205232648}} Many more studies must be published in support of diversity to sway the balance of evidence will be such that we can draw a general rule on this service. [185] => * Greater species and trait diversity of plants may or may not increase long term carbon storage (Synthesis of 33 observational studies) [186] => * Greater pollinator diversity may or may not increase pollination (Synthesis of 7 observational studies), but a publication from March 2013 suggests that increased native pollinator diversity enhances pollen deposition (although not necessarily fruit set as the authors would have you believe, for details explore their lengthy supplementary material).{{cite journal|last=Garibaldi|first=L. A.|title=Wild Pollinators Enhance Fruit Set of Crops Regardless of Honey Bee Abundance|journal=Science|date=28 February 2013|doi=10.1126/science.1230200|bibcode = 2013Sci...339.1608G|volume=339|issue=6127|pages=1608–1611|display-authors=etal|pmid=23449997|s2cid=88564525|url=http://www.escholarship.org/uc/item/2cm0d8nr|doi-access=free|hdl=11336/6844|hdl-access=free}} [187] => [188] => ====Services hindered==== [189] => [190] => ; Provisioning services [191] => * Greater species diversity of plants reduces primary production (Synthesis of 7 experimental studies) [192] => [193] => ; Regulating services [194] => * greater genetic and species diversity of a number of organisms reduces freshwater purification (Synthesis of 8 experimental studies, although an attempt by the authors to investigate the effect of detritivore diversity on freshwater purification was unsuccessful due to a lack of available evidence (only 1 [[observational study]] was found [195] => * Effect of species diversity of plants on biofuel yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 3 studies) [196] => * Effect of species diversity of fish on fishery yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 4 experimental studies and 1 observational study) [197] => [198] => ; Regulating services [199] => * Effect of species diversity on the stability of [[biofuel]] yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators did not find any studies) [200] => * Effect of species diversity of plants on the stability of fodder yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 2 studies) [201] => * Effect of species diversity of plants on the stability of crop yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 1 study) [202] => * Effect of [[genetic diversity]] of plants on the stability of crop yield (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 2 studies) [203] => * Effect of diversity on the stability of wood production (In a survey of the literature, the investigators could not find any studies) [204] => * Effect of species diversity of multiple taxa on [[erosion control]] (In a survey of the literature, the investigators could not find any studies – they did, however, find studies on the effect of species diversity and root biomass) [205] => * Effect of diversity on [[flood regulation]] (In a survey of the literature, the investigators could not find any studies) [206] => * Effect of species and trait diversity of plants on [[soil moisture]] (In a survey of the literature, the investigators only found 2 studies) [207] => [208] => Other sources have reported somewhat conflicting results and in 1997 Robert Costanza and his colleagues reported the estimated global value of ecosystem services (not captured in traditional markets) at an average of $33 trillion annually.{{cite journal | doi=10.1038/387253a0 | title=The value of the world's ecosystem services and natural capital | year=1997 | last1=Costanza | first1=Robert | journal=Nature | volume=387 | issue=6630 | pages=253–260 |bibcode = 1997Natur.387..253C | s2cid=672256 | url=https://discovery.ucl.ac.uk/id/eprint/10189378/ |display-authors=etal}} [209] => [210] => Since the [[Stone Age]], species loss has accelerated above the average basal rate, driven by human activity. Estimates of species losses are at a rate 100–10,000 times as fast as is typical in the fossil record.{{Cite book|title=Ecosystems and human well-being: current state and trends : findings of the Condition and Trends Working Group of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment |last=Hassan |first=Rashid M. |year=2006 |publisher=Island Press |isbn=978-1-55963-228-7 |page=105 |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=UFVmiSAr-okC|page=105}} |display-authors=etal}} Biodiversity also affords many non-material benefits including spiritual and aesthetic values, knowledge systems and education. [211] => [212] => ===Agriculture=== [213] => {{See also|Agricultural biodiversity}} [214] => [[File:Amazon Manaus forest.jpg|thumb|upright=1.15|[[Amazon Rainforest]] in [[South America]]]] [215] => [216] => Agricultural diversity can be divided into two categories: [[genetic diversity|intraspecific diversity]], which includes the genetic variation within a single species, like the potato (''[[Solanum tuberosum]]'') that is composed of many different forms and types (e.g. in the U.S. they might compare russet potatoes with new potatoes or purple potatoes, all different, but all part of the same species, ''S. tuberosum''). [217] => [218] => The other category of agricultural diversity is called [[species diversity|interspecific diversity]] and refers to the number and types of different species. Thinking about this diversity we might note that many small vegetable farmers grow many different crops like potatoes and also carrots, peppers, lettuce, etc. [219] => [220] => Agricultural diversity can also be divided by whether it is 'planned' diversity or 'associated' diversity. This is a functional classification that we impose and not an intrinsic feature of life or diversity. Planned diversity includes the crops which a farmer has encouraged, planted or raised (e.g. crops, covers, symbionts, and livestock, among others), which can be contrasted with the associated diversity that arrives among the crops, uninvited (e.g. herbivores, weed species and pathogens, among others).{{cite book|first=John H. |last=Vandermeer|title=The Ecology of Agroecosystems|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=AFRQSuQGHiIC}}|year=2011|publisher=Jones & Bartlett Learning|isbn=978-0-7637-7153-9}} [221] => [222] => Associated biodiversity can be damaging or beneficial. The beneficial associated biodiversity include for instance wild pollinators such as wild bees and [[syrphid]] flies that pollinate crops{{cite web |last1=IPBES |title=Assessment Report on Pollinators, Pollination and Food Production |url=https://ipbes.net/assessment-reports/pollinators |website=ipbes.org |date=26 June 2018 |publisher=IPBES |access-date=13 April 2021}} and natural enemies and antagonists to pests and pathogens. Beneficial associated biodiversity occurs abundantly in crop fields and provide multiple [[ecosystem services]] such as pest control, nutrient cycling and pollination that support crop production.{{cite journal |last1=Bommarco |title=Ecological intensification: harnessing ecosystem services for food security |journal=Trends in Ecology and Evolution |date=2013 |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=230–238 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2012.10.012 |pmid=23153724 }} [223] => [224] => The control of damaging associated biodiversity is one of the great agricultural challenges that farmers face. On [[monoculture]] farms, the approach is generally to suppress damaging associated diversity using a suite of biologically destructive [[pesticide]]s, mechanized tools and [[genetically modified organism|transgenic engineering techniques]], then to [[crop rotation|rotate crops]]. Although some [[polyculture]] farmers use the same techniques, they also employ [[integrated pest management]] strategies as well as more labor-intensive strategies, but generally less dependent on capital, biotechnology, and energy. [225] => [226] => Interspecific crop diversity is, in part, responsible for offering variety in what we eat. Intraspecific diversity, the variety of alleles within a single species, also offers us a choice in our diets. If a crop fails in a monoculture, we rely on agricultural diversity to replant the land with something new. If a wheat crop is destroyed by a pest we may plant a hardier variety of wheat the next year, relying on intraspecific diversity. We may forgo wheat production in that area and plant a different species altogether, relying on interspecific diversity. Even an agricultural society that primarily grows monocultures relies on biodiversity at some point. [227] => * The [[Great Famine (Ireland)|Irish potato blight]] of 1846 was a major factor in the deaths of one million people and the emigration of about two million. It was the result of planting only two potato varieties, both vulnerable to the blight, ''[[Phytophthora infestans]]'', which arrived in 1845 [228] => * When [[rice grassy stunt virus]] struck rice fields from Indonesia to India in the 1970s, 6,273 varieties were tested for resistance.{{cite web |url=http://www.lumrix.net/health/Rice_grassy_stunt_virus.html |title=Rice Grassy Stunt Virus |publisher=Lumrix.net |access-date=21 June 2009 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110723193147/http://www.lumrix.net/health/Rice_grassy_stunt_virus.html |archive-date=23 July 2011 }} Only one was resistant, an Indian variety and known to science only since 1966. This variety formed a hybrid with other varieties and is now widely grown. [229] => * [[Coffee rust]] attacked coffee plantations in [[Sri Lanka]], [[Brazil]] and Central America in 1970. A resistant variety was found in Ethiopia.{{cite journal | pmid = 6694743 | year = 1984 | last1 = Wahl | first1 = GM | author2 = Robert de Saint Vincent B | last3 = Derose | first3 = ML | title = Effect of chromosomal position on amplification of transfected genes in animal cells | volume = 307 | issue = 5951 | pages = 516–520 | journal = Nature | doi = 10.1038/307516a0 |bibcode = 1984Natur.307..516W | s2cid = 4322191 }} The diseases are themselves a form of biodiversity. [230] => [231] => [[Monoculture]] was a contributing factor to several agricultural disasters, including the European wine industry collapse in the late 19th century and the US [[southern corn leaf blight]] epidemic of 1970.{{cite web |url=http://cropdisease.cropsci.illinois.edu/corn/southerncornleafblight.html |title=Southern Corn Leaf Blight |access-date=13 November 2007 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110814024237/http://cropdisease.cropsci.illinois.edu/corn/southerncornleafblight.html |archive-date=14 August 2011 |url-status=dead }} [232] => [233] => Although about 80 percent of humans' food supply comes from just 20 kinds of plants,{{Cite book|title=Natural Resources – Technology, Economics & Policy|last=Aswathanarayana|first=Uppugunduri|publisher=CRC Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-203-12399-7|location=Leiden, Netherlands|pages=370}} humans use at least 40,000 species.{{Cite book|title=Natural Resources – Technology, Economics & Policy|last=Aswathanarayana|first=Uppugunduri|publisher=CRC Press|year=2012|isbn=978-0-203-12399-7|location=Leiden. Netherlands|pages=370}} Earth's surviving biodiversity provides resources for increasing the range of food and other products suitable for human use, although the present extinction rate shrinks that potential. [234] => [235] => ===Human health=== [236] => [[File:Forest fruits from Barro Colorado.png|thumb|upright|The diverse forest canopy on [[Barro Colorado Island]], Panama, yielded this display of different fruit]] [237] => [238] => Biodiversity's relevance to human health is becoming an international political issue, as scientific evidence builds on the global health implications of biodiversity loss.World Health Organization(WHO) and Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity (2015) [https://web.archive.org/web/20150604163250/http://www.who.int/globalchange/publications/biodiversity-human-health/en/ Connecting Global Priorities: Biodiversity and Human Health, a State of Knowledge Review ]. See also [http://www.cbd.int/health/ Website of the Secretariat of the Convention on Biological Diversity on biodiversity and health]. Other relevant resources include [239] => [http://www.cohabnet.org/en_resources_reports.htm Reports of the 1st and 2nd International Conferences on Health and Biodiversity.] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090107015716/http://www.cohabnet.org/en_resources_reports.htm |date=7 January 2009 }} See also: [http://www.cohabnet.org/ Website of the UN COHAB Initiative] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090204054347/http://www.cohabnet.org/ |date=4 February 2009 }}{{cite book|editor-first=Eric |editor-last=Chivian|title=Sustaining Life: How Human Health Depends on Biodiversity|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=n4ET74GCMG0C}}|date=15 May 2008|publisher=OUP US|isbn=978-0-19-517509-7}}{{cite book |first1=Carlos |last1=Corvalán |first2=Simon |last2=Hales |author3=Anthony J. McMichael|title=Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Health Synthesis|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=vKIXu2Z-9QsC|page=28}}|year=2005|publisher=World Health Organization|isbn=978-92-4-156309-3|pages=28}} This issue is closely linked with the issue of [[climate change]],(2009) [http://www.cbd.int/climate/ "Climate Change and Biological Diversity"] Convention on Biological Diversity Retrieved 5 November 2009 as many of the anticipated [[health risks of climate change]] are associated with changes in biodiversity (e.g. changes in populations and distribution of disease vectors, scarcity of fresh water, impacts on agricultural biodiversity and food resources etc.). This is because the species most likely to disappear are those that buffer against infectious disease transmission, while surviving species tend to be the ones that increase disease transmission, such as that of West Nile Virus, [[Lyme disease]] and Hantavirus, according to a study done co-authored by Felicia Keesing, an ecologist at Bard College and Drew Harvell, associate director for Environment of the [[Atkinson Center for a Sustainable Future]] (ACSF) at [[Cornell University]].