Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Ancient Greek philosopher (428/423 – 348/347 BC)}} [1] => {{other uses|Plato (disambiguation)|Platon (disambiguation)}} [2] => {{pp-move|small=yes}} [3] => {{pp-vandalism|small=yes}} [4] => [5] => {{Use Oxford spelling|date=March 2020}} [6] => {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}} [7] => {{Infobox philosopher [8] => | era = [[Ancient Greek philosophy]] [9] => | image = Plato Silanion Musei Capitolini MC1377.jpg [10] => | caption = Roman copy of a portrait [[Bust (sculpture)|bust]] {{circa|370 BC}} [11] => | name = Plato [12] => | birth_date = 428/427 or 424/423 BC [13] => | birth_place = [[Classical Athens|Athens]], [[Ancient Greece|Greece]] [14] => | death_date = 348 BC (aged {{circa|75-80}}) [15] => | death_place = Athens, Greece [16] => | school_tradition = [[Platonic Academy]] [17] => | notable_students = [[Aristotle]] [18] => | main_interests = [19] => [[Platonic epistemology|Epistemology]], [[Metaphysics]]
[20] => [[Plato's political philosophy|Political philosophy]] [21] => | notable_works = [22] => {{Flatlist}} [23] => * ''[[Euthyphro]]'' [24] => * ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]'' [25] => * ''[[Crito]]'' [26] => * ''[[Phaedo]]'' [27] => * ''[[Meno]]'' [28] => * ''[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]'' [29] => * ''[[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]'' [30] => * ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'' [31] => * ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'' [32] => * ''[[Parmenides (dialogue)|Parmenides]]'' [33] => * ''[[Theaetetus (dialogue)|Theaetetus]]'' [34] => * ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'' [35] => * ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' [36] => * ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]'' [37] => {{Endflatlist}} [38] => | notable_ideas = [39] => [[Allegory of the cave]]
[40] => [[Cardinal virtues]]
[41] => [[Form of the Good]]
[42] => [[Theory of forms]]
[43] => [[Plato's theory of soul|Divisions of the soul]]
[44] => [[Platonic love]]
[45] => [[Platonic solids]]
[46] => }} [47] => '''Plato''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|p|l|eɪ|t|oʊ}} {{respell|PLAY|toe}};{{sfn|Jones|2006}} [[Greek language|Greek]]: Πλάτων), born '''Aristocles''' (Ἀριστοκλῆς; {{Circa|427}} – 348 BC), was an [[Ancient Greek philosophy|ancient Greek philosopher]] of the [[Classical Greece|Classical period]] who is considered a foundational thinker in [[Western philosophy]] and an innovator of the written [[dialogue]] and [[dialectic]] forms. He raised problems for what became all the major areas of both [[theoretical philosophy]] and [[practical philosophy]], and was the founder of the [[Platonic Academy]], a philosophical school in [[History of Athens|Athens]] where Plato taught the doctrines that would later become known as [[Platonism]]. [48] => [49] => Plato's most famous contribution is the [[theory of forms|theory of forms (or ideas)]], which has been interpreted as advancing a solution to what is now known as the [[problem of universals]]. He was decisively influenced by the pre-Socratic thinkers [[Pythagoras]], [[Heraclitus]], and [[Parmenides]], although much of what is known about them is derived from Plato himself.{{efn|"Though influenced primarily by Socrates, to the extent that Socrates is usually the main character in many of Plato's writings, he was also influenced by Heraclitus, Parmenides, and the Pythagoreans"[[#{{harvid|Brickhouse|Smith}}|Brickhouse & Smith]].}} [50] => [51] => Along with his teacher [[Socrates]], and [[Aristotle]], his student, Plato is a central figure in the [[history of philosophy]].{{efn|"...the subject of philosophy, as it is often conceived{{snd}}a rigorous and systematic examination of [[ethical]], political, [[metaphysics|metaphysical]], and [[epistemology|epistemological]] issues, armed with a distinctive method{{snd}}can be called his invention."{{harvnb|Kraut|2013}}{{cite encyclopedia|title=Plato and Aristotle: How Do They Differ?|encyclopedia=Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/story/plato-and-aristotle-how-do-they-differ |quote=Plato (c. 428–c. 348 BCE) and Aristotle (384–322 BCE) are generally regarded as the two greatest figures of Western philosophy |first1=Brian |last1=Duignan |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231217000145/https://www.britannica.com/story/plato-and-aristotle-how-do-they-differ |archive-date= Dec 17, 2023 }}}} Plato's entire body of work is believed to have survived intact for over 2,400 years{{Emdash}}unlike that of nearly all of his contemporaries.Cooper, John M.; Hutchinson, D.S., eds. (1997): "Introduction." Although their popularity has fluctuated, they have consistently been read and studied through the ages.{{sfn|Cooper|1997|p=vii}} Through [[Neoplatonism]], he also greatly influenced both [[Christian philosophy|Christian]] and [[Islamic philosophy]].{{Efn|Two influential examples of said cultures are [[Augustine of Hippo]], and [[Al-Farabi]].}} In modern times, [[Alfred North Whitehead]] famously said: "the safest general characterization of the European philosophical tradition is that it consists of a series of [[Note (typography)|footnotes]] to Plato."{{sfn|Whitehead|1978|p=39}} [52] => [53] => == Names == [54] => {{Anchor|Name}}Plato ({{lang-grc-gre|[[wikt:Πλάτων|Πλάτων]]}}, {{transl|grc|Plátōn}}, from {{transl-grc|πλατύς|broad}}) is actually a [[Ancient Greek personal names|nickname]]. Although it is a fact the philosopher called himself ''Platon'' in his maturity, the origin of this name remains mysterious. ''Platon'' was a fairly common name (31 instances are known from Athens alone),{{sfn|Guthrie|1986|loc=p. 12 (footnote)}} but the name does not occur in Plato's known family line.[[David Sedley|Sedley, David]], ''Plato's Cratylus'', Cambridge University Press 2003, [https://assets.cambridge.org/052158/4922/sample/0521584922ws.pdf pp. 21–22] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160303193843/http://assets.cambridge.org/052158/4922/sample/0521584922ws.pdf|date=3 March 2016}}. [55] => [56] => The sources of Diogenes Laertius account for this by claiming his [[Greek wrestling|wrestling]] coach, Ariston of Argos, dubbed him "broad" on account of his chest and shoulders, or that Plato derived his name from the breadth of his eloquence, or his wide forehead.Diogenes Laertius, ''Life of Plato'', IV{{harvnb|Notopoulos|1939|p=135}} While recalling a [[Stoicism#Ethics and virtues|moral lesson]] about frugal living [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] mentions the meaning of Plato's name: "His very name was given him because of his broad chest."Seneca, ''Epistulae'', VI 58:29–30; translation by Robert Mott Gummere According to Diogenes Laertius,{{sfn|Laërtius|1925|loc=§ 4}} his birth name was ''Aristocles'' ({{lang|grc|Ἀριστοκλῆς}}), meaning 'best reputation'.{{efn|From ''[[Arete|aristos]]'' and ''[[kleos]]''}} [57] => [58] => == Biography == [59] => {{further|Life of Plato}} [60] => [61] => Plato, whose actual name was Aristocles, was born in Athens or [[Aegina]], between 428{{sfn|Wilamowitz-Moellendorff|2005|p=46}} and 423 BC.{{sfn|Nails|2002|p=246}} He was a member of an [[Aristocracy|aristocratic]] and influential family.Diogenes Laertius, ''Life of Plato'', III
{{harvnb|Nails|2002|p=53}}
{{harvnb|Wilamowitz-Moellendorff|2005|p=46}}{{efn|He was known to have worn [[earring]]s and [[finger rings]] during his youth as a sign of his noble descent.{{Cite journal |last=Notopoulos |first=James A. |date=1940 |title=Porphyry's Life of Plato |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/264394 |journal=Classical Philology |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=284–293 |doi=10.1086/362396 |jstor=264394 |s2cid=161160877 |issn=0009-837X |access-date=23 July 2023 |archive-date=13 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231013093145/https://www.jstor.org/stable/264394 |url-status=live }} The extent of Plato's affinity for [[Jewellery|jewelry]] while young was even characterized as "decadent" by [[Sextus Empiricus]].{{Cite journal |last=Veres |first=Máté |date=2019-01-01 |title=Sextus Empiricus, Against Those in the Disciplines. Translated with an introduction and notes by Richard Bett (Oxford University Press, 2018) |url=https://www.academia.edu/39520412 |journal=International Journal for the Study of Skepticism |access-date=24 July 2023 |archive-date=7 September 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230907000943/https://www.academia.edu/39520412 |url-status=live }}}} His father was Ariston,{{Efn|According to [[Alexander Polyhistor]], quoted by [[Diogenes Laërtius]].}}{{Cite web |title=Plato FAQ: Plato's real name |url=https://www.plato-dialogues.org/faq/faq005.htm |website=www.plato-dialogues.org |access-date=28 January 2023 |archive-date=5 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230305215829/https://www.plato-dialogues.org/faq/faq005.htm |url-status=live }} who may have been a descendant of two kings{{Emdash}}[[Codrus]] and [[Melanthus]].{{Efn|According to a tradition, reported by Diogenes Laërtius but disputed by Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, Ariston himself traced his descent from these kings.}}Diogenes Laërtius, iii. 1 [62] => [63] => * U. von Wilamowitz-Moellendorff, ''Plato'', 46 His mother was [[Perictione]], descendant of [[Solon]],[[Diogenes Laërtius]], iii.1Diogenes Laërtius, iii. 4 a statesman credited with laying the foundations of [[Athenian democracy]].Stanton, G. R. ''Athenian Politics c. 800–500 BC: A Sourcebook'', Routledge, London (1990), p. 76.Andrews, A. ''Greek Society'' (Penguin 1967) 197E. Harris, ''A New Solution to the Riddle of the Seisachtheia'', in ''The Development of the Polis in Archaic Greece'', eds. L. Mitchell and P. Rhodes (Routledge 1997) 103 Plato had two brothers, [[Glaucon]] and [[Adeimantus of Collytus|Adeimantus]], a sister, [[Potone]], and a half brother, Antiphon.{{cite book |author=Plato |title=Republic |publisher=Hackett |others=trans. [[G. M. A. Grube]] |year=1992 |isbn=0-87220-137-6 |location=Indianapolis |page=viii}} [64] => [65] => Plato may have travelled to Italy, [[Sicily]], Egypt, and [[Cyrene, Libya|Cyrene]].