{{cite news|last=Ramanujan|first=Krishna|title=Study: Loss of species is bad for your health|url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/Dec10/BiodiversityHealth.html|access-date=20 July 2011|newspaper=Cornell Chronicle|date=2 December 2010}} [240] => [241] => The growing demand and lack of drinkable water on the planet presents an additional challenge to the future of human health. Partly, the problem lies in the success of water suppliers to increase supplies and failure of groups promoting the preservation of water resources.{{cite book|last=The World Bank|title=Water and Development: An Evaluation of World Bank Support, 1997–2007|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=AYN4wCVLkhQC|page=79}}|date=30 June 2010|publisher=World Bank Publications|isbn=978-0-8213-8394-0|page=79}} While the distribution of clean water increases, in some parts of the world it remains unequal. According to the World Health Organisation (2018), only 71% of the global population used a safely managed drinking-water service.{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/en/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/drinking-water|title=Drinking-water|website=World Health Organization}} [242] => [243] => Some of the health issues influenced by biodiversity include dietary health and nutrition security, infectious disease, medical science and medicinal resources, social and psychological health.{{cite journal | doi = 10.1098/rsbl.2007.0149 | title = Psychological benefits of greenspace increase with biodiversity | year = 2007 | last1 = Gaston | first1 = Kevin J. | last2 = Warren | first2 = Philip H. | last3 = Devine-Wright | first3 = Patrick | last4 = Irvine | first4 = Katherine N. | last5 = Fuller | first5 = Richard A. | journal = Biology Letters | volume = 3 | issue = 4 | pages = 390–394 | pmid = 17504734 | pmc = 2390667 }} Biodiversity is also known to have an important role in reducing disaster risk and in post-disaster relief and recovery efforts.{{cite web |url=http://www.cohabnet.org/en_issues.htm |title=COHAB Initiative: Biodiversity and Human Health – the issues |publisher=Cohabnet.org |access-date=21 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080905190921/http://www.cohabnet.org/en_issues.htm |archive-date=5 September 2008 |url-status=dead }}{{cite web|url=http://wwf.panda.org/what_we_do/how_we_work/protected_areas/arguments_for_protection/publications/ |title=World Wildlife Fund (WWF): "Arguments for Protection" website |publisher=Wwf.panda.org |access-date=24 September 2011}} [244] => [245] => According to the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] a [[pathogen]], like a [[virus]], have more chances to meet resistance in a diverse population.Therefore, in a population genetically similar it expands more easily. For example, the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] had less chances to occur in a world with higher biodiversity.{{cite web |date=22 May 2020 |title=Science points to causes of COVID-19 |url=https://www.unenvironment.org/news-and-stories/story/science-points-causes-covid-19 |access-date=24 June 2020 |website=United Nations Environmental Programm |publisher=United Nations}} A broad literature review published in 2010 by [[Nature (journal)]], ''Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious disease,'' found this to be broadly true within real environments.{{Cite journal |last1=Keesing |first1=Felicia |last2=Belden |first2=Lisa K. |last3=Daszak |first3=Peter |last4=Dobson |first4=Andrew |last5=Harvell |first5=C. Drew |last6=Holt |first6=Robert D. |last7=Hudson |first7=Peter |last8=Jolles |first8=Anna |last9=Jones |first9=Kate E. |last10=Mitchell |first10=Charles E. |last11=Myers |first11=Samuel S. |last12=Bogich |first12=Tiffany |last13=Ostfeld |first13=Richard S. |date=December 1, 2010 |title=Impacts of biodiversity on the emergence and transmission of infectious diseases |journal=Nature |language=en |volume=468 |issue=7324 |pages=647–652 |doi=10.1038/nature09575 |issn=1476-4687 |pmc=7094913 |pmid=21124449 |bibcode=2010Natur.468..647K }} Although some small population exceptions were found to exist, on average a collapse in biodiversity significantly increased the spread & spillover of infectious diseases. [246] => [247] => Biodiversity provides critical support for drug discovery and the availability of medicinal resources.{{cite journal|last=Mendelsohn|first=Robert|author2=Balick, Michael J.|title=The value of undiscovered pharmaceuticals in tropical forests|journal=Economic Botany|date=1 April 1995|volume=49|issue=2|pages=223–228|doi=10.1007/BF02862929|s2cid=39978586}} [248] => (2006) "Molecular Pharming" GMO Compass Retrieved 5 November 2009, [http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/home/ GMOcompass.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080208171633/http://www.gmo-compass.org/eng/home/ |date=8 February 2008 }} A significant proportion of drugs are derived, directly or indirectly, from biological sources: at least 50% of the pharmaceutical compounds on the US market are derived from plants, animals and [[microorganism]]s, while about 80% of the world population depends on medicines from nature (used in either modern or traditional medical practice) for primary healthcare. Only a tiny fraction of wild species has been investigated for medical potential. Biodiversity has been critical to advances throughout the field of [[bionics]]. Evidence from market analysis and biodiversity science indicates that the decline in output from the pharmaceutical sector since the mid-1980s can be attributed to a move away from natural product exploration ("bioprospecting") in favour of genomics and synthetic chemistry, indeed claims about the value of undiscovered pharmaceuticals may not provide enough incentive for companies in free markets to search for them because of the high cost of development;{{cite journal|last=Mendelsohn|first=Robert|author2=Balick, Michael J.|title=Notes on economic plants|journal=Economic Botany|date=1 July 1997|volume=51|issue=3|pages=328|doi=10.1007/BF02862103|s2cid=5430635}} meanwhile, natural products have a long history of supporting significant economic and health innovation.{{Cite journal|last=Harvey|first=Alan L.|date=1 October 2008|title=Natural products in drug discovery|journal=Drug Discovery Today|volume=13|issue=19–20|pages=894–901|doi=10.1016/j.drudis.2008.07.004|pmid=18691670}}{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/clpt.1992.1 | author = Hawkins E.S., Reich | year = 1992 | last2 = Reich | first2 = MR | title = Japanese-originated pharmaceutical products in the United States from 1960 to 1989: an assessment of innovation | journal = Clin Pharmacol Ther | volume = 51 | issue = 1| pages = 1–11 | pmid = 1732073 | s2cid = 46010944 }} Marine ecosystems are particularly important,{{cite journal | last1=Roopesh |first1=J. |title=Marine organisms: Potential Source for Drug Discovery |journal = [[Current Science]] |volume= 94 |issue= 3 | page=292 |date= 10 February 2008 | url=http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/feb102008/292.pdf | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111011162234/http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/feb102008/292.pdf | url-status=dead | archive-date=11 October 2011 | author2= | display-authors=1 }} although inappropriate [[bioprospecting]] can increase biodiversity loss, as well as violating the laws of the communities and states from which the resources are taken.{{cite journal | pmid = 12436849 | year = 2002 | last1 = Dhillion | first1 = SS | last2 = Svarstad | first2 = H | last3 = Amundsen | first3 = C | last4 = Bugge | first4 = HC | title = Bioprospecting: Effects on environment and development | volume = 31 | issue = 6 | pages = 491–493 | journal = Ambio | jstor=4315292 | doi=10.1639/0044-7447(2002)031[0491:beoead]2.0.co;2}}{{cite journal | doi=10.1136/bmj.330.7504.1350-d | title=Looking for new compounds in sea is endangering ecosystem | last1=Cole | first1=A. | journal=[[BMJ]] | volume=330 | issue=7504 | page=1350 |date=16 July 2005 | pmid=15947392 | pmc=558324}}{{cite web |url=http://www.cohabnet.org/en_issue4.htm |title=COHAB Initiative – on Natural Products and Medicinal Resources |publisher=Cohabnet.org |access-date=21 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171025100247/http://cohabnet.org/en_issue4.htm |archive-date=25 October 2017 |url-status=dead }} [249] => [250] => ===Business and industry=== [251] => [[File:Ueberladewagen (jha).jpg|thumb|right|[[Agriculture]] production, pictured is a [[tractor]] and a [[chaser bin]]]] [252] => Many industrial materials derive directly from biological sources. These include building materials, fibers, dyes, rubber, and oil. Biodiversity is also important to the security of resources such as water, timber, paper, fiber, and food.IUCN, WRI, [[World Business Council for Sustainable Development]], Earthwatch Inst. 2007 ''Business and Ecosystems: Ecosystem Challenges and Business Implications''Millennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005 [http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.353.aspx.pdf ''Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Opportunities and Challenges for Business and Industry'']{{cite web|url=http://www.cbd.int/business |title=Business and Biodiversity webpage of the U.N. Convention on Biological Diversity |publisher=Cbd.int |access-date=21 June 2009}} As a result, biodiversity loss is a significant risk factor in business development and a threat to long-term economic sustainability.[http://www.wri.org/publication/corporate-ecosystem-services-review WRI Corporate Ecosystem Services Review.] See also: [http://www.wri.org/project/ecosystem-services-review Examples of Ecosystem-Service Based Risks, Opportunities and Strategies] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090401203436/http://www.wri.org/project/ecosystem-services-review |date=1 April 2009 }}[http://ecometrica.com/assets//ecometrica-corporate-biodiversity-accounting.pdf Corporate Biodiversity Accounting.] See also: [http://ecometrica.com/blog/making-the-natural-capital-declaration-accountable Making the Natural Capital Declaration Accountable.] Many logging companies do not abide by the rules and legislation established by their respective governments; likewise, governments of timer-producing countries also fail in enforcing their own forestry legislations.{{Cite journal |last1=Shearman |first1=Philip |last2=Bryan |first2=Jane |last3=Laurance |first3=William F. |date=July 2012 |title=Are we approaching 'peak timber' in the tropics? |url=https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0006320711004526 |journal=Biological Conservation |language=en |volume=151 |issue=1 |pages=17–21 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2011.10.036|bibcode=2012BCons.151...17S }} [253] => [254] => ===Leisure, cultural and aesthetic value=== [255] => Biodiversity enriches leisure activities such as [[birdwatching]] or natural history study. [256] => [257] => Popular activities such as [[gardening]] and [[fishkeeping]] strongly depend on biodiversity. The number of species involved in such pursuits is in the tens of thousands, though the majority do not enter commerce.{{clarify|date=January 2022}} [258] => [259] => The relationships between the original natural areas of these often exotic animals and plants and commercial collectors, suppliers, breeders, propagators and those who promote their understanding and enjoyment are complex and poorly understood. The general public responds well to exposure to rare and unusual organisms, reflecting their inherent value. [260] => [261] => Philosophically it could be argued that biodiversity has intrinsic aesthetic and spiritual value to [[Human|mankind]] ''in and of itself''. This idea can be used as a counterweight to the notion that [[tropical forest]]s and other ecological realms are only worthy of conservation because of the services they provide.{{cite journal | last1 = Tribot | first1 = A. | last2 = Mouquet | first2 = N. | last3 = Villeger | first3 = S. | last4 = Raymond | first4 = M. | last5 = Hoff | first5 = F. | last6 = Boissery | first6 = P. | last7 = Holon | first7 = F. | last8 = Deter | first8 = J. | year = 2016 | title = Taxonomic and functional diversity increase the aesthetic value of coralligenous reefs | url = http://nicolasmouquet.free.fr/publications/Tribot_el_al_2016_Scientific_Reports.pdf | journal = Scientific Reports | volume = 6| pages = 34229| doi = 10.1038/srep34229 | pmid = 27677850 | pmc = 5039688 | bibcode = 2016NatSR...634229T }} [262] => [[File:Eaglecreek-28July2006.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Eagle Creek (Multnomah County, Oregon)|Eagle Creek]], Oregon hiking]] [263] => [264] => ===Ecological services=== [265] => {{See also|Ecological effects of biodiversity}} [266] => [267] => Biodiversity supports many [[ecosystem services]]: [268] => [269] =>
"There is now unequivocal evidence that biodiversity loss reduces the efficiency by which ecological communities capture biologically essential resources, produce biomass, decompose and recycle biologically essential nutrients... There is mounting evidence that biodiversity increases the stability of ecosystem functions through time... Diverse communities are more productive because they contain key species that have a large influence on productivity and differences in functional traits among organisms increase total resource capture... The impacts of diversity loss on ecological processes might be sufficiently large to rival the impacts of many other global drivers of environmental change... Maintaining multiple ecosystem processes at multiple places and times requires higher levels of biodiversity than does a single process at a single place and time."
[270] => [271] => It plays a part in regulating the chemistry of our [[atmosphere]] and [[water supply]]. Biodiversity is directly involved in [[water purification]], recycling [[nutrient]]s and providing fertile soils. Experiments with controlled environments have shown that humans cannot easily build ecosystems to support human needs;{{cite news|last=Broad|first=William | title=Paradise Lost: Biosphere Retooled as Atmospheric Nightmare | url=https://www.nytimes.com/1996/11/19/science/paradise-lost-biosphere-retooled-as-atmospheric-nightmare.html | access-date=10 April 2013|newspaper=The New York Times|date=19 November 1996}} for example [[entomophily|insect pollination]] cannot be mimicked, though there have been attempts to create artificial pollinators using [[unmanned aerial vehicles]].{{cite news|last1=Ponti|first1=Crystal|title=Rise of the Robot Bees: Tiny Drones Turned into Artificial Pollinators|url=https://www.npr.org/sections/thesalt/2017/03/03/517785082/rise-of-the-robot-bees-tiny-drones-turned-into-artificial-pollinators|access-date=18 January 2018|agency=NPR|date=3 March 2017}} The economic activity of pollination alone represented between $2.1–14.6 billion in 2003.{{cite journal|last=LOSEY|first=JOHN E.|author2=VAUGHAN, MACE|title=The Economic Value of Ecological Services Provided by Insects|journal=BioScience|date=1 January 2006|volume=56|issue=4|pages=311|doi=10.1641/0006-3568(2006)56[311:TEVOES]2.0.CO;2|doi-access=free}} [272] => [273] => ==Measuring biodiversity== [274] => {{excerpt|Measurement of biodiversity|paragraphs=1}} [275] => [276] => === Analytical limits === [277] => Less than 1% of all species that have been described have been studied beyond noting their existence.{{cite journal |author=Wilson Edward O |year=2000 |title=On the Future of Conservation Biology |journal=Conservation Biology |volume=14 |issue=1 |pages=1–3 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.00000-e1.x |bibcode=2000ConBi..14....1W |s2cid=83906221|doi-access=free }} The vast majority of Earth's species are microbial. Contemporary biodiversity physics is "firmly fixated on the visible [macroscopic] world".{{cite journal |author=Nee S |year=2004 |title=More than meets the eye |journal=Nature |volume=429 |issue=6994 |pages=804–805 |bibcode=2004Natur.429..804N |doi=10.1038/429804a |pmid=15215837 |s2cid=1699973}} For example, microbial life is [[metabolically]] and environmentally more diverse than multicellular life (see e.g., [[extremophile]]). "On the tree of life, based on analyses of small-subunit [[ribosomal RNA]], visible life consists of barely noticeable twigs. The inverse relationship of size and population recurs higher on the evolutionary ladder—to a first approximation, all multicellular species on Earth are insects".{{cite journal |last1=Stork |first1=Nigel E. |year=2007 |title=Biodiversity: World of insects |journal=Nature |volume=448 |issue=7154 |pages=657–658 |bibcode=2007Natur.448..657S |doi=10.1038/448657a |pmid=17687315 |s2cid=9378467|doi-access=free }} [[Decline in insect populations|Insect extinction]] rates are high—supporting the Holocene extinction hypothesis.{{cite journal |author=Thomas J. A. |author2=Telfer M. G. |author3=Roy D. B. |author4=Preston C. D. |author5=Greenwood J. J. D. |author6=Asher J. |author7=Fox R. |author8=Clarke R. T. |author9=Lawton J. H. |year=2004 |title=Comparative Losses of British Butterflies, Birds, and Plants and the Global Extinction Crisis |url=https://www.science.org/doi/abs/10.1126/science.1095046 |journal=Science |volume=303 |issue=5665 |pages=1879–1881 |bibcode=2004Sci...303.1879T |doi=10.1126/science.1095046 |pmid=15031508 |s2cid=22863854}} [278] => [279] => == Biodiversity changes (other than losses) == [280] => [281] => === Natural seasonal variations === [282] => Biodiversity naturally varies due to seasonal shifts. Spring's arrival enhances biodiversity as numerous species breed and feed, while winter's onset temporarily reduces it as some insects perish and migrating animals leave. Additionally, the seasonal fluctuation in plant and invertebrate populations influences biodiversity.{{Cite web |title=Biodiversity loss {{!}} Causes, Effects, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/biodiversity-loss |access-date=2024-04-23 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} [283] => [284] => === Introduced and invasive species === [285] => {{Main|Introduced species|Invasive species}} [286] => [287] => [[File:Male Silver Pheasant.jpg|thumb|right|Male ''Lophura nycthemera'' ([[silver pheasant]]), a native of [[East Asia]] that has been introduced into parts of [[Europe]] for ornamental reasons]] [288] => Barriers such as large [[river]]s, [[sea]]s, [[oceans]], [[mountains]] and [[deserts]] encourage diversity by enabling independent evolution on either side of the barrier, via the process of [[allopatric speciation]]. The term [[invasive species]] is applied to species that breach the natural barriers that would normally keep them constrained. Without barriers, such species occupy new territory, often supplanting native species by occupying their niches, or by using resources that would normally sustain native species. [289] => [290] => The number of species invasions has been on the rise at least since the beginning of the 1900s. Species are increasingly being moved by humans (on purpose and accidentally). In some cases the invaders are causing drastic changes and damage to their new habitats (e.g.: zebra mussels and the emerald ash borer in the Great Lakes region and the lion fish along the North American Atlantic coast). Some evidence suggests that invasive species are competitive in their new habitats because they are subject to less pathogen disturbance.{{cite journal|last=Torchin|first=Mark E.|author2=Lafferty, Kevin D. |author3-link=Dobson, Andrew P|author3=Dobson, Andrew P. |author4=McKenzie, Valerie J. |author5=Kuris, Armand M.|title=Introduced species and their missing parasites|journal=Nature|date=6 February 2003|volume=421|issue=6923|pages=628–630|doi=10.1038/nature01346|pmid=12571595|bibcode = 2003Natur.421..628T |s2cid=4384385}} Others report confounding evidence that occasionally suggest that species-rich communities harbor many native and exotic species simultaneously{{cite journal|last=Levine|first=Jonathan M.|author2=D'Antonio, Carla M.|s2cid=13987518|title=Elton Revisited: A Review of Evidence Linking Diversity and Invasibility|journal=Oikos|date=1 October 1999|volume=87|issue=1|pages=15|doi=10.2307/3546992|jstor=3546992|bibcode=1999Oikos..87...15L }} while some say that diverse ecosystems are more resilient and resist invasive plants and animals.{{cite journal|last=Levine|first=J. M.|s2cid=7363143|title=Species Diversity and Biological Invasions: Relating Local Process to Community Pattern|journal=Science|date=5 May 2000|volume=288|issue=5467|pages=852–854|doi=10.1126/science.288.5467.852|bibcode = 2000Sci...288..852L|pmid=10797006}} An important question is, "do invasive species cause extinctions?" Many studies cite effects of invasive species on natives,{{cite journal|last=GUREVITCH|first=J|author-link1=Jessica Gurevitch|author2=PADILLA, D|title=Are invasive species a major cause of extinctions?|journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution|date=1 September 2004|volume=19|issue=9|pages=470–474|doi=10.1016/j.tree.2004.07.005|pmid=16701309}} but not extinctions. Invasive species seem to increase local (i.e.: [[alpha diversity]]) diversity, which decreases turnover of diversity (i.e.: [[beta diversity]]). Overall [[gamma diversity]] may be lowered because species are going extinct because of other causes,{{cite journal|last=Sax|first=Dov F.|author2=Gaines, Steven D. |author3=Brown, James H.|s2cid=8628360|title=Species Invasions Exceed Extinctions on Islands Worldwide: A Comparative Study of Plants and Birds|journal=The American Naturalist|date=1 December 2002|volume=160|issue=6|pages=766–783|doi=10.1086/343877|pmid=18707464}} but even some of the most insidious invaders (e.g.: Dutch elm disease, emerald ash borer, chestnut blight in North America) have not caused their host species to become extinct. [[Local extinction|Extirpation]], [[population decline]] and [[Species homogeneity|homogenization]] of regional biodiversity are much more common. Human activities have frequently been the cause of invasive species circumventing their barriers,{{cite book|last=Jude|first=David|editor1-first=M.|editor1-last=Munawar|title=The lake Huron ecosystem: ecology, fisheries and management|year=1995|publisher=S.P.B. Academic Publishing|location=Amsterdam|isbn=978-90-5103-117-1}} by introducing them for food and other purposes. Human activities therefore allow species to migrate to new areas (and thus become invasive) occurred on time scales much shorter than historically have been required for a species to extend its range. [291] => [292] => Not all introduced species are invasive, nor all invasive species deliberately introduced. In cases such as the [[zebra mussel]], [[invasive species|invasion]] of US waterways was unintentional. In other cases, such as [[mongoose]]s in [[Hawaii]], the introduction is deliberate but ineffective ([[nocturnal]] [[rat]]s were not vulnerable to the [[diurnality|diurnal]] mongoose). In other cases, such as [[oil palm]]s in Indonesia and Malaysia, the introduction produces substantial economic benefits, but the benefits are accompanied by costly [[unintended consequences]]. [293] => [294] => Finally, an introduced species may unintentionally injure a species that depends on the species it replaces. In [[Belgium]], ''[[Prunus spinosa]]'' from Eastern Europe leafs much sooner than its West European counterparts, disrupting the feeding habits of the ''[[Thecla betulae]]'' butterfly (which feeds on the leaves). Introducing new species often leaves endemic and other local species unable to compete with the exotic species and unable to survive. The exotic organisms may be [[predator]]s, [[parasite]]s, or may outcompete indigenous species for nutrients, water and light. [295] => [296] => At present, several countries have already imported so many exotic species, particularly agricultural and ornamental plants, that their indigenous fauna/flora may be outnumbered. For example, the introduction of [[kudzu]] from Southeast Asia to Canada and the United States has threatened biodiversity in certain areas.{{cite journal|journal= ScienceDaily|url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/04/110408163917.htm |title=Are invasive plants a threat to native biodiversity? It depends on the spatial scale |date=11 April 2011}} Another example are [[pine]]s, which have invaded forests, shrublands and grasslands in the southern hemisphere.{{Cite journal |last1=Higgins |first1=Steven I. |last2=Richardson |first2=David M. |year=1998 |title=Pine invasions in the southern hemisphere: Modelling interactions between organism, environment and disturbance |journal=Plant Ecology |volume=135 |issue=1 |pages=79–93 |doi=10.1023/a:1009760512895 |s2cid=9188012}} [297] => [298] => ===Hybridization and genetic pollution=== [299] => [[File:Wheat selection k10183-1.jpg|right|thumb|The Yecoro [[wheat]] (right) [[cultivar]] is sensitive to salinity, plants resulting from a hybrid cross with cultivar W4910 (left) show greater tolerance to high salinity]]Endemic species can be threatened with [[extinction]]{{cite journal |last1=Mooney |first1=H. A. |last2=Cleland |first2=EE |year=2001 |title=The evolutionary impact of invasive species |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |volume=98 |issue=10 |pages=5446–5451 |bibcode=2001PNAS...98.5446M |doi=10.1073/pnas.091093398 |pmc=33232 |pmid=11344292 |doi-access=free}} through the process of [[genetic pollution]], i.e. uncontrolled [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]], [[introgression]] and genetic swamping. Genetic pollution leads to homogenization or replacement of local [[genomes]] as a result of either a numerical and/or [[Fitness (biology)|fitness]] advantage of an introduced species.{{cite web |title=Glossary: definitions from the following publication: Aubry, C., R. Shoal and V. Erickson. 2005. Grass cultivars: their origins, development, and use on national forests and grasslands in the Pacific Northwest. USDA Forest Service. 44 pages, plus appendices.; Native Seed Network (NSN), Institute for Applied Ecology, Corvallis, OR |url=http://www.nativeseednetwork.org/article_view?id=13 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060222092651/http://www.nativeseednetwork.org/article_view?id=13 |archive-date=22 February 2006 |access-date=21 June 2009 |publisher=Nativeseednetwork.org}} [300] => Hybridization and introgression are side-effects of introduction and invasion. These phenomena can be especially detrimental to [[rare species]] that come into contact with more abundant ones. The abundant species can interbreed with the rare species, swamping its [[gene pool]]. This problem is not always apparent from [[morphology (biology)|morphological]] (outward appearance) observations alone. Some degree of [[gene flow]] is normal adaptation and not all [[gene]] and [[genotype]] constellations can be preserved. However, hybridization with or without introgression may, nevertheless, threaten a rare species' existence.{{cite journal |last1=Rhymer |first1=Judith M. |last2=Simberloff |first2=Daniel |year=1996 |title=Extinction by Hybridization and Introgression |journal=Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics |volume=27 |pages=83–109 |doi=10.1146/annurev.ecolsys.27.1.83 |jstor=2097230}}{{cite book |last1=Potts |first1=Bradley M. |url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=PyQIOAAACAAJ}} |title=Genetic Pollution from Farm Forestry Using Eucalypt Species and Hydrids: A Report for the RIRDC/L & WA/FWPRDC Joint Venture Agroforestry Program |last2=Barbour |first2=Robert C. |last3=Hingston |first3=Andrew B. |journal=Research Report, Chicken Meat & Egg Programs |publisher=RIRDC |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-642-58336-9}} [301] => [http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/AFT/01-114.pdf RIRDC.gov.au RIRDC Publication No 01/114; RIRDC Project No CPF – 3A] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160105223223/http://www.rirdc.gov.au/reports/AFT/01-114.pdf|date=5 January 2016}}; Australian Government, Rural Industrial Research and Development Corporation [302] => [303] => In [[agriculture]] and [[animal husbandry]], the [[Green Revolution]] popularized the use of conventional [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridization]] to increase yield. Often hybridized breeds originated in developed countries and were further hybridized with local varieties in the developing world to create high yield strains resistant to local climate and diseases. Local governments and industry have been pushing hybridization. Formerly huge gene pools of various wild and indigenous breeds have collapsed causing widespread [[genetic erosion]] and genetic pollution. This has resulted in the loss of genetic diversity and biodiversity as a whole.