{{sfn|McEvoy|1984}} At 40, he founded a school of philosophy, the [[Platonic Academy|Academy]]. It was located in Athens, on a plot of land in the Grove of Hecademus or [[Academus]],{{sfn|Cairns|1961|p=xiii}} named after an [[Attica|Attic]] hero in [[Greek mythology]]. The {{not a typo|Academy}} operated until it was destroyed by [[Sulla]] in 84 BC. Many philosophers studied at the {{not a typo|Academy}}, the most prominent being Aristotle.{{sfn|Dillon|2003|pp=1–3}}{{sfn|Press|2000|p=1}} [66] => [67] => According to [[Diogenes Laertius]], throughout his later life, Plato became entangled with the politics of the city of [[Syracuse, Sicily|Syracuse]], where he attempted to replace the tyrant [[Dionysius I of Syracuse|Dionysius]],{{sfn|Riginos|1976|p=73}} with Dionysius's brother-in-law, [[Dion of Syracuse]], whom Plato had recruited as one of his followers, but the tyrant himself turned against Plato. Plato almost faced death, but was sold into slavery. [[Anniceris]], a [[Cyrenaic]] philosopher, bought Plato's freedom for twenty [[Mina (unit)|minas]],Diogenes Laertius, [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D1 Book iii, 20] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140428041249/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D3%3Achapter%3D1 |date=28 April 2014 }} and sent him home. [[Philodemus]] however states that Plato was sold as a slave as early as in 404 BC, when the Spartans conquered Aegina, or, alternatively, in 399 BC, immediately after the death of Socrates.{{Cite news |title=Mystery of Plato's final resting place solved after 'bionic eye' penetrates 2,000-year-old scroll |last=Sabur |first=Rozina |work=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]] |url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/world-news/2024/04/23/mystery-plato-buried-solved-bionic-eye-texts-shrine-athens/#:~:text=They%20used%20infrared%20and%20X,Academy%20which%20were%20previously%20illegible.&text=It%20has%20made%20locating%20Plato's,the%20results%20of%20the%20project |date=24 April 2024 |access-date=25 April 2024}} After Dionysius's death, according to Plato's ''Seventh Letter'', Dion requested Plato return to Syracuse to tutor [[Dionysius II of Syracuse|Dionysius II]], who seemed to accept Plato's teachings, but eventually became suspicious of their motives, expelling Dion and holding Plato against his will. Eventually Plato left Syracuse and Dion would return to overthrow Dionysius and rule Syracuse, before being usurped by [[Callippus of Syracuse|Callippus]], a fellow disciple of Plato. [68] => [69] => A variety of sources have given accounts of Plato's death. One story, based on a mutilated manuscript,{{sfn|Riginos|1976|p=194}} suggests Plato died in his bed, whilst a young [[Thracian]] girl played the flute to him.{{sfn|Schall|1996}} Another tradition suggests Plato died at a wedding feast. The account is based on Diogenes Laertius's reference to an account by Hermippus, a third-century Alexandrian.{{sfn|Riginos|1976|p=195}} According to [[Tertullian]], Plato simply died in his sleep.{{sfn|Riginos|1976|p=195}} According to [[Philodemus]], Plato was buried in the garden of his academy in Athens, near to the sacred shrine of the Muses. [70] => [71] => == Influences == [72] => [[File:Socrates Louvre.jpg|thumb|upright|Plato was one of the devoted young followers of Socrates, whose bust is pictured above.]] [73] => [74] => === Socrates === [75] => {{main|Socratic problem}} [76] => Plato never speaks in his own voice in [[Socratic dialogues|his dialogues]]; every dialogue except the ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]'' features Socrates, although many dialogues, including the ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' and ''[[Statesman (dialogue)|Statesman]]'', feature him speaking only rarely. [[Leo Strauss]] notes that Socrates' reputation for [[irony]] casts doubt on whether Plato's Socrates is expressing sincere beliefs.{{sfn|Strauss|1964|pp=50–51}} [[Xenophon]]'s ''[[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|Memorabilia]]'' and [[Aristophanes]]'s ''[[The Clouds]]'' seem to present a somewhat different portrait of Socrates from the one Plato paints. Aristotle attributes a different doctrine with respect to Forms to Plato and Socrates.''Metaphysics'' 987b1–11 Aristotle suggests that Socrates' idea of forms can be discovered through investigation of the natural world, unlike Plato's Forms that exist beyond and outside the ordinary range of human understanding.{{cite book |title=The Religion of Socrates |last=McPherran |first=M.L. |publisher=Penn State Press |year=1998 |page=268}} The Socratic problem concerns how to reconcile these various accounts. The precise relationship between Plato and Socrates remains an area of contention among scholars.{{sfn|Vlastos|1991}}{{page needed|date=April 2023}} [77] => [78] => === Pythagoreanism === [79] => {{main|Pythagoreanism}} [80] => [[File:Kapitolinischer Pythagoras adjusted.jpg|right|upright|thumb|The mathematical and mystical teachings of the followers of Pythagoras, pictured above, exerted a strong influence on Plato.]] [81] => Although Socrates influenced Plato directly, the influence of [[Pythagoras]], or in a broader sense, the Pythagoreans, such as [[Archytas]] also appears to have been significant. Aristotle and [[Cicero]] both claimed that the philosophy of Plato closely followed the teachings of the [[Pythagoreanism|Pythagoreans]].Metaphysics, 1.6.1 (987a)Tusc. Disput. 1.17.39. According to [[R. M. Hare]], this influence consists of three points: [82] => # The platonic Republic might be related to the idea of "a tightly organized community of like-minded thinkers", like the one established by Pythagoras in Croton. [83] => # The idea that mathematics and, generally speaking, abstract thinking is a secure basis for philosophical thinking as well as "for substantial theses in [[science]] and [[morals]]". [84] => # They shared a "mystical approach to the soul and its place in the material world".R.M. Hare, Plato in C.C.W. Taylor, R.M. Hare and Jonathan Barnes, Greek Philosophers, Socrates, Plato, and Aristotle, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1999 (1982), 103–189, here 117–119.{{Cite book |title=History of Western Philosophy |last=Russell |first=Bertrand |publisher=Routledge |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-415-07854-2 |pages=120–124}} [85] => [86] => Pythagoras held that all things are number, and the cosmos comes from numerical principles. He introduced the concept of form as distinct from matter, and that the physical world is an imitation of an eternal mathematical world. These ideas were very influential on Heraclitus, Parmenides and Plato.{{Cite book |last=Calian |first=Florin George |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004467224/BP000010.xml |title=Numbers, Ontologically Speaking: Plato on Numerosity |year=2021 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-90-04-46722-4 |language=en |access-date=10 April 2023 |archive-date=7 May 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230507230433/https://brill.com/display/book/9789004467224/BP000010.xml |url-status=live }}{{cite web |last1=McFarlane |first1=Thomas J. |title=Plato's Parmenides |url=http://www.integralscience.org/platoparmenides.html |website=Integralscience |access-date=12 February 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170222045722/http://www.integralscience.org/platoparmenides.html|archive-date=22 February 2017|url-status=live}} [87] => [97] => [98] => === Heraclitus and Parmenides === [99] => {{main|Heraclitus|Parmenides}} [100] => {{multiple image [101] => | align = right [102] => | direction = horizontal [103] => | header = [104] => | width = [105] => [106] => | image1 = Hendrik ter Brugghen - Heraclitus.jpg [107] => | width1 = 150 [108] => | alt1 = [109] => | caption1 = ''Heraclitus'' (1628) by [[Hendrick ter Brugghen]]. Heraclitus saw a world in [[flux]], with everything always in conflict, constantly changing. [110] => [111] => | image2 = Parmenides.jpg [112] => | width2 = 150 [113] => | alt2 = [114] => | caption2 = Bust of Parmenides from [[Velia]]. Parmenides saw the world as [[Eternity of the world|eternal]] and unchanging, that all change was an illusion. [115] => }} [116] => The two philosophers [[Heraclitus]] and [[Parmenides]], influenced by earlier [[Pre-Socratic philosophy|pre-Socratic Greek philosophers]] such as Pythagoras and [[Xenophanes]],{{cite encyclopedia |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/parmenides |title=Parmenides |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |author=John Palmer |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |year=2019|access-date=18 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171020023553/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/parmenides/|archive-date=20 October 2017|url-status=live}} departed from mythological explanations for the universe and began the [[Metaphysics|metaphysical]] tradition that strongly influenced Plato and continues today. Heraclitus viewed all things as [[Impermanence|continuously changing]], that one cannot "step into the same river twice" due to the ever-changing waters flowing through it, and all things exist as a contraposition of opposites. According to Diogenes Laertius, Plato received these ideas through Heraclitus' disciple [[Cratylus]].{{cite web |last1=Large |first1=William |title=Heraclitus |url=http://www.arasite.org/WLnew/Greeks/heraclitus.html |website=Arasite |access-date=3 March 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170306132037/http://www.arasite.org/WLnew/Greeks/heraclitus.html|archive-date=6 March 2017|url-status=live}} Parmenides adopted an altogether contrary vision, arguing for the idea of a changeless, eternal universe and the view that change is an illusion. Plato's most self-critical dialogue is the ''Parmenides'', which features Parmenides and his student [[Zeno of Elea|Zeno]], which criticizes Plato's own metaphysical theories. Plato's ''[[Sophist (dialogue)|Sophist]]'' dialogue includes an [[Eleatics|Eleatic]] stranger. These ideas about change and permanence, or becoming and Being, influenced Plato in formulating his theory of Forms. [117] => [118] => == Philosophy == [119] => {{main|Platonism}} [120] => {{Platonism}} [121] => In Plato's dialogues, Socrates and his company of disputants had something to say on many subjects, including several aspects of [[metaphysics]]. These include religion and science, human nature, love, and sexuality. More than one dialogue contrasts perception and [[reality]], [[nature]] and custom, and body and soul. [[F. M. Cornford|Francis Cornford]] identified the "twin pillars of Platonism" as the theory of Forms, on the one hand, and, on the other hand, the doctrine of immortality of the soul.Francis Cornford, 1941. ''The Republic of Plato''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. pp. xxv. [122] => [123] => === The Forms === [124] => {{See also|Theory of forms|l1=Plato's theory of Forms}} [125] => In the dialogues Socrates regularly asks for the meaning of a general term (e. g. justice, truth, beauty), and criticizes those who instead give him particular examples, rather than the quality shared by all examples. "Platonism" and its theory of Forms (also known as 'theory of Ideas') denies the reality of the material world, considering it only an image or copy of the real world. According to this theory of Forms, there are these two kinds of things: the apparent world of material objects grasped by the senses, which constantly changes, and an unchanging and unseen world of Forms, grasped by reason ({{lang|grc|λογική}}). Plato's Forms represent [[Type (metaphysics)|types]] of things, as well as [[property (metaphysics)|properties]], patterns, and [[Relations (philosophy)|relations]], which are referred to as objects. Just as individual tables, chairs, and cars refer to objects in this world, 'tableness', 'chairness', and 'carness', as well as e.g. [[justice]], [[truth]], and [[beauty]] refer to objects in another world. One of Plato's most cited examples for the Forms were the truths of [[geometry]], such as the [[Pythagorean theorem]]. The theory of Forms is first introduced in the ''[[Phaedo]]'' dialogue (also known as ''On the Soul''), wherein Socrates disputes the [[Pluralism (philosophy)|pluralism]] of [[Anaxagoras]], then the most popular response to Heraclitus and Parmenides. [126] => [127] => === The soul === [128] => {{See also|Plato's theory of soul}} [129] => For Plato, as was characteristic of ancient Greek philosophy, the soul was that which gave life.See this brief exchange from the ''Phaedo'': "What is it that, when present in a body, makes it living? – A soul." ''Phaedo'' 105c. Plato advocates a belief in the immortality of the soul, and several dialogues end with long speeches imagining the [[afterlife]]. In the ''Timaeus'', Socrates locates the parts of the soul within the human body: Reason is located in the head, spirit in the top third of the [[torso]], and the appetite in the middle third of the torso, down to the [[navel]].Plato, ''Timaeus'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0180%3Atext%3DTim.%3Asection%3D44d 44d] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211192903/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0180:text%3DTim.:section%3D44d |date=11 December 2021 }} & [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0180%3Atext%3DTim.%3Apage%3D70 70] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211192856/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0180:text%3DTim.:page%3D70 |date=11 December 2021 }}{{sfn|Dorter|2006|p=360}} [130] => [131] => Furthermore, Plato evinces a belief in the theory of [[reincarnation]] in multiple dialogues (such as the ''Phaedo'' and ''Timaeus''). Scholars debate whether he intends the theory to be literally true, however.Jorgensen 2018 is perhaps the strongest opponent to interpretations on which Plato intends the theory literally. See Jorgensen, ''The Embodied Soul in Plato's Later Thought''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018. He uses this idea of reincarnation to introduce the concept that knowledge is a matter of [[Anamnesis (philosophy)|recollection]] of things acquainted with before one is born, and not of observation or study.{{sfn|Baird & Kaufmann|2008}} Keeping with the theme of admitting his own ignorance, Socrates regularly complains of his forgetfulness. In the ''Meno'', Socrates uses a geometrical example to expound Plato's view that knowledge in this latter sense is acquired by recollection. Socrates elicits a fact concerning a geometrical construction from a slave boy, who could not have otherwise known the fact (due to the slave boy's lack of education). The knowledge must be of, Socrates concludes, an eternal, non-perceptible Form. [132] => [133] => === Epistemology === [134] => {{main|Platonic epistemology}} [135] => [[File:Classical definition of Kno.svg|thumb|A Venn diagram illustrating the classical theory of knowledge]] [136] => Plato also discusses several aspects of [[epistemology]]. In several dialogues, Socrates inverts the common man's intuition about what is knowable and what is real. Reality is unavailable to those who use their senses. Socrates says that he who sees with his eyes is blind. While most people take the objects of their senses to be real if anything is, Socrates is contemptuous of people who think that something has to be graspable in the hands to be real. In the ''Theaetetus'', he says such people are ''eu amousoi'' (εὖ ἄμουσοι), an expression that means literally, "happily without the muses".''Theaetetus'' 156a In other words, such people are willingly ignorant, living without divine inspiration and access to higher insights about reality. Many have interpreted Plato as stating{{snd}}even having been the first to write{{snd}}that [[knowledge]] is [[justified true belief]], an influential view that informed future developments in epistemology.{{sfn|Fine|2003|p=5}} Plato also identified problems with the ''justified true belief'' definition in the ''Theaetetus'', concluding that justification (or an "account") would require knowledge of ''difference'', meaning that the [[definition of knowledge]] is [[circular reasoning|circular]].''Theaetetus'' [http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0172%3Atext%3DTheaet.%3Asection%3D210a 210a–b] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211102748/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0172:text%3DTheaet.:section%3D210a |date=11 December 2021 }}{{sfn|McDowell|1973|p=256}} [137] => [138] => In the ''Sophist'', ''[[Statesman (dialogue)|Statesman]]'', ''Republic'', ''Timaeus'', and the ''Parmenides'', Plato associates knowledge with the apprehension of unchanging Forms and their relationships to one another (which he calls "expertise" in dialectic), including through the processes of ''collection'' and ''division''.{{sfn|Taylor|2011|pp=176–187}} More explicitly, Plato himself argues in the ''Timaeus'' that knowledge is always proportionate to the realm from which it is gained. In other words, if one derives one's account of something experientially, because the world of sense is in flux, the views therein attained will be mere opinions. Meanwhile, opinions are characterized by a lack of necessity and stability. On the other hand, if one derives one's account of something by way of the non-sensible Forms, because these Forms are unchanging, so too is the account derived from them. That apprehension of Forms is required for knowledge may be taken to cohere with Plato's theory in the ''Theaetetus'' and ''Meno''.{{sfn|Lee|2011|p=432}} Indeed, the apprehension of Forms may be at the base of the account required for justification, in that it offers [[Foundationalism|foundational]] knowledge which itself needs no account, thereby avoiding an [[infinite regression]].{{sfn|Taylor|2011|p=189}} [139] => [140] => [[File:Temida, Gdansk Court.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|''What is justice?'']] [141] => [142] => === Ethics === [143] => {{see also|Form of the Good}} [144] => Several dialogues discuss [[ethics]] including virtue and vice, pleasure and pain, crime and punishment, and justice and medicine. Socrates presents the famous [[Euthyphro dilemma]] in the [[Euthyphro|dialogue]] of the same name: "Is the [[piety|pious]] ([[:wikt:ὅσιος|τὸ ὅσιον]]) loved by the [[deity|gods]] because it is pious, or is it pious because it is loved by the gods?" ([[Stephanus pagination|10a]]) In the ''Protagoras'' dialogue it is argued through Socrates that virtue is innate and cannot be learned, that no one does bad on purpose, and to know what is good results in doing what is good; that knowledge is virtue. In the ''Republic'', Plato poses the question, "What is justice?" and by examining both individual justice and the justice that informs societies, Plato is able not only to inform metaphysics, but also ethics and politics with the question: "What is the basis of moral and social obligation?" Plato's well-known answer rests upon the fundamental responsibility to seek wisdom, wisdom which leads to an understanding of the Form of the Good. Plato views "The Good" as the supreme Form, somehow existing even "beyond being". In this manner, justice is obtained when knowledge of how to fulfill one's moral and political function in society is put into practice.[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]], Book IV. [145] => [146] => === Politics === [147] => {{main|Plato's political philosophy}} [148] => [[File:POxy3679 Parts Plato Republic.jpg|thumb|[[Oxyrhynchus Papyri]], with fragment of Plato's ''Republic'']] [149] => The dialogues also discuss politics. Some of Plato's most famous doctrines are contained in the ''Republic'' as well as in the ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]]'' and the ''Statesman''. Because these opinions are not spoken directly by Plato and vary between dialogues, they cannot be straightforwardly assumed as representing Plato's own views. [150] => [151] => Socrates asserts that societies have a tripartite class structure corresponding to the appetite/spirit/reason structure of the individual soul. The appetite/spirit/reason are analogous to the castes of society.