[http://www.farmedia.org/bulletins/bulletin28.html "Genetic Pollution: The Great Genetic Scandal"]; {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090518120050/http://www.farmedia.org/bulletins/bulletin28.html |date=18 May 2009 }} [304] => [305] => [[Genetically modified organism]]s contain genetic material that is altered through [[genetic engineering]]. [[Genetically modified crops]] have become a common source for genetic pollution in not only wild varieties, but also in domesticated varieties derived from classical hybridization.{{Cite news |last=Pollan |first=Michael |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220223084239/https://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/09/magazine/the-year-in-ideas-a-to-z-genetic-pollution.html |archive-date=23 February 2022 |url=https://www.nytimes.com/2001/12/09/magazine/the-year-in-ideas-a-to-z-genetic-pollution.html |title=The year in ideas: A TO Z.; Genetic Pollution |work=The New York Times |date=9 December 2001 |access-date= |url-access=subscription |url-status=live }}{{Cite book|url=http://www.nature.com/nbt/journal/v22/n1/full/nbt0104-29.html |title= Dangerous Liaisons? When Cultivated Plants Mate with Their Wild Relatives |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=29–30 |first=Norman C. |last=Ellstrand |publisher= The Johns Hopkins University Press |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-8018-7405-5|doi=10.1038/nbt0104-29 |s2cid=41155573 }} Reviewed in {{Cite journal|title=Hybrids abounding |journal=Nature Biotechnology |volume=22 |pages=29–30 |doi=10.1038/nbt0104-29 |first1=Steven H |last1=Strauss |first2=Stephen P |last2=DiFazio |date= 2004 |issue=1|s2cid=41155573 }}{{cite book|first=A. |last=Zaid|title=Glossary of Biotechnology and Genetic Engineering|chapter-url={{google books |plainurl= y |id= UVzfAAAAMAAJ}}|year=1999|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|isbn=978-92-5-104369-1|chapter=Genetic pollution: Uncontrolled spread of genetic information|issue=7 |access-date=21 June 2009}}{{cite web|url=http://plpa.cfans.umn.edu/~neviny/agri1501/definitions.html|title=Genetic pollution: Uncontrolled escape of genetic information (frequently referring to products of genetic engineering) into the genomes of organisms in the environment where those genes never existed before |work=Searchable Biotechnology Dictionary |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080210074033/http://plpa.cfans.umn.edu/~neviny/agri1501/definitions.html |archive-date=10 February 2008 |publisher=[[University of Minnesota]] }}{{Cite web|url=http://www.scienzagiovane.unibo.it/English/pollution/2-facets.html |title=The many facets of pollution |publisher=Bologna University |access-date=18 May 2012}} [306] => [307] => Genetic erosion and genetic pollution have the potential to destroy unique [[genotype]]s, threatening future access to [[food security]]. A decrease in genetic diversity weakens the ability of crops and livestock to be hybridized to resist disease and survive changes in climate. [308] => [309] => == Conservation == [310] => {{Main|Conservation biology}} [311] => [312] => [[File:MEAConservationStrategies.jpg|thumb|A schematic image illustrating the relationship between biodiversity, ecosystem services, human well-being and poverty. [313] => Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005). World Resources Institute, Washington, DC. [http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf ''Ecosystems and Human Well-being: Biodiversity Synthesis''] The illustration shows where conservation action, strategies, and plans can influence the drivers of the current biodiversity crisis at local, regional, to global scales.]] [314] => [315] => [[File:Gletscherschmelze.jpg|thumb|right|upright=1.35|The [[Retreat of glaciers since 1850|retreat]] of [[Aletsch Glacier]] in the [[Swiss Alps]] (situation in 1979, 1991 and 2002), due to [[global warming]].]] [316] => [317] => [[Conservation biology]] matured in the mid-20th century as [[ecologists]], [[naturalists]] and other [[scientists]] began to research and address issues pertaining to global biodiversity declines.{{cite journal | doi = 10.2307/1310054 | year = 1986 | last = Soulé | first = Michael E. | title = What is conservation biology? | journal = [[BioScience]] | volume = 35 | issue = 11| pages = 727–734 | jstor=1310054| citeseerx = 10.1.1.646.7332 }}{{cite book|first=Peter |last=Davis|title=Museums and the natural environment: the role of natural history museums in biological conservation|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=3pLtAAAAMAAJ}}|year=1996|publisher=Leicester University Press|isbn=978-0-7185-1548-5}}{{cite book|first=Fred Van |last=Dyke|title=Conservation Biology: Foundations, Concepts, Applications|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Evh1UD3ZYWcC}}|date=29 February 2008|publisher=Springer Science & Business Media|isbn=978-1-4020-6890-4}} [318] => [319] => The conservation ethic advocates management of [[natural resource]]s for the purpose of sustaining biodiversity in [[species]], [[ecosystems]], the [[Evolution|evolutionary process]] and human culture and society.{{cite journal | doi = 10.1073/pnas.0801921105 | author1 = Wake D. B. | author2 = Vredenburg V. T. | year = 2008 | title = Are we in the midst of the sixth mass extinction? A view from the world of amphibians | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 105 | issue = Suppl 1 | pages = 11466–11473 | pmid = 18695221 | pmc = 2556420 | bibcode = 2008PNAS..10511466W | df = dmy-all | doi-access = free }}{{cite book|first=Malcolm L. |last=Hunter|title=Fundamentals of Conservation Biology|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=5f2wQgAACAAJ}}|year=1996|publisher=Blackwell Science|isbn=978-0-86542-371-8}}{{cite journal | last1 = Bowen | first1 = B. W. | s2cid = 33096004 | year = 1999 | title = Preserving genes, species, or ecosystems? Healing the fractured foundations of conservation policy | journal = Molecular Ecology | volume = 8 | issue = 12 Suppl 1 | pages = S5–S10 | doi=10.1046/j.1365-294x.1999.00798.x| pmid = 10703547 | bibcode = 1999MolEc...8.....B }} [320] => [321] => Conservation biology is reforming around strategic plans to protect biodiversity.{{cite book|first=Michael E. |last=Soulé|title=Conservation Biology: The Science of Scarcity and Diversity|url={{google books |plainurl=y |id=Qi1jUut7JL8C}}|date=1 January 1986|publisher=Sinauer Associates|isbn=978-0-87893-794-3}}{{cite journal | doi = 10.1038/35012251 | author1 = Margules C. R. | author2 = Pressey R. L. | year = 2000 | title = Systematic conservation planning | url = http://www.geography.ryerson.ca/jmaurer/411SystConservPlan.pdf | journal = Nature | volume = 405 | issue = 6783 | pages = 243–253 | pmid = 10821285 | s2cid = 4427223 | url-status = dead | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090205110653/http://www.geography.ryerson.ca/jmaurer/411SystConservPlan.pdf | archive-date = 5 February 2009 | df = dmy-all }}{{Cite journal |last1=Knozowski |first1=Paweł |last2=Nowakowski |first2=Jacek J. |last3=Stawicka |first3=Anna Maria |last4=Górski |first4=Andrzej |last5=Dulisz |first5=Beata |date=2023-11-10 |title=Effect of nature protection and management of grassland on biodiversity – Case from big flooded river valley (NE Poland) |journal=Science of the Total Environment |language=en |volume=898 |pages=165280 |doi=10.1016/j.scitotenv.2023.165280 |pmid=37419354 |bibcode=2023ScTEn.898p5280K |issn=0048-9697|doi-access=free }} Preserving global biodiversity is a priority in strategic conservation plans that are designed to engage public policy and concerns affecting local, regional and global scales of communities, ecosystems and cultures.Example: Gascon, C., Collins, J. P., Moore, R. D., Church, D. R., McKay, J. E. and Mendelson, J. R. III (eds) (2007). ''Amphibian Conservation Action Plan''. IUCN/SSC Amphibian Specialist Group. Gland, Switzerland and Cambridge, UK. 64pp. [http://www.amphibians.org/newsletter/ACAP.pdf Amphibians.org] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070704172505/http://www.amphibians.org/newsletter/ACAP.pdf |date=4 July 2007 }}, see also [http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf Millenniumassessment.org], [http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l28176.htm Europa.eu] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090212233945/http://europa.eu/scadplus/leg/en/lvb/l28176.htm |date=12 February 2009 }} Action plans identify [[Ecological economics#Methodology|ways]] of sustaining human well-being, employing [[natural capital]], [[Capital market|market capital]] and [[ecosystem services]].{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/S0169-5347(03)00100-9 |title=Population diversity and ecosystem services |year=2003 |last1=Luck |first1=Gary W. |last2=Daily |first2=Gretchen C. |last3=Ehrlich |first3=Paul R. |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=18 |issue=7 |pages=331–336 |url=http://www.ese.u-psud.fr/epc/conservation/PDFs/luck.pdf |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20060219125309/http://www.ese.u-psud.fr/epc/conservation/PDFs/luck.pdf |archive-date=19 February 2006 |citeseerx=10.1.1.595.2377 }}{{Cite web|url=http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150813135309/http://www.millenniumassessment.org/en/index.aspx|url-status=dead|title=Millennium Ecosystem Assessment|archive-date=13 August 2015|website=www.millenniumassessment.org}} [322] => [323] => In the [[EU Directive 1999/22/EC]] zoos are described as having a role in the preservation of the biodiversity of wildlife animals by conducting research or participation in [[breeding program]]s.{{cite web |url=http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/bestanden/documenten-en-publicaties/kamerstukken/2014/03/25/beantwoording-kamervragen-over-fokken-en-doden-van-gezonde-dieren-in-dierentuinen/beantwoording-kamervragen-over-fokken-en-doden-van-gezonde-dieren-in-dierentuinen.pdf |title=Beantwoording vragen over fokken en doden van gezonde dieren in dierentuinen |publisher=Ministry of Economic Affairs (Netherlands) |date=25 March 2014 |access-date=9 June 2014 |language=nl |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714161822/http://www.rijksoverheid.nl/bestanden/documenten-en-publicaties/kamerstukken/2014/03/25/beantwoording-kamervragen-over-fokken-en-doden-van-gezonde-dieren-in-dierentuinen/beantwoording-kamervragen-over-fokken-en-doden-van-gezonde-dieren-in-dierentuinen.pdf |archive-date=14 July 2014 |url-status=dead }} [324] => [325] => ===Protection and restoration techniques=== [326] => Removal of exotic species will allow the species that they have negatively impacted to recover their ecological niches. Exotic species that have become pests can be identified taxonomically (e.g., with [[Digital Automated Identification SYstem]] (DAISY), using the [[Consortium for the Barcode of Life|barcode of life]]).{{cite web |url=http://www.barcoding.si.edu/ |title=Barcode of Life |publisher=Barcoding.si.edu |date=26 May 2010 |access-date=24 September 2011 |archive-date=22 November 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122175013/https://barcoding.si.edu/ |url-status=dead }}{{cite web|url=http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/303405,camel-cull-would-help-curb-global-warming.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20120801074239/http://www.earthtimes.org/articles/show/303405,camel-cull-would-help-curb-global-warming.html|url-status=dead|title=Earth Times: show/303405,camel-cull-would-help-curb-global-warming.ht…|date=1 August 2012|archive-date=1 August 2012}} Removal is practical only given large groups of individuals due to the economic cost. [327] => [328] => As sustainable populations of the remaining native species in an area become assured, "missing" species that are candidates for reintroduction can be identified using databases such as the ''[[Encyclopedia of Life#Resources and collaborations|Encyclopedia of Life]]'' and the [[Global Biodiversity Information Facility]]. [329] => * [[Biodiversity banking]] places a monetary value on biodiversity. One example is the Australian [[Native Vegetation Management Framework]]. [330] => * [[Gene bank]]s are collections of specimens and genetic material. Some banks intend to reintroduce banked species to the ecosystem (e.g., via tree nurseries).{{cite web|url=http://www.hbvl.be/Archief/guid/vlaanderen-heeft-45-zaadtuinen-voor-autochtone-bomen-en-struiken.aspx?artikel=0935212d-8b19-45a4-9cda-167ff68d347c |title=Belgium creating 45 "seed gardens"; gene banks with intent to reintroduction |publisher=Hbvl.be |date=8 September 2011 |access-date=24 September 2011}} [331] => * Reduction and better targeting of pesticides allows more species to survive in agricultural and urbanized areas. [332] => * Location-specific approaches may be less useful for protecting migratory species. One approach is to create [[wildlife corridor]]s that correspond to the animals' movements. National and other boundaries can complicate corridor creation.{{Cite journal|last=Kaiser|first=J.|date=2001-09-21|title=Bold Corridor Project Confronts Political Reality|journal=Science|volume=293|issue=5538|pages=2196–2199|doi=10.1126/science.293.5538.2196|pmid=11567122|s2cid=153587982}} [333] => [334] => === Priorities for resource allocation === [335] => Focusing on limited areas of higher potential biodiversity promises greater immediate return on investment than spreading resources evenly or focusing on areas of little diversity but greater interest in biodiversity.[http://www.scientificamerican.com/article.cfm?id=conservationists-triage-determine-which-endangered-species-to-save Conservationists Use Triage to Determine which Species to Save and Not; Like battlefield medics, conservationists are being forced to explicitly apply triage to determine which creatures to save and which to let go] 23 July 2012 ''[[Scientific American]]''. [336] => [337] => A second strategy focuses on areas that retain most of their original diversity, which typically require little or no restoration. These are typically non-urbanized, non-agricultural areas. Tropical areas often fit both criteria, given their natively high diversity and relative lack of development.{{Cite journal |last1=Jones-Walters |first1=L. |last2=Mulder |first2=I. |year=2009 |title=Valuing nature: The economics of biodiversity |url=http://mdvnaturalist.com/images/econmics_of_biodiversity.pdf |journal=Journal for Nature Conservation |volume=17 |issue=4 |pages=245–247 |doi=10.1016/j.jnc.2009.06.001|bibcode=2009JNatC..17..245J }} [338] => [339] => ==Protected areas== [340] => {{Further|Protected areas}} [341] => [[File:Orang Utan @ Sepilok.jpg|thumb|left|Mother and child at an orangutan rehab facility in Malaysia]] [342] => Protected areas, including forest reserves and biosphere reserves, serve many functions including for affording protection to wild animals and their habitat.