{{sfn|Blössner|2007|pp=345–349}} [152] => * ''Productive'' (Workers) – the labourers, carpenters, plumbers, masons, merchants, farmers, ranchers, etc. These correspond to the "appetite" part of the soul. [153] => * ''Protective'' (Warriors or Guardians) – those who are adventurous, strong and brave; in the armed forces. These correspond to the "spirit" part of the soul. [154] => * ''Governing'' (Rulers or Philosopher Kings) – those who are intelligent, rational, self-controlled, in love with wisdom, well suited to make decisions for the community. These correspond to the "reason" part of the soul and are very few. [155] => [156] => According to Socrates, a state made up of different kinds of souls will, overall, decline from an aristocracy (rule by the best) to a [[timocracy]] (rule by the honourable), then to an oligarchy (rule by the few), then to a [[democracy]] (rule by the people), and finally to [[tyranny]] (rule by one person, rule by a tyrant).{{sfn|Blössner|2007|p=350}} [157] => [158] => === Rhetoric and poetry === [159] => {{Rhetoric}} [160] => Several dialogues tackle questions about art, including rhetoric and rhapsody. Socrates says that poetry is inspired by the [[muses]], and is not rational. He speaks approvingly of this, and other forms of [[divine madness]] (drunkenness, eroticism, and dreaming) in the ''Phaedrus'',''Phaedrus ''(265a–c) and yet in the ''Republic'' wants to outlaw Homer's great poetry, and laughter as well. Scholars often view Plato's philosophy as at odds with rhetoric due to his criticisms of rhetoric in the ''[[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]'' and his ambivalence toward rhetoric expressed in the ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]''. But other contemporary researchers contest the idea that Plato despised rhetoric and instead view his dialogues as a dramatization of complex rhetorical principles.{{Cite book|last=Kastely|first=James|url=https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/R/bo20698062.html|title=The Rhetoric of Plato's Republic|publisher=Chicago UP|year=2015|language=en|access-date=28 September 2021|archive-date=28 September 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210928102316/https://press.uchicago.edu/ucp/books/book/chicago/R/bo20698062.html|url-status=live}}{{Cite journal|last=Bjork|first=Collin|date=2021|title=Plato, Xenophon, and the Uneven Temporalities of Ethos in the Trial of Socrates|url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/philrhet.54.3.0240|journal=Philosophy & Rhetoric|volume=54|issue=3|pages=240–262|doi=10.5325/philrhet.54.3.0240|jstor=10.5325/philrhet.54.3.0240|s2cid=244334227|issn=0031-8213|access-date=28 September 2021|archive-date=21 December 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211221094405/https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.5325/philrhet.54.3.0240|url-status=live}}{{Cite book|last=Bengtson|first=Erik|title=The epistemology of rhetoric: Plato, doxa and post-truth|publisher=Uppsala|year=2019}} Plato made abundant use of mythological narratives in his own work;{{cite web |last1=Chappel |first1=Timothy |title=Mythos and Logos in Plato |url=https://www.academia.edu/10450689 |publisher=Open University |access-date=20 August 2017 |archive-date=4 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704152151/https://www.academia.edu/10450689 |url-status=live }} It is generally agreed that the main purpose for Plato in using myths was didactic.Jorgensen, Chad. ''The Embodied Soul in Plato's Later Thought''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2018 page 199. He considered that only a few people were capable or interested in following a reasoned philosophical discourse, but men in general are attracted by stories and tales. Consequently, then, he used the myth to convey the conclusions of the philosophical reasoning.{{cite web |last1=Partenie |first1=Catalin |title=Plato's Myths |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-myths/ |website=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=29 October 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170527053738/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato-myths/|archive-date=27 May 2017|url-status=live}} Notable examples include the story of [[Atlantis]], the [[Myth of Er]], and the [[Allegory of the Cave]]. [161] => [162] => {{anchor|Dialogues}} [163] => [164] => == Works == [165] => === Themes === [166] => [[File:Anselm Feuerbach - Das Gastmahl. Nach Platon (zweite Fassung) - Google Art Project.jpg|thumb|upright=1.8|Painting of a scene from Plato's ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'' ([[Anselm Feuerbach]], 1873)]] [167] => {{See also|List of speakers in Plato's dialogues}} [168] => Plato never presents himself as a participant in any of the dialogues, and with the exception of the ''Apology'', there is no suggestion that he heard any of the dialogues firsthand. Some dialogues have no narrator but have a pure "dramatic" form, some dialogues are narrated by Socrates himself, who speaks in the first person. The ''Symposium'' is narrated by Apollodorus, a Socratic disciple, apparently to Glaucon. Apollodorus assures his listener that he is recounting the story, which took place when he himself was an infant, not from his own memory, but as remembered by Aristodemus, who told him the story years ago. The ''Theaetetus'' is also a peculiar case: a dialogue in dramatic form embedded within another dialogue in dramatic form. Some scholars take this as an indication that Plato had by this date wearied of the narrated form.{{sfn|Burnet|1928a|loc=§ 177}} In most of the dialogues, the primary speaker is Socrates, who employs a [[Socratic method|method]] of questioning which proceeds by a dialogue form called dialectic. The role of dialectic in Plato's thought is contested but there are two main interpretations: a type of reasoning and a method of intuition.{{sfn|Blackburn|1996|p=104}} [[Simon Blackburn]] adopts the first, saying that Plato's dialectic is "the process of eliciting the truth by means of questions aimed at opening out what is already implicitly known, or at exposing the contradictions and muddles of an opponent's position."{{sfn|Blackburn|1996|p=104}} [[Karl Popper]], on the other hand, claims that dialectic is the art of intuition for "visualising the divine originals, the Forms or Ideas, of unveiling the Great Mystery behind the common man's everyday world of appearances."{{sfn|Popper|1962|p=133}} [169] => [170] => === Textual sources and history === [171] => [[File:Timaeus stephanus pages 32 33.jpg|thumb|upright=1|Volume 3, pp. 32–33, of the 1578 Stephanus edition of Plato, showing a passage of ''Timaeus'' with the Latin translation and notes of [[Jean de Serres]]]] [172] => {{See also|List of manuscripts of Plato's dialogues}} [173] => During the early Renaissance, the Greek language and, along with it, Plato's texts were reintroduced to Western Europe by Byzantine scholars. Some 250 known manuscripts of Plato survive.{{sfn|Brumbaugh|Wells|1989}} In September or October 1484 [[Filippo Valori]] and [[Francesco Berlinghieri]] printed 1025 copies of [[Marsilio Ficino|Ficino's]] translation, using the printing press at the Dominican convent S.Jacopo di Ripoli.{{sfn|Allen|1975|p=12}} The 1578 edition''Platonis opera quae extant omnia'' edidit Henricus Stephanus, Genevae, 1578. of Plato's complete works published by Henricus Stephanus ([[Henri Estienne]]) in [[Geneva]] also included parallel Latin translation and running commentary by Joannes Serranus ([[Jean de Serres]]). It was this edition which established standard [[Stephanus pagination]], still in use today.{{sfn|Suzanne|2009}} The text of Plato as received today apparently represents the complete written philosophical work of Plato, based on the first century AD arrangement of [[Thrasyllus of Mendes]].{{sfn|Cooper|1997|pp=viii–xii}}{{harvnb|Irwin|2011|pp=64 & 74}} The modern standard complete English edition is the 1997 [[Hackett Publishing Company|Hackett]] ''Plato, Complete Works'', edited by John M. Cooper.{{sfn|Fine|1999a|p=482}}''[http://www.hackettpublishing.com/philosophy/complete-works Complete Works – Philosophy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120111190524/http://www.hackettpublishing.com/philosophy/complete-works |date=11 January 2012 }}'' [174] => [175] => === Authenticity === [176] => Thirty-five dialogues and thirteen letters (the [[Epistles (Plato)|''Epistles'']]) have traditionally been ascribed to Plato, though modern scholarship doubts the authenticity of at least some of these. Jowett[[Benjamin Jowett|B Jowett]], [http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1682/1682-h/1682-h.htm ''Menexenus'': Appendix I (1st paragraph)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150924202144/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/1682/1682-h/1682-h.htm |date=24 September 2015 }}. mentions in his Appendix to Menexenus, that works which bore the character of a writer were attributed to that writer even when the actual author was unknown. [177] => The works taken as genuine in antiquity but are now doubted by at least some modern scholars are: ''[[First Alcibiades|Alcibiades I]]'' (*),{{efn|(*) if there is no consensus among scholars as to whether Plato is the author, and (‡) if most scholars agree that Plato is ''not'' the author of the work. The extent to which scholars consider a dialogue to be authentic is noted in {{harvnb|Cooper|1997|pp=v–vi}}.