{{Cite book|url=http://www.dolomitipark.it/doc_pdf/parchi.sola.terra/07.ProtectedAreas_Biodiversity.pdf|title=Protected Areas and Biodiversity: An Overview of Key Issues|last1=Mulongoy|first1=Kalemani Jo|last2=Chape|first2=Stuart|publisher=CBD Secretariat and UNEP-WCMC|year=2004|location=Montreal, Canada and Cambridge, UK|pages=15 and 25|access-date=23 October 2017|archive-date=22 September 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170922234612/http://www.dolomitipark.it/doc_pdf/parchi.sola.terra/07.ProtectedAreas_Biodiversity.pdf|url-status=dead}} Protected areas have been set up all over the world with the specific aim of protecting and conserving plants and animals. Some scientists have called on the global community to designate as protected areas of 30 percent of the planet by 2030, and 50 percent by 2050, in order to mitigate biodiversity loss from anthropogenic causes.{{cite journal |last1= Baillie|first1=Jonathan|last2=Ya-Ping|first2=Zhang|date=14 September 2018 |title=Space for nature|journal=[[Science (journal)|Science]]|volume=361 |issue=6407 |pages=1051 |doi=10.1126/science.aau1397|pmid=30213888|bibcode=2018Sci...361.1051B|doi-access=free}}{{Cite journal |last1=Allan |first1=James R. |last2=Possingham |first2=Hugh P. |last3=Atkinson |first3=Scott C. |last4=Waldron |first4=Anthony |last5=Di Marco |first5=Moreno |last6=Butchart |first6=Stuart H. M. |last7=Adams |first7=Vanessa M. |last8=Kissling |first8=W. Daniel |last9=Worsdell |first9=Thomas |last10=Sandbrook |first10=Chris |last11=Gibbon |first11=Gwili |date=2022-06-03 |title=The minimum land area requiring conservation attention to safeguard biodiversity |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.abl9127 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=376 |issue=6597 |pages=1094–1101 |doi=10.1126/science.abl9127 |pmid=35653463 |bibcode=2022Sci...376.1094A |hdl=11573/1640006 |s2cid=233423065 |issn=0036-8075|hdl-access=free }} The target of protecting 30% of the area of the planet by the year 2030 ([[30 by 30]]) was adopted by almost 200 countries in the [[2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference]]. At the moment of adoption (December 2022) 17% of land territory and 10% of ocean territory were protected. In a study published 4 September 2020 in [[Science Advances]] researchers mapped out regions that can help meet critical conservation and climate goals.{{Cite web|last=Lambert|first=Jonathan|date=2020-09-04|title=Protecting half the planet could help solve climate change and save species|url=https://www.sciencenews.org/article/protecting-half-planet-climate-change-save-species|access-date=2020-09-05|website=Science News|language=en-US}} [343] => [344] => Protected areas safeguard nature and cultural resources and contribute to livelihoods, particularly at local level. There are over 238 563 designated protected areas worldwide, equivalent to 14.9 percent of the earth's land surface, varying in their extension, level of protection, and type of management (IUCN, 2018).{{Cite web|title=Protected areas|url=https://www.iucn.org/theme/protected-areas|website=International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)|date=20 August 2015}}[[File:Percentage of forest in legally protected areas, 2020.svg|thumb|Percentage of forest in legally protected areas (as of 2020).]]Forest protected areas are a subset of all protected areas in which a significant portion of the area is forest. This may be the whole or only a part of the protected area. Globally, 18 percent of the world's forest area, or more than 700 million hectares, fall within legally established protected areas such as national parks, conservation areas and game reserves. [345] => [346] => The benefits of protected areas extend beyond their immediate environment and time. In addition to conserving nature, protected areas are crucial for securing the long-term delivery of ecosystem services. They provide numerous benefits including the conservation of [[genetic resources]] for food and agriculture, the provision of medicine and health benefits, the provision of water, recreation and tourism, and for acting as a buffer against disaster. Increasingly, there is acknowledgement of the wider socioeconomic values of these natural ecosystems and of the ecosystem services they can provide.{{Cite web|title=FAO – Sustainable Forest Management (SFM) Toolbox|url=http://www.fao.org/sustainable-forest-management/toolbox/modules/forest-protected-areas/basic-knowledge/en/|access-date=8 December 2020|archive-date=30 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201130120903/http://www.fao.org/sustainable-forest-management/toolbox/modules/forest-protected-areas/basic-knowledge/en/|url-status=dead}} [347] => [348] => Forest protected areas in particular play many important roles including as a provider of habitat, shelter, food and genetic materials, and as a buffer against disaster. They deliver stable supplies of many goods and environmental services. The role of protected areas, especially forest protected areas, in mitigating and adapting to climate change has increasingly been recognized over the last few years. Protected areas not only store and sequester carbon (i.e. the global network of protected areas stores at least 15 percent of terrestrial carbon), but also enable species to adapt to changing climate patterns by providing refuges and migration corridors. Protected areas also protect people from sudden climate events and reduce their vulnerability to weather-induced problems such as floods and droughts (UNEP–WCMC, 2016). [349] => [350] => ===National parks=== [351] => {{Main|National park}} [352] => A national park is a large natural or near natural area set aside to protect large-scale ecological processes, which also provide a foundation for environmentally and culturally compatible, spiritual, scientific, educational, recreational and visitor opportunities. These areas are selected by governments or private organizations to protect natural biodiversity along with its underlying ecological structure and supporting environmental processes, and to promote education and recreation. The [[International Union for Conservation of Nature]] (IUCN), and its World Commission on Protected Areas (WCPA), has defined "National Park" as its Category II type of protected areas.{{Cite web|title=Protected areas, Category II: National Park|url=https://www.iucn.org/theme/protected-areas/about/protected-areas-categories/category-ii-national-park|website=International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN)|date=5 February 2016}} [353] => [354] => National parks are usually owned and managed by national or state governments. In some cases, a limit is placed on the number of visitors permitted to enter certain fragile areas. Designated trails or roads are created. The visitors are allowed to enter only for study, cultural and recreation purposes. Forestry operations, grazing of animals and hunting of animals are regulated and the exploitation of habitat or wildlife is banned. [355] => [356] => ===Wildlife sanctuary=== [357] => [[Wildlife sanctuary|Wildlife sanctuaries]] aim only at the conservation of species and have the following features: [358] => [359] => # The boundaries of the sanctuaries are not limited by state legislation. [360] => # The killing, hunting or capturing of any species is prohibited except by or under the control of the highest authority in the department which is responsible for the management of the sanctuary. [361] => # Private ownership may be allowed. [362] => # [[Forestry]] and other usages can also be permitted. [363] => [364] => ===Forest reserves=== [365] => There is an estimated 726 million ha of forest in protected areas worldwide. Of the six major world regions, South America has the highest share of forests in protected areas, 31 percent.{{Cite book |title=Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Key findings|publisher=FAO|year=2020|isbn=978-92-5-132581-0|doi=10.4060/ca8753en|s2cid=130116768}}Text was added from this source which has a Wikipedia-specific [[c:File:Global Forest Resources Assessment 2020 – Key findings.pdf|licence statement]] [366] => [367] => The [[forest]]s play a vital role in harboring more than 45,000 floral and 81,000 faunal species of which 5150 floral and 1837 faunal species are [[Endemism|endemic]].{{Cite book|last=Sahayaraj|first=K.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GmwlBAAAQBAJ&q=5150+floral+and+1837+faunal+species+are+endemic+to+forests&pg=PA157|title=Basic and Applied Aspects of Biopesticides|date=2014-07-10|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-81-322-1877-7|language=en}} In addition, there are 60,065 different tree species in the world.{{cite journal |last1=Beech |first1=E. |last2=Rivers |first2=M. |last3=Oldfield |first3=S. |last4=Smith |first4=P. P. |title=GlobalTreeSearch: The first complete global database of tree species and country distributions |journal=Journal of Sustainable Forestry |date=4 July 2017 |volume=36 |issue=5 |pages=454–489 |doi=10.1080/10549811.2017.1310049 |bibcode=2017JSusF..36..454B |s2cid=89858214 }} Plant and animal species confined to a specific geographical area are called endemic species. In forest reserves, rights to activities like hunting and grazing are sometimes given to communities living on the fringes of the forest, who sustain their livelihood partially or wholly from forest resources or products. The unclassed forests cover 6.4 percent of the total forest area and they are marked by the following characteristics: [368] => [369] => # They are large inaccessible forests. [370] => # Many of these are unoccupied. [371] => # They are ecologically and economically less important. [372] => Approximately 50 million hectares (or 24%) of European forest land is protected for biodiversity and landscape protection. Forests allocated for soil, water, and other ecosystem services encompass around 72 million hectares (32% of European forest area).{{Cite book |last=Bank |first=European Investment |url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/20220173-forests-at-the-heart-of-sustainable-development |title=Forests at the heart of sustainable development: Investing in forests to meet biodiversity and climate goals |date=2022-12-08 |publisher=European Investment Bank |isbn=978-92-861-5403-4 |language=EN}}{{Cite web |title=Forests - Environment - European Commission |url=https://ec.europa.eu/environment/forests/policy_en.htm |access-date=2023-01-30 |website=ec.europa.eu}}{{Cite web|url=https://foresteurope.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/protected-forests-in-europe.pdf|title=Protected Forests in Europe}} [373] => [374] => ====Steps to conserve the forest cover==== [375] => {{further|Forest cover}} [376] => # An extensive [[reforestation]]/[[afforestation]] programme should be followed. [377] => # Alternative [[environment-friendly]] sources of fuel energy such as [[biogas]] other than wood should be used. [378] => # Loss of biodiversity due to [[forest fire]] is a major problem, immediate steps to prevent forest fire need to be taken. [379] => # [[Overgrazing]] by cattle can damage a forest seriously. Therefore, certain steps should be taken to prevent overgrazing by cattle. [380] => # Hunting and [[poaching]] should be banned. [381] => [382] => ===Zoological parks=== [383] => In [[zoological park]]s or zoos, live animals are kept for public [[recreation]], education and conservation purposes. Modern zoos offer veterinary facilities, provide opportunities for threatened species to [[captive breeding|breed in captivity]] and usually build environments that simulate the native habitats of the animals in their care. Zoos play a major role in creating [[environmental awareness|awareness]] about the need to conserve nature. [384] => [385] => ===Botanical gardens=== [386] => In [[botanical garden]]s, plants are grown and displayed primarily for scientific and educational purposes. They consist of a collection of living plants, grown outdoors or under glass in [[greenhouse]]s and conservatories. Also, a botanical garden may include a collection of dried plants or [[herbarium]] and such facilities as lecture rooms, laboratories, libraries, museums and experimental or research plantings. [387] => [388] => == Role of society == [389] => [390] => === Transformative change === [391] => In 2019, a summary for policymakers of the largest, most comprehensive study to date of biodiversity and ecosystem services, the ''[[Global Assessment Report on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]]'', was published by the [[Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services]] (IPBES). It stated that "the state of nature has deteriorated at an unprecedented and accelerating rate". To fix the problem, humanity will need a transformative change, including [[sustainable agriculture]], reductions in [[Consumption (economics)|consumption]] and waste, fishing quotas and collaborative water management.{{cite book |url=https://www.ipbes.net/sites/default/files/downloads/spm_unedited_advance_for_posting_htn.pdf |title=Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services |date=6 May 2019 |publisher=the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services |access-date=10 May 2019}}{{cite news |last1=Deutsche Welle |first1=Deutsche |date=6 May 2019 |title=Why Biodiversity Loss Hurts Humans as Much as Climate Change Does |agency=Ecowatch |url=https://www.ecowatch.com/biodiversity-loss-human-health-2636410357.html |access-date=10 May 2019}} [392] => [393] => === Citizen science === [394] => [[Citizen science]], also known as public participation in scientific research, has been widely used in environmental sciences and is particularly popular in a biodiversity-related context. It has been used to enable scientists to involve the general public in biodiversity research, thereby enabling the scientists to collect data that they would otherwise not have been able to obtain. An online survey of 1,160 CS participants across 63 biodiversity citizen science projects in Europe, Australia and New Zealand reported positive changes in (a) content, process and nature of science knowledge, (b) skills of science inquiry, (c) self-efficacy for science and the environment, (d) interest in science and the environment, (e) motivation for science and the environment and (f) behaviour towards the environment.{{cite journal |last1=Peter |first1=Maria |last2=Diekötter |first2=Tim |last3=Höffler |first3=Tim |last4=Kremer |first4=Kerstin |title=Biodiversity citizen science: Outcomes for the participating citizens |journal=People and Nature |date=April 2021 |volume=3 |issue=2 |pages=294–311 |doi=10.1002/pan3.10193 |bibcode=2021PeoNa...3..294P |s2cid=233774150 |doi-access=free }} [395] => [396] => Volunteer observers have made significant contributions to on-the-ground knowledge about biodiversity, and recent improvements in technology have helped increase the flow and quality of occurrences from citizen sources. A 2016 study published in Biological Conservation{{cite journal |last1=Chandler |first1=Mark |last2=See |first2=Linda |last3=Copas |first3=Kyle |last4=Bonde |first4=Astrid M.Z. |last5=López |first5=Bernat Claramunt |last6=Danielsen |first6=Finn |last7=Legind |first7=Jan Kristoffer |last8=Masinde |first8=Siro |last9=Miller-Rushing |first9=Abraham J. |last10=Newman |first10=Greg |last11=Rosemartin |first11=Alyssa |last12=Turak |first12=Eren |title=Contribution of citizen science towards international biodiversity monitoring |journal=Biological Conservation |date=September 2017 |volume=213 |pages=280–294 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2016.09.004 |doi-access=free |bibcode=2017BCons.213..280C }} registers the massive contributions that citizen scientists already make to data mediated by the [[Global Biodiversity Information Facility|Global Biodiversity Information Facility (GBIF)]]. Despite some limitations of the dataset-level analysis, it is clear that nearly half of all occurrence records shared through the GBIF network come from datasets with significant volunteer contributions. Recording and sharing observations are enabled by several global-scale platforms, including [[iNaturalist]] and [[eBird]].{{cite book |last1=Walters |first1=Michele |last2=Scholes |first2=Robert J. |title=The GEO Handbook on Biodiversity Observation Networks |date=2017 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-319-27288-7 |doi=10.1007/978-3-319-27288-7 |hdl=20.500.12657/28080 }}{{page needed|date=September 2021}}{{cite journal |last1=Aristeidou |first1=Maria |last2=Herodotou |first2=Christothea |last3=Ballard |first3=Heidi L. |last4=Higgins |first4=Lila |last5=Johnson |first5=Rebecca F. |last6=Miller |first6=Annie E. |last7=Young |first7=Alison N. |last8=Robinson |first8=Lucy D. |title=How Do Young Community and Citizen Science Volunteers Support Scientific Research on Biodiversity? The Case of iNaturalist |journal=Diversity |date=July 2021 |volume=13 |issue=7 |pages=318 |doi=10.3390/d13070318 |pmid=35873351 |pmc=7613115 |doi-access=free }} [397] => [398] => ==Legal status== [399] => [[File:Hopetoun falls.jpg|thumb|right|A great deal of work is occurring to preserve the natural characteristics of [[Hopetoun Falls]], [[Australia]] while continuing to allow visitor access.]] [400] => [401] => ===International=== [402] => * United Nations [[Convention on Biological Diversity]] (1992) and [[Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety]]; [403] => * UN BBNJ ([[High Seas Treaty]]) 2023 Intergovernmental conference on an international legally binding instrument under the [[United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea|UNCLOS]] on the conservation and sustainable use of marine biological diversity of areas beyond national jurisdiction (GA resolution 72/249) [404] => * Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species ([[CITES]]); [405] => * [[Ramsar Convention]] (Wetlands); [406] => * [[Bonn Convention]] on Migratory Species; [407] => * [[UNESCO]] [[World Heritage Site#Convention and background|Convention concerning the Protection of the World's Cultural and Natural Heritage]] (indirectly by protecting biodiversity habitats) [408] => * [[UNESCO Global Geoparks]] [409] => * Regional Conventions such as the Apia Convention [410] => * Bilateral agreements such as the [[Japan-Australia Migratory Bird Agreement]]. [411] => [412] => Global agreements such as the [[Convention on Biological Diversity]], give "sovereign national rights over biological resources" (not property). The agreements commit countries to "conserve biodiversity", "develop resources for sustainability" and "share the benefits" resulting from their use. Biodiverse countries that allow [[bioprospecting]] or collection of natural products, expect a share of the benefits rather than allowing the individual or institution that discovers/exploits the resource to capture them privately. Bioprospecting can become a type of [[biopiracy]] when such principles are not respected.{{cite journal |last1=Shiva |first1=Vandana |title=Bioprospecting as Sophisticated Biopiracy |journal=Signs: Journal of Women in Culture and Society |date=January 2007 |volume=32 |issue=2 |pages=307–313 |doi=10.1086/508502 |s2cid=144229002 }} [413] => [414] => Sovereignty principles can rely upon what is better known as [[International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture|Access and Benefit Sharing Agreements]] (ABAs). The Convention on Biodiversity implies [[informed consent]] between the source country and the collector, to establish which resource will be used and for what and to settle on a [[International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture|fair agreement on benefit sharing]]. [415] => [416] => On the 19 of December 2022, during the [[2022 United Nations Biodiversity Conference]] every country on earth, with the exception of the [[United States]] and the [[Holy See]], signed onto the agreement which includes protecting 30% of land and oceans by 2030 ([[30 by 30]]) and 22 other targets intended to reduce [[biodiversity loss]].{{cite news |last=Paddison|first=Laura |date=December 19, 2022 |title=More than 190 countries sign landmark agreement to halt the biodiversity crisis|url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/12/19/world/cop15-biodiversity-agreement-montreal-climate-scn-intl/index.html|work=CNN |location= |access-date=December 20, 2022}}{{cite news |last=Einhorn |first=Catrin |date=December 19, 2022|title= Nearly Every Country Signs On to a Sweeping Deal to Protect Nature|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2022/12/19/climate/biodiversity-cop15-montreal-30x30.html |work=[[The New York Times]]|location= |access-date=December 27, 2022|quote=The United States is just one of two countries in the world that are not party to the Convention on Biological Diversity, largely because Republicans, who are typically opposed to joining treaties, have blocked United States membership. That means the American delegation was required to participate from the sidelines. (The only other country that has not joined the treaty is the Holy See.)}}{{Cite web |last= |first= |date=2022-12-20 |title=COP15: Key outcomes agreed at the UN biodiversity conference in Montreal |url=https://www.carbonbrief.org/cop15-key-outcomes-agreed-at-the-un-biodiversity-conference-in-montreal/ |access-date=2023-01-05 |website=Carbon Brief |language=en}} The agreement includes also recovering 30% of earth degraded ecosystems and increasing funding for biodiversity issues.{{cite news |last1=Greenfield |first1=Patrick |last2=Weston |first2=Phoebe |title=Cop15: historic deal struck to halt biodiversity loss by 2030 |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2022/dec/19/cop15-historic-deal-signed-to-halt-biodiversity-loss-by-2030-aoe |access-date=9 January 2023 |agency=The Guardian |date=19 December 2022}} [417] => [418] => ==== European Union ==== [419] => In May 2020, the European Union published its Biodiversity Strategy for 2030. The biodiversity strategy is an essential part of the [[climate change mitigation]] strategy of the European Union. From the 25% of the European budget that will go to fight climate change, large part will go to restore biodiversity and [[Nature-based solutions|nature based solutions]]. [420] => [421] => The [[EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030]] include the next targets: [422] => * Protect 30% of the sea territory and 30% of the land territory especially [[Old-growth forest]]s. [423] => * Plant 3 billion trees by 2030. [424] => * Restore at least 25,000 kilometers of rivers, so they will become free flowing. [425] => * Reduce the use of [[Pesticide]]s by 50% by 2030. [426] => * Increase [[Organic farming]]. In linked EU program [[From Farm to Fork]] it is said, that the target is making 25% of EU agriculture organic, by 2030.{{cite web |title=From Farm to Fork |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal/actions-being-taken-eu/farm-fork_en |website=European Commission website |publisher=European Union |access-date=26 May 2020}} [427] => * Increase [[biodiversity in agriculture]]. [428] => * Give €20 billion per year to the issue and make it part of the business practice. [429] => [430] => Approximately half of the global [[GDP]] depend on nature. In Europe many parts of the economy that generate trillions of euros per year depend on nature. The benefits of [[Natura 2000]] alone in Europe are €200 – €300 billion per year.{{cite web |title=EU Biodiversity Strategy for 2030 |url=https://ec.europa.eu/info/strategy/priorities-2019-2024/european-green-deal/actions-being-taken-eu/eu-biodiversity-strategy-2030_en |website=European Commission website |publisher=European Union |access-date=25 May 2020}} [431] => [432] => ===National level laws=== [433] => Biodiversity is taken into account in some political and judicial decisions: [434] => * The relationship between law and ecosystems is very ancient and has consequences for biodiversity. It is related to private and public property rights. It can define protection for threatened ecosystems, but also some rights and duties (for example, [[fishing]] and hunting rights).{{Citation needed|date=December 2010}} [435] => * Law regarding species is more recent. It defines species that must be protected because they may be threatened by extinction. The U.S. [[Endangered Species Act]] is an example of an attempt to address the "law and species" issue. [436] => * Laws regarding gene pools are only about a century old.{{cite book |title=Modern Concepts of Security |last=Ohwofasa Akpeninor |first=James |year=2012 |publisher=[[AuthorHouse]] |isbn=9781467881623 |page=234}} Domestication and plant breeding methods are not new, but advances in genetic engineering have led to tighter laws covering distribution of [[genetically modified organisms]], gene [[patent]]s and process patents.{{cite web|url=http://www.ornl.gov/sci/techresources/Human_Genome/elsi/patents.shtml |title=Gene Patenting |publisher=Ornl.gov |access-date=21 June 2009}} Governments struggle to decide whether to focus on for example, genes, genomes, or organisms and species.{{citation needed|date=September 2010}} [437] => [438] => Uniform approval for use of biodiversity as a legal standard has not been achieved, however. Bosselman argues that biodiversity should not be used as a legal standard, claiming that the remaining areas of scientific uncertainty cause unacceptable administrative waste and increase litigation without promoting preservation goals.{{cite journal |last1=Bosselman |first1=Fred |title=A Dozen Biodiversity Puzzles |journal=NYU Environmental Law Journal |date=15 December 2004 |volume=12 |issue=366 |ssrn=1523937 |url=https://scholarship.kentlaw.iit.edu/fac_schol/85/ }} [439] => [440] => India passed the [[Biological Diversity Act]] in 2002 for the conservation of biological diversity in India. The Act also provides mechanisms for equitable sharing of benefits from the use of traditional biological resources and knowledge. [441] => [442] => ==See also== [443] => {{col div|colwidth=30em}} [444] => * [[Ecological indicator]] [445] => * [[Genetic diversity]] [446] => * [[Global biodiversity]] [447] => * [[Index of biodiversity articles]] [448] => * [[International Day for Biological Diversity]] [449] => * [[Kunming-Montreal Global Biodiversity Framework]] [450] => * [[Megadiverse countries]] [451] => * [[Soil biodiversity]] [452] => * [[Species diversity]] [453] => * [[30 by 30]] [454] => {{colend}} [455] => [456] => ==References== [457] => [458] => {{Reflist}} [459] => [460] => ==External links== [461] => {{Wiktionary|biodiversity}} [462] => {{Wikiquote}} [463] => {{Commons category}} [464] => * [https://www.unep.org/resources/report/assessment-report-diverse-values-and-valuation-nature Assessment Report on Diverse Values and Valuation of Nature] by the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services (IPBES), 2022. [465] => * [https://www.natureserve.org/ NatureServe: This site serves as a portal for accessing several types of publicly available biodiversity data] [466] => * [http://www.millenniumassessment.org/documents/document.354.aspx.pdf Biodiversity Synthesis Report] (PDF) by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA, 2005) [467] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20050825002841/http://stort.unep-wcmc.org/imaps/gb2002/book/viewer.htm World Map of Biodiversity] an interactive map from the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] [[World Conservation Monitoring Centre]] [468] => * [https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/ Biodiversity Heritage Library] – Open access digital library of historical taxonomic literature [469] => * [https://sibils.text-analytics.ch/search/ Biodiversity PMC] – Open access digital library of biodiversity and ecological literature [470] => * [https://www.biodiversitymapping.org/ Mapping of biodiversity] [471] => * [https://www.eol.org/ Encyclopedia of Life] – Documenting all species of life on Earth. [472] => [473] => {{Biodiversity Worldwide}} [474] => {{Biology nav}} [475] => {{threatened species}} [476] => {{Nature}} [477] => {{Zoos}} [478] => {{Natural resources}} [479] => {{Deforestation and desertification}} [480] => {{Authority control}} [481] => [482] => [483] => [[Category:Biodiversity|Biodiversity]] [484] => [[Category:Biogeography]] [485] => [[Category:Population genetics]] [486] => [[Category:Species]] [] => )
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Biodiversity