}} ''[[Second Alcibiades|Alcibiades II]]'' (‡), ''[[Clitophon (dialogue)|Clitophon]]'' (*), ''[[Epinomis]]'' (‡), ''[[Epistles (Plato)|Letters]]'' (*), ''[[Hipparchus (dialogue)|Hipparchus]]'' (‡), ''[[Menexenus (dialogue)|Menexenus]]'' (*), ''[[Minos (dialogue)|Minos]]'' (‡), ''[[Rival Lovers|Lovers]]'' (‡), ''[[Theages]]'' (‡) [178] => The following works were transmitted under Plato's name in antiquity, but were already considered spurious by the 1st century AD: ''[[Axiochus (dialogue)|Axiochus]]'', ''[[Definitions (Plato)|Definitions]]'', ''[[Demodocus (dialogue)|Demodocus]]'', ''[[Epigrams (Plato)|Epigrams]]'', ''[[Eryxias (dialogue)|Eryxias]]'', ''[[Halcyon (dialogue)|Halcyon]]'', ''[[On Justice]]'', ''[[On Virtue]]'', ''[[Sisyphus (dialogue)|Sisyphus]]''. [179] => [180] => === Chronology === [181] => No one knows the exact order Plato's dialogues were written in, nor the extent to which some might have been later revised and rewritten. The works are usually grouped into ''Early'' (sometimes by some into ''Transitional''), ''Middle'', and ''Late'' period; The following represents one relatively common division.See {{harvnb|Guthrie|1986}}; {{harvnb|Vlastos|1991}}; {{harvnb|Penner|1992}}; {{harvnb|Kahn|1996}}; {{harvnb|Fine|1999b}}. [182] => * Early: ''[[Apology (Plato)|Apology]]'', ''[[Charmides (dialogue)|Charmides]]'', ''[[Crito]]'', ''[[Euthyphro]]'', ''[[Gorgias (dialogue)|Gorgias]]'', ''[[Hippias Minor]]'', ''[[Hippias Major]]'', ''[[Ion (dialogue)|Ion]]'', ''[[Laches (dialogue)|Laches]]'', ''[[Lysis (dialogue)|Lysis]]'', ''[[Protagoras (dialogue)|Protagoras]]'' [183] => * Middle: ''[[Cratylus (dialogue)|Cratylus]]'', ''[[Euthydemus (dialogue)|Euthydemus]]'', ''[[Meno]]'', ''[[Parmenides (dialogue)|Parmenides]]'', ''[[Phaedo]]'', ''[[Phaedrus (dialogue)|Phaedrus]]'', ''[[Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'', ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'', ''[[Theaetetus (dialogue)|Theatetus]]'' [184] => * Late: ''[[Critias (dialogue)|Critias]]'', ''[[Sophist (dialogue)|Sophist]]'', ''[[Statesman (dialogue)|Statesman]]'', ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'', ''[[Philebus]]'', ''[[Laws (dialogue)|Laws]].{{sfn|Dodds|2004}}'' [185] => [186] => Whereas those classified as "early dialogues" often conclude in [[aporia]], the so-called "middle dialogues" provide more clearly stated positive teachings that are often ascribed to Plato such as the theory of Forms. The remaining dialogues are classified as "late" and are generally agreed to be difficult and challenging pieces of philosophy.{{sfn|Cooper|1997|p=xiv}} It should, however, be kept in mind that many of the positions in the ordering are still highly disputed, and also that the very notion that Plato's dialogues can or should be "ordered" is by no means universally accepted,{{sfn|Cooper|1997}}{{efn|Increasingly in the most recent Plato scholarship, writers are skeptical of the notion that the order of Plato's writings can be established with any precision.{{harvnb|Kraut|2013}}; {{harvnb|Schofield|2002}}; and {{harvnb|Rowe|2006}}.}} though Plato's works are still often characterized as falling at least roughly into three groups stylistically. [187] => [188] => == Legacy == [189] => [[File:MANNapoli_124545_plato's_academy_mosaic.jpg|thumb|[[Plato's Academy mosaic]] in the villa of T. Siminius Stephanus in [[Pompeii]], around 100 BC to 100 CE]] [190] => [191] => === Unwritten doctrines === [192] => {{Main|Plato's unwritten doctrines|Allegorical interpretations of Plato}} [193] => [[Plato's unwritten doctrines]] are,{{sfn|Rodriguez-Grandjean|1998}}{{harvnb|Reale|1990}}. Cf. p. 14 and onwards.{{harvnb|Krämer|1990}}. Cf. pp. 38–47. according to some ancient sources, the most fundamental metaphysical teaching of Plato, which he disclosed only orally, and some say only to his most trusted fellows, and which he may have kept secret from the public, although many modern scholars{{who|date=January 2023}} doubt these claims. A reason for not revealing it to everyone is partially discussed in ''Phaedrus'' where Plato criticizes the written transmission of knowledge as faulty, favouring instead the spoken ''[[logos]]'': "he who has knowledge of the just and the good and beautiful ... will not, when in earnest, write them in ink, sowing them through a pen with words, which cannot defend themselves by argument and cannot teach the truth effectually."''Phaedrus'' 276c It is, however, said that Plato once disclosed this knowledge to the public in his lecture ''On the Good'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ}}), in which the Good ({{lang|grc|τὸ ἀγαθόν}}) is identified with the One (the Unity, {{lang|grc|τὸ ἕν}}), the fundamental ontological principle. [194] => [195] => The first witness who mentions its existence is Aristotle, who in his ''[[Physics (Aristotle)|Physics]]'' writes: "It is true, indeed, that the account he gives there [i.e. in ''Timaeus''] of the participant is different from what he says in his so-called ''unwritten teachings'' ({{transl-grc|ἄγραφα δόγματα}})."''Physics'' 209b In ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]'' he writes: "Now since the Forms are the causes of everything else, he [i.e. Plato] supposed that their elements are the elements of all things. Accordingly, the material principle is the Great and Small [i.e. the Dyad], and the essence is the One ({{lang|grc|τὸ ἕν}}), since the numbers are derived from the Great and Small by participation in the One".''Metaphysics'' 987b "From this account it is clear that he only employed two causes: that of the essence, and the material cause; for the Forms are the cause of the essence in everything else, and the One is the cause of it in the Forms. He also tells us what the material substrate is of which the Forms are predicated in the case of sensible things, and the One in that of the Forms{{snd}}that it is this the duality (the Dyad, {{lang|grc|ἡ δυάς}}), the Great and Small ({{lang|grc|τὸ μέγα καὶ τὸ μικρόν}}). Further, he assigned to these two elements respectively the causation of good and of evil". [196] => [197] => The most important aspect of this interpretation of Plato's metaphysics is the continuity between his teaching and the Neoplatonic interpretation of [[Plotinus]]{{efn|[[Plotinus]] describes this in the last part of his final ''[[Enneads|Ennead]]'' (VI, 9) entitled ''On the Good, or the One'' ({{lang|grc|Περὶ τἀγαθοῦ ἢ τοῦ ἑνός}}). Jens Halfwassen states in [http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/bmcr/2006/2006-08-16.html ''Der Aufstieg zum Einen'] (2006) that "Plotinus' ontology{{snd}}which should be called Plotinus' [[henology]]{{snd}}is a rather accurate philosophical renewal and continuation of Plato's unwritten doctrine, i.e. the doctrine rediscovered by Krämer and Gaiser."}} or [[Ficino]]{{efn|In one of his letters (Epistolae 1612) [[Ficino]] writes: "The main goal of the divine Plato ... is to show one principle of things, which he called the One ({{lang|grc|τὸ ἕν}})", cf. {{harvnb|Montoriola|1926|p=147}}.}} which has been considered erroneous by many but may in fact have been directly influenced by oral transmission of Plato's doctrine. A modern scholar who recognized the importance of the unwritten doctrine of Plato was [[Heinrich Gomperz]] who described it in his speech during the 7th [[International Congress of Philosophy]] in 1930.{{sfn|Gomperz|1931}} All the sources related to the {{lang|grc|ἄγραφα δόγματα}} have been collected by Konrad Gaiser and published as ''Testimonia Platonica''.{{sfn|Gaiser|1998}} [198] => [199] => === Reception === [200] => {{see also|Transmission of the Greek Classics}} [201] => Plato's thought is often compared with that of his most famous student, [[Aristotle]], whose reputation during the Western [[Middle Ages]] so completely eclipsed that of Plato that the [[Scholasticism|Scholastic]] philosophers referred to Aristotle as "the Philosopher". The only Platonic work known to western scholarship was ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'', until translations were made after the fall of [[Constantinople]], which occurred during 1453.C.U. M.Smith – [https://books.google.com/books?id=NcTHBAAAQBAJ&q=neuroscience+twentieth+century Brain, Mind and Consciousness in the History of Neuroscience (page 1)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161223104930/https://books.google.com/books?id=NcTHBAAAQBAJ&printsec=frontcover&dq=neuroscience+twentieth+century&sa=X&ei=KLiOVeXlO8zd7QbIxr2wDg&redir_esc=y&hl=en#v=onepage&q=neuroscience%20twentieth%20century&f=false|date=23 December 2016}} Springer Science & Business, 1 January 2014, 374 pages, ''Volume 6 of History, philosophy and theory of the life sciences SpringerLink : Bücher'' {{isbn|94-017-8774-3}} [Retrieved 27 June 2015] However, the study of Plato continued in the [[Byzantine Empire]], [[Islamic Golden Age|the Caliphates during the Islamic Golden Age]], and [[Golden age of Jewish culture in Spain|Spain during the Golden age of Jewish culture]]. Plato is also referenced by Jewish philosopher and Talmudic scholar [[Maimonides]] in his ''[[The Guide for the Perplexed]]''. [202] => [203] => The works of Plato were again revived at the times of Islamic Golden ages with other Greek contents through their translation from Greek to Arabic. Neoplatonism was revived from its founding father, Plotinus.{{Cite book |last=Willinsky |first=John |title=The Intellectual Properties of Learning: A Prehistory from Saint Jerome to John Locke |publisher=[[University of Chicago Press]] |year=2018 |isbn=978-0226487922 |edition=1st |location=Chicago |publication-date=January 2, 2018 |pages=Chapter 6}} Neoplatonism, a philosophical current that permeated Islamic scholarship, accentuated one facet of the Qur’anic conception of God—the transcendent—while seemingly neglecting another—the creative. This philosophical tradition, introduced by [[Al-Farabi]] and subsequently elaborated upon by figures such as [[Avicenna]], postulated that all phenomena emanated from the divine source.{{Citation |last=Aminrazavi |first=Mehdi |title=Mysticism in Arabic and Islamic Philosophy |date=2021 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/spr2021/entries/arabic-islamic-mysticism/ |access-date=2024-03-17 |edition=Spring 2021 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}}{{Cite journal |last=Paya |first=Ali |date=July 2014 |title=Islamic Philosophy: Past, Present and Future |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/royal-institute-of-philosophy-supplements/article/abs/islamic-philosophy-past-present-and-future/78269F96785DE9B2F0BA1DA0D0EFB5BD |journal=Royal Institute of Philosophy Supplements |language=en |volume=74 |pages=265–321 |doi=10.1017/S1358246114000113 |issn=1358-2461}} It functioned as a conduit, bridging the transcendental nature of the divine with the tangible reality of creation. In the Islamic context, Neoplatonism facilitated the integration of Platonic philosophy with mystical Islamic thought, fostering a synthesis of ancient philosophical wisdom and religious insight. Inspired by Plato's Republic, Al-Farabi extended his inquiry beyond mere political theory, proposing an ideal city governed by [[Philosopher king|philosopher-kings]].{{Cite journal |last=Stefaniuk |first=Tomasz |date=2022-12-05 |title=Man in Early Islamic Philosophy - Al-Kindi and Al-Farabi |url=https://apcz.umk.pl/RF/article/view/38010 |journal=Ruch Filozoficzny |language=en |volume=78 |issue=3 |pages=65–84 |doi=10.12775/RF.2022.023 |issn=2545-3173|doi-access=free }} [204] => [205] => Many of these commentaries on Plato were translated from Arabic into Latin and as such influenced Medieval scholastic philosophers.See {{harvnb|Burrell|1998}} and {{harvnb|Hasse|2002|pp=33–45}}. [206] => [[File:Sanzio 01 Plato Aristotle.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[The School of Athens]]'' [[fresco]] by [[Raphael]] features Plato (left) also as a central figure, holding his ''[[Timaeus (dialogue)|Timaeus]]'' while he gestures to the heavens. Aristotle (right) gestures to the earth while holding a copy of his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]]'' in his hand.]] [207] => During the [[Renaissance]], [[George Gemistos Plethon]] brought Plato's original writings to Florence from Constantinople in the century of its fall. Many of the greatest early modern scientists and artists who broke with [[Scholasticism]], with the support of the Plato-inspired [[Lorenzo de' Medici|Lorenzo]] (grandson of Cosimo), saw Plato's philosophy as the basis for progress in the arts and sciences. The 17th century [[Cambridge Platonists]], sought to reconcile Plato's more problematic beliefs, such as [[metempsychosis]] and polyamory, with Christianity.{{cite encyclopedia |last=Carrigan |first=Henry L. Jr. |title=Cambridge Platonists |year=2012 |origyear=2011 |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Christian Civilization |location=[[Chichester, West Sussex]] |publisher=[[Wiley-Blackwell]] |doi=10.1002/9780470670606.wbecc0219 |isbn=978-1405157629}} By the 19th century, Plato's reputation was restored, and at least on par with Aristotle's. Plato's influence has been especially strong in mathematics and the sciences. Plato's resurgence further inspired some of the greatest advances in logic since Aristotle, primarily through [[Gottlob Frege]]. [[Albert Einstein]] suggested that the scientist who takes philosophy seriously would have to avoid systematization and take on many different roles, and possibly appear as a Platonist or Pythagorean, in that such a one would have "the viewpoint of logical simplicity as an indispensable and effective tool of his research."{{sfn|Einstein|1949|pp=683–684}} British philosopher [[Alfred North Whitehead|Alfred N. Whitehead]] is often misquoted of uttering the famous saying of "All of Western philosophy is a footnote to Plato."{{Cite web |title=A.N Whitehead on Plato |url=https://www.college.columbia.edu/core/content/whitehead-plato |access-date= |website=Columbia College |archive-date=29 October 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231029153617/https://www.college.columbia.edu/core/content/whitehead-plato |url-status=live }} [208] => [209] => ==== Criticism ==== [210] => Many recent philosophers have also diverged from what some would describe as ideals characteristic of traditional Platonism. [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] notoriously attacked Plato's "idea of the good itself" along with many fundamentals of Christian morality, which he interpreted as "Platonism for the masses" in ''[[Beyond Good and Evil]]'' (1886). [[Martin Heidegger]] argued against Plato's alleged obfuscation of ''[[Being]]'' in his incomplete tome, ''[[Being and Time]]'' (1927), and the philosopher of science [[Karl Popper]] argued in the first volume of ''[[The Open Society and Its Enemies]]'' (1945) that Plato's alleged proposal for a [[utopia]]n political regime in the ''[[The Republic (Plato)|Republic]]'' was prototypically [[Totalitarianism|totalitarian]]. [[Edmund Gettier]] famously demonstrated the [[Gettier problem]] for the justified true belief account of knowledge. That the modern theory of justified true belief as knowledge, which Gettier addresses, is equivalent to Plato's is accepted by some scholars but rejected by others.{{sfn|Fine|1979|p=366}} [211] => [212] => == Notes == [213] => {{notelist|30em}} [214] => [215] => == References == [216] => {{Reflist|20em}} [217] => [218] => === Works cited === [219] => '''Primary sources (Greek and Roman)''' [220] => {{Refbegin|30em}} [221] => * [[Apuleius]], ''De Dogmate Platonis'', I. See original text in [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/apuleius/apuleius.dog1.shtml Latin Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704151453/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/apuleius/apuleius.dog1.shtml |date=4 July 2022 }}. [222] => * [[Aristophanes]], ''[[The Wasps]]''. See original text in [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0043:line=1 Perseus program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424105106/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0043:line=1 |date=24 April 2008 }}. [223] => * [[Aristotle]], ''[[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Metaphysics]]''. See original text in [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0051:book=1:section=980a Perseus program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424084946/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0051:book=1:section=980a |date=24 April 2008 }}. [224] => * [[Cicero]], ''[[De Divinatione]]'', I. See original text in [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/divinatione1.shtml Latin library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920023057/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/cicero/divinatione1.shtml |date=20 September 2022 }}. [225] => * {{cite LotEP |chapter=Plato }} [226] => * {{cite wikisource |author=Plato |wslink=Charmides (Plato) |title=Charmides |translator=[[Benjamin Jowett|Jowett, Benjamin]]}} See original text in [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0175:text=Charm.:section=153a Perseus program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424105136/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0175:text=Charm.:section=153a |date=24 April 2008 }}. [227] => * {{cite wikisource |author=Plato |title=Gorgias |translator=[[Benjamin Jowett|Jowett Benjamin]]}} See original text in [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0177:text=Gorg.:section=447a Perseus program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008090137/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0177:text=Gorg.:section=447a |date=8 October 2008 }}. [228] => * {{cite book |author=Plato |translator-last=Burnet |translator-first=John |year=1903 |title=Parmenides |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0173:text=Parm.:section=126a&redirect=true |publisher=Oxford University |access-date=21 February 2021 |archive-date=4 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220704151642/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0173:text=Parm.:section=126a&redirect=true |url-status=live }} republished by: {{cite web |title=Perseus Digital Library Project |editor-last=Crane |editor-first=Gregory |url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/about |access-date=21 February 2021 |archive-date=20 September 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220920224957/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/about |url-status=live }} [229] => * {{cite wikisource |author=Plato |title=The Republic |translator=[[Benjamin Jowett|Jowett Benjamin]]}} See original text in [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0168 Perseus program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008105412/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0168 |date=8 October 2008 }}. [230] => * {{cite wikisource |author=Plutarch |author-link=Plutarch |translator=[[John Dryden|Dryden, John]] |plaintitle=Lives |wslink=Lives (Dryden translation) |chapter=Pericles |year=1683 |orig-date=written in the late 1st century}} See original text in [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0181:text=Per.:chapter=39:section=1 Perseus program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008090143/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0181:text=Per.:chapter=39:section=1 |date=8 October 2008 }}. [231] => * {{cite wikisource |author=Seneca the Younger |author-link=Seneca the Younger |title=Moral Letters to Lucilius: Letter 58 |wslink=Moral letters to Lucilius/Letter 58 |translator=Richard Mott Gummere}} See original text in [http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sen/seneca.ep6.shtml Latin Library] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160624170123/http://www.thelatinlibrary.com/sen/seneca.ep6.shtml |date=24 June 2016 }}. [232] => * {{cite wikisource |author=Thucydides |author-link=Thucydides |translator=[[Richard Crawley|Crawley, Richard]] |title=History of the Peloponnesian War}}, V, VIII. See original text in [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0199 Perseus program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081008090151/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0199 |date=8 October 2008 }}. [233] => * [[Xenophon]], ''[[Memorabilia (Xenophon)|Memorabilia]]''. See original text in [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0207:book=1:chapter=1:section=1 Perseus program] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080424105201/https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0207:book=1:chapter=1:section=1 |date=24 April 2008 }}. [234] => {{Refend}} [235] => [236] => '''Secondary