Biodiversity refers to the variety of life forms on Earth, encompassing the different species, ecosystems, and genetic variations that exist. This concept is crucial for the stability and resilience of ecosystems, as it supports essential processes such as pollination, nutrient cycling, and adaptation to changing environmental conditions.

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This concept is crucial for the stability and resilience of ecosystems, as it supports essential processes such as pollination, nutrient cycling, and adaptation to changing environmental conditions. The Wikipedia page on biodiversity covers various aspects of this topic. It begins by providing an overview of the concept, including its definition and the key elements that make up biodiversity. The page then delves into the importance of biodiversity for the functioning of ecosystems and its role in providing various ecosystem services, such as clean water, climate regulation, and food production. The page also discusses the threats to biodiversity, including climate change, habitat destruction, pollution, and invasive species. It highlights the consequences of biodiversity loss, such as the disruption of ecosystems, the decrease in species resilience, and the potential impact on human well-being. Furthermore, the page presents information on the historical background of biodiversity, including the development of the field of biodiversity science and the establishment of international agreements and organizations dedicated to its conservation, such as the Convention on Biological Diversity. Additionally, the page covers various methods and approaches used to assess and monitor biodiversity, including species inventories, genetic analyses, and remote sensing techniques. It also explores conservation strategies and initiatives aimed at preserving and restoring biodiversity at different scales, from local to global. Overall, the Wikipedia page on biodiversity provides a comprehensive and informative overview of this critical topic, offering insights into its significance, threats, conservation efforts, and scientific research related to understanding and protecting Earth's biodiversity.

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Africa is the second-largest continent on Earth, covering about 30.

Agriculture

Agriculture refers to the practice of cultivating plants, animals, and other forms of life for food, fiber, medicinal plants, and other products used to sustain and enhance human life.

Animal

The Wikipedia page on "Animal" provides a comprehensive overview of the kingdom Animalia, which includes all multicellular organisms that are not part of the plant, fungus, or bacteria kingdoms.

Animalia

Animalia is a taxonomic kingdom that comprises all multicellular organisms that are classified as animals.

Arthropods

Atmosphere

Atmosphere is a comprehensive Wikipedia page that provides a thorough overview of Earth's atmosphere.

Bacteria

Bacteria are single-celled microorganisms that have a wide range of shapes and sizes.

Biogeography

Biogeography is the study of the distribution of species and ecosystems in geographic space and through geological time.

Bioprospecting

Bioprospecting (also known as biodiversity prospecting) is the exploration of natural sources for small molecules, macromolecules and biochemical and genetic information that could be developed into commercially valuable products for the agricultural, aquaculture, bioremediation, cosmetics, nanotechnology, or pharmaceutical industries.

Bird

Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates characterized by feathers, beaks, wings, and the ability to lay eggs.

Birds

Birdwatching

Birdwatching, or birding, is the observing of birds, either as a recreational activity or as a form of citizen science.

Carbon

Carbon is a chemical element with the symbol C and atomic number 6.

CITES

CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora) is an international agreement between governments.

Climate

The Wikipedia page on climate provides a detailed overview of climate, including its definition, composition, and factors that influence it.

DNA

DNA, also known as deoxyribonucleic acid, is a molecule that carries the genetic instructions used in the growth, development, functioning, and reproduction of all known living organisms and many viruses.

EARTH

Earth is the third planet from the Sun in our solar system and the only known celestial body to support life.

Ecosystem

An ecosystem is a community of living organisms in conjunction with the nonliving components of their environment, interacting as a system.

Ecosystems

Equator

The Equator is an imaginary line that is located at 0 degrees latitude and divides the Earth into the Northern and Southern Hemispheres.

Evolution

Evolution is a process that describes how living organisms have adapted and changed over time.

Forest

A forest is a dense grouping of trees, various plants, and wildlife, covering a large area of land.

Fungi

Fungi are a diverse group of organisms that belong to the kingdom Fungi.

Gardening

Gardening is the practice of growing and cultivating plants as part of horticulture.

Gene

Gene is a widely recognized online encyclopedia that provides information on a wide range of topics, including biology, genetics, and other related fields.

Geology

Geology is the scientific study of the Earth's solid materials, including rocks, minerals, and the processes that shape and change them over time.

Human

"Human" is a Wikipedia page that explores the biological, social, and cultural aspects of human beings.

INaturalist

iNaturalist is an American 501(c)(3) nonprofit social network of naturalists, citizen scientists, and biologists built on the concept of mapping and sharing observations of biodiversity across the globe.

Mammals

Microorganism

A microorganism is a living organism that is too small to be seen by the naked eye.

Nutrient

Nutrients are substances found in food that are essential for the growth, development, and maintenance of the body.

Oceans

Organism

An organism is a living entity that exhibits all the characteristics of life.

Plankton

Plankton are a diverse group of organisms that drift in the water column of aquatic environments.

Plant

Plants are multicellular organisms that form the kingdom Plantae, which includes a wide variety of species ranging from simple mosses to complex flowering plants.

Precipitation

Precipitation is a crucial aspect of Earth's water cycle and refers to any form of water that falls from the atmosphere to the Earth's surface.

Reforestation

Reforestation is the practice of restoring previously existing forests and woodlands that have been destroyed or damaged.

Sea

The Wikipedia page on "Sea" provides comprehensive information about this vast body of saltwater that covers a significant portion of the Earth's surface.

Soil

Soil is a natural resource that forms the upper layer of the Earth's crust.

Sustainability

Sustainability is a concept that focuses on meeting the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs.

UNESCO

UNESCO, which stands for the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, is a specialized agency of the United Nations.

Universe

The Wikipedia page on the Universe provides an overview of the vast and complex cosmic entity that encompasses all of space and time.