sources''' [237] => {{Refbegin|30em}} [238] => * {{cite book |last=Albert |first=Karl |title=Griechische Religion und platonische Philosophie |publisher=Felix Meiner Verlag |location=Hamburg |year=1980 }} [239] => * {{cite book |last=Albert |first=Karl |title=Einführung in die philosophische Mystik |publisher=Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft |location=Darmstadt |year=1996 }} [240] => * {{cite book |last=Allen |first=Michael J.B. |chapter=Introduction |title=Marsilio Ficino: The Philebus Commentary |pages=1–58 |publisher=University of California Press |year=1975 }} [241] => * {{cite book | editor1-last = Baird | editor1-first = Forrest E. | editor2-first= Walter |editor2-last=Kaufmann |title=Philosophic Classics: From Plato to Derrida |edition=Fifth |publisher=Pearson Prentice Hall |year=2008 |location=Upper Saddle River, New Jersey |isbn=978-0-13-158591-1 |ref={{harvid|Baird & Kaufmann|2008}}}} [242] => * {{cite book |last=Blackburn |first=Simon |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1996 }} [243] => * {{cite book |last=Bloom |first=Harold |year=1982 |title=Agon |url=https://archive.org/details/agontowardstheor0000bloo |url-access=registration |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press }} [244] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Blössner |first=Norbert |chapter=The City-Soul Analogy |editor-last=Ferrari |editor-first=G.R.F. |translator= G.R.F. Ferrari |title=The Cambridge Companion to Plato's Republic |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2007 }} [245] => * {{cite journal |last=Borody |first=W.A. |year=1998 |title=Figuring the Phallogocentric Argument with Respect to the Classical Greek Philosophical Tradition |journal=Nebula, A Netzine of the Arts and Science |volume=13 |pages=1–27 |url=http://kenstange.com/nebula/feat013/feat013.html |access-date=22 November 2012 |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024043424/http://kenstange.com/nebula/feat013/feat013.html |url-status=live }} [246] => * {{cite book |last=Boyer |first=Carl B. |year=1991 |title=A History of Mathematics |edition=Second |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |editor-last=Merzbach |editor-first=Uta C. |editor-link=Uta Merzbach |isbn=978-0-471-54397-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/historyofmathema00boye }} [247] => * {{cite book |last=Brandwood |first=Leonard |title=The Chronology of Plato's Dialogues |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1990 }} [248] => * {{cite web |last1=Brickhouse |first1=Thomas |last2=Smith |first2=Nicholas D. |title=Plato |website=The Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/plato/ |editor1-last=Fieser |editor1-first=James |editor2-last=Dowden |editor2-first=Bradley |access-date=3 April 2014 |archive-date=11 December 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171211004455/http://www.iep.utm.edu/plato/ |url-status=live }} [249] => * {{cite book |last=Browne |first=Sir Thomas |title=Pseudodoxia Epidemica |volume=IV |chapter=XII |chapter-url=http://penelope.uchicago.edu/pseudodoxia/pseudo412.html#b26 |edition=6th |year=1672 }} [250] => * {{cite journal |last1=Brumbaugh |last2=Wells |first1=Robert S. |first2=Rulon S. |title=Completing Yale's Microfilm Project |journal=The Yale University Library Gazette |volume=64 |number=1/2 |date=October 1989 |pages=73–75 |jstor=40858970 }} [251] => * {{cite book |last=Burnet |first=John |title=Plato's Phaedo |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1911 |url=https://archive.org/details/platosphaedo00platuoft }} [252] => * {{cite book |last=Burnet |first=John |title=Greek Philosophy: Part I: Thales to Plato |publisher=MacMillan |year=1928a |url=https://archive.org/details/burnetsgreekphil00burnuoft }} [253] => * {{cite book |last=Burnet |first=John |title=Platonism |publisher=University of California Press |year=1928b }} [254] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Cairns |first=Huntington |editor1-last=Hamilton |editor1-first=Edith |editor2-last=Cairns |editor2-first=Huntington |entry=Introduction |title=The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including the Letters |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1961 }} [255] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Burrell |first=David |entry=Platonism in Islamic Philosophy |title=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |editor-last=Craig |editor-first=Edward |volume=7 |pages=429–430}} [256] => * {{cite book |title=Plato: Complete Works |editor1-first=John M. |editor1-last=Cooper |editor2-first=D.S. |editor2-last=Hutchinson |ref={{harvid|Cooper|1997}} |publisher=Hackett Publishing |year=1997}} [257] => * {{cite book |last=Dillon |first=John |title=The Heirs of Plato: A Study of the Old Academy |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 }} [258] => * {{cite book |last=Dodds |first=E.R. |title=Plato Gorgias |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1959 }} [259] => * {{cite book |last=Dodds |first=E.R. |title=The Greeks and the Irrational |publisher=University of California Press |year=2004 |orig-year=1951 }} [260] => * {{cite book |last=Dorter |first=Kenneth |title=The Transformation of Plato's Republic |publisher=Lexington Books |year=2006 }} [261] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Einstein |first=Albert |entry=Remarks to the Essays Appearing in this Collective Volume |editor-last=Schilpp |title=Albert Einstein: Philosopher-Scientist |series=The Library of Living Philosophers |volume=7 |publisher=MJF Books |year=1949 |pages=663–688 }} [262] => * {{cite journal |last=Fine |first=Gail |title=Knowledge and Logos in the Theaetetus |journal=Philosophical Review |volume=88 |pages=366–397 |number=3 |date=July 1979 |doi=10.2307/2184956 |jstor=2184956}} Reprinted in {{harvnb|Fine|2003}}. [263] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Fine |first=Gail |entry=Selected Bibliography |title=Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology |pages=481–494 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999a }} [264] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Fine |first=Gail |entry=Introduction |title=Plato 2: Ethics, Politics, Religion, and the Soul |pages=1–33 |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1999b }} [265] => * {{cite book |last=Fine |first=Gail |chapter=Introduction |title=Plato on Knowledge and Forms: Selected Essays |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 }} [266] => * {{cite book |last=Gadamer |first=Hans-Georg |title=Dialogue and Dialectic |chapter=Plato's Unwritten Dialectic |year=1980 |orig-year=1968 |publisher=Yale University Press |pages=124–155 }} [267] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Gadamer |first=Hans-Georg |entry=Introduzione |editor-last=Girgenti |editor-first=Giuseppe |title=La nuova interpretazione di Platone |publisher=Rusconi Libri |year=1997 |location=Milan }} [268] => * {{cite journal |title=Plato's Enigmatic Lecture 'On the Good' |last=Gaiser |first=Konrad |journal=Phronesis |volume=25 |issue=1 |year=1980 |pages=5–37 |doi=10.1163/156852880x00025}} [269] => * {{cite book |last=Gaiser |first=Konrad |title=Testimonia Platonica: Le antiche testimonianze sulle dottrine non scritte di Platone |location=Milan |publisher=Vita e Pensiero |year=1998 |editor-last=Reale |editor-first=Giovanni }} First published as "Testimonia Platonica. 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Brill |location=Leiden |year=1976 |isbn=978-90-04-04565-1 }} [300] => * {{cite book |last=Robinson |first=John |author-link=John Robinson (historian) |title=Archæologica Græca |year=1827 |location=London |edition=Second |publisher=A. J. Valpy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=P-LQzMJWs0QC |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140701190339/http://books.google.com/books?id=P-LQzMJWs0QC&oe=UTF-8 |archive-date=1 July 2014 |access-date=4 February 2017 }} [301] => * {{cite conference |conference=Twentieth World Congress of Philosophy |title=Philosophy and Dialogue: Plato's Unwritten Doctrines from a Hermeneutical Point of View |last=Rodriguez-Grandjean |first=Pablo |year=1998 |location=Boston |url=http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Anci/AnciRodr.htm |conference-url=http://www.bu.edu/wcp/Program.html |access-date=12 November 2008 |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024051751/https://www.bu.edu/wcp/Papers/Anci/AnciRodr.htm |url-status=live }} [302] => * {{cite encyclopedia |first=Christopher |last=Rowe |entry=Interpreting Plato |editor-first=Hugh H. |editor-last=Benson |title=A Companion to Plato |pages=13–24 |publisher=Blackwell Publishing |year=2006 }} [303] => * {{cite journal |last=Schall |first=James V. |title=On the Death of Plato |journal=[[The American Scholar (magazine)|The American Scholar]] |url=http://www.morec.com/schall/docs/dieplato.htm |date=Summer 1996 |volume=65 |access-date=11 September 2011 |archive-date=6 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200806150440/http://www.morec.com/schall/docs/dieplato.htm |url-status=dead }} [304] => * {{cite web |last=Schofield |first=Malcolm |title=Plato |website=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/A088 |editor-last=Craig |editor-first=Edward |publisher=Routledge |date=23 August 2002 |access-date=3 April 2014 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081010162923/http://www.rep.routledge.com/article/A088 |archive-date=10 October 2008 }} [305] => * {{cite book |last=Sedley |first=David |title=Plato's Cratylus |year=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press }} [306] => * {{cite journal |last=Slings |first=S.R. |title=Remarks on Some Recent Papyri of the ''Politeia'' |journal=Mnemosyne |series=Fourth |volume=40 |issue=1/2 |year=1987 |pages=27–34 |doi=10.1163/156852587x00030}} [307] => * {{cite book |last=Slings |first=S.R. |title=Platonis Rempublicam |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2003 }} [308] => * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=William |title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology |year=1870 |chapter-url=http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2725.html |chapter=Plato |access-date=27 January 2007 |archive-date=24 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150124060246/http://www.ancientlibrary.com/smith-bio/2725.html |url-status=dead }} [309] => * {{cite book |last=Strauss |first=Leo |title=The City and the Man |location=Chicago |publisher=University of Chicago Press |year=1964 }} [310] => * {{cite web |last=Suzanne |first=Bernard |title=The Stephanus edition |date=8 March 2009 |access-date=3 April 2014 |url=http://plato-dialogues.org/stephanus.htm |website=Plato and his dialogues |archive-date=24 October 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221024055258/https://www.plato-dialogues.org/stephanus.htm |url-status=live }} [311] => * {{cite book |last=Szlezak |first=Thomas A. |title=Reading Plato |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x34szlJIRIgC |publisher=Routledge |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-415-18984-2 }} [312] => * {{cite book |last=Tarán |first=Leonardo |title=Speusippus of Athens |publisher=Brill Publishers |year=1981 }} [313] => * {{cite book |last=Tarán |first=Leonardo |title=Collected Papers 1962–1999 |chapter=Plato's Alleged Epitaph |year=2001 |publisher=Brill Academic Publishers |isbn=978-90-04-12304-5 }} [314] => * {{cite book |last=Taylor |first=Alfred Edward |title=Plato: The Man and His Work |year=2001 |publisher=Courier Dover Publications |isbn=978-0-486-41605-2 |orig-year=1937}} [315] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last=Taylor |first=C.C.W. |entry=Plato's Epistemology |editor-last=Fine |editor-first=G. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Plato |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2011 |pages=165–190 }} [316] => * {{cite book |first=Gregory |last=Vlastos |title=Socrates: Ironist and Moral Philosopher |url=https://archive.org/details/socratesironistm00vlas_0 |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1991 }} [317] => * {{cite book |first=Alfred North |last=Whitehead |title=Process and Reality |url=https://archive.org/details/processrealitygi00alfr |url-access=registration |location=New York |publisher=The Free Press |year=1978 }} [318] => * {{cite book |last=Wilamowitz-Moellendorff |first=Ulrich von |title=Plato: His Life and Work (translated in Greek by Xenophon Armyros) |year=2005 |orig-year=1917 |publisher=Kaktos |isbn=978-960-382-664-4 }} [319] => {{Refend}} [320] => [321] => == Further reading == [322] => {{refbegin|30em}} [323] => * {{cite book |last=Alican |first=Necip Fikri |title=Rethinking Plato: A Cartesian Quest for the Real Plato |publisher=Amsterdam and New York: Editions Rodopi B.V. |date=2012 |isbn=978-90-420-3537-9}} [324] => * Allen, R. E. (1965). ''Studies in Plato's Metaphysics II''. Taylor & Francis. {{isbn|0-7100-3626-4}} [325] => * Ambuel, David (2007). ''Image and Paradigm in Plato's Sophist''. Parmenides Publishing. {{isbn|978-1-930972-04-9}} [326] => * {{cite book |first1=Mark |last1=Anderson |first2=Ginger |last2=Osborn |year=2009 |url=http://campus.belmont.edu/philosophy/Book.pdf |title=Approaching Plato: A Guide to the Early and Middle Dialogues |location=Nashville |publisher=Belmont University |access-date=27 March 2009 |archive-date=20 June 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090620053455/http://campus.belmont.edu/philosophy/Book.pdf |url-status=live }} [327] => * Arieti, James A. ''Interpreting Plato: The Dialogues as Drama'', Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Inc. {{isbn|0-8476-7662-5}} [328] => * {{cite book |last=Barrow |first=Robin |year=2007 |title=Plato: Continuum Library of Educational Thought |publisher=Continuum |isbn=978-0-8264-8408-6}} [329] => * {{cite book |editor-last=Cooper |editor-first=John M. |editor2-last=Hutchinson |editor2-first=D.S. |title=Plato: Complete Works |publisher=[[Hackett Publishing Company]], Inc |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-87220-349-5 |url=https://archive.org/details/completeworks00plat }} [330] => * Corlett, J. Angelo (2005). ''Interpreting Plato's Dialogues''. Parmenides Publishing. {{isbn|978-1-930972-02-5}} [331] => * {{cite book |author-link=G. C. Field |last=Field |first=G.C. |title=The Philosophy of Plato |edition=2nd ed. with an appendix by Cross, R.C. |location=London |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=1969 |isbn=978-0-19-888040-0}} [332] => * Fine, Gail (2000). ''Plato 1: Metaphysics and Epistemology'' Oxford University Press, US, {{isbn|0-19-875206-7}} [333] => * Finley, M.I. (1969). ''Aspects of antiquity: Discoveries and Controversies'' The Viking Press, Inc., US [334] => * {{cite book |last=Garvey |first=James |title=Twenty Greatest Philosophy Books |url=https://archive.org/details/twentygreatestph00garv |url-access=registration |publisher=Continuum |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8264-9053-7 }} [335] => * [[W. K. C. Guthrie|Guthrie, W.K.C.]] (1986). ''A History of Greek Philosophy (Plato – The Man & His Dialogues – Earlier Period)'', Cambridge University Press, {{isbn|0-521-31101-2}} [336] => * [[W. K. C. Guthrie|Guthrie, W.K.C.]] (1986). ''A History of Greek Philosophy (Later Plato & the Academy)'' Cambridge University Press, {{isbn|0-521-31102-0}} [337] => * Havelock, Eric (2005). ''Preface to Plato (History of the Greek Mind)'', Belknap Press, {{isbn|0-674-69906-8}} [338] => * {{cite book |editor-last=Hamilton |editor-first=Edith |editor2-last=Cairns |editor2-first=Huntington |title=The Collected Dialogues of Plato, Including the Letters |publisher=Princeton Univ. Press |year=1961 |isbn=978-0-691-09718-3 |url=https://archive.org/details/collecteddialogu00tred }} [339] => * [[Harvard University Press]] publishes the hardbound series ''[[Loeb Classical Library#Plato|Loeb Classical Library]]'', containing Plato's works in [[Greek language|Greek]], with English translations on facing pages. [340] => * {{cite book |title=Socrates on Trial: A play based on Aristophanes' Clouds and Plato's Apology, Crito, and Phaedo, adapted for modern performance |last=Irvine |first=Andrew David |year=2008 |publisher=University of Toronto Press |location=Toronto|title-link=Socrates on Trial (play)}} {{isbn|978-0-8020-9783-5|978-0-8020-9538-1}} [341] => * Hermann, Arnold (2010). ''Plato's Parmenides: Text, Translation & Introductory Essay'', Parmenides Publishing, {{isbn|978-1-930972-71-1}} [342] => * Irwin, Terence (1995). ''Plato's Ethics'', Oxford University Press, US, {{isbn|0-19-508645-7}} [343] => * {{cite book |last=Jackson |first=Roy |title=Plato: A Beginner's Guide |location=London |publisher=Hoder & Stroughton |year=2001 |isbn=978-0-340-80385-1}} [344] => * {{cite book |last=Kochin |first=Michael S. |title=Gender and Rhetoric in Plato's Political Thought |publisher=Cambridge Univ. Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-521-80852-1}} [345] => * {{cite book |editor-last=Kraut |editor-first=Richard |title=The Cambridge Companion to Plato |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780521436106 |url-access=registration |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=1993 |isbn=978-0-521-43610-6 }} [346] => * {{cite book | author=LeMoine, Rebecca | title=Plato's Caves: The Liberating Sting of Cultural Diversity | location=New York | publisher=Oxford University Press | year=2020 | isbn=978-0190936983}} [347] => * [[Suzanne Lilar|Lilar, Suzanne]] (1954), Journal de l'analogiste, Paris, Éditions Julliard; Reedited 1979, Paris, Grasset. Foreword by [[Julien Gracq]] [348] => * [[Suzanne Lilar|Lilar, Suzanne]] (1963), ''Le couple'', Paris, Grasset. Translated as ''Aspects of Love in Western Society'' in 1965, with a foreword by Jonathan Griffin London, Thames and Hudson. [349] => * [[Suzanne Lilar|Lilar, Suzanne]] (1967) ''A propos de Sartre et de l'amour '', Paris, Grasset. [350] => * {{cite book |last=Lundberg |first=Phillip |title=Tallyho – The Hunt for Virtue: Beauty, Truth and Goodness Nine Dialogues by Plato: Pheadrus, Lysis, Protagoras, Charmides, Parmenides, Gorgias, Theaetetus, Meno & Sophist |publisher=Authorhouse |year=2005 |isbn=978-1-4184-4977-3}} [351] => * Márquez, Xavier (2012) ''A Stranger's Knowledge: Statesmanship, Philosophy & Law in Plato's Statesman'', Parmenides Publishing. {{isbn|978-1-930972-79-7}} [352] => * {{cite book |last=Melchert |first=Norman |title=The Great Conversation: A Historical Introduction to Philosophy |url=https://archive.org/details/greatconversatio00norm |url-access=registration |publisher=McGraw Hill |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-19-517510-3 }} [353] => * Miller, Mitchell (2004). ''The Philosopher in Plato's Statesman''. Parmenides Publishing. {{isbn|978-1-930972-16-2}} [354] => * Mohr, Richard D. (2006). ''God and Forms in Plato – and other Essays in Plato's Metaphysics''. Parmenides Publishing. {{isbn|978-1-930972-01-8}} [355] => * Mohr, Richard D. (Ed.), Sattler, Barbara M. (Ed.) (2010) ''One Book, The Whole Universe: Plato's Timaeus Today'', Parmenides Publishing. {{isbn|978-1-930972-32-2}} [356] => * Moore, Edward (2007). ''Plato''. Philosophy Insights Series. Tirril, Humanities-Ebooks. {{isbn|978-1-84760-047-9}} [357] => * Nightingale, Andrea Wilson. (1995). [https://books.google.com/books?id=n3MeQikAp00C "Genres in Dialogue: Plato and the Construct of Philosophy"], Cambridge University Press. {{isbn|0-521-48264-X}} [358] => * [[Oxford University Press]] publishes scholarly editions of Plato's Greek texts in the ''[[Oxford Classical Texts]]'' series, and some translations in the ''Clarendon Plato Series''. [359] => * Patterson, Richard (Ed.), Karasmanis, Vassilis (Ed.), Hermann, Arnold (Ed.) (2013) ''Presocratics & Plato: Festschrift at Delphi in Honor of Charles Kahn'', Parmenides Publishing. {{isbn|978-1-930972-75-9}} [360] => * {{cite book |last=Piechowiak |first=Marek |title=Plato's Conception of Justice and the Question of Human Dignity |publisher=Peter Lang: Berlin |year=2019 |isbn=978-3-631-65970-0 }} [361] => * {{cite book |last=Sallis |first=John |title=Being and Logos: Reading the Platonic Dialogues |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1996 |isbn=978-0-253-21071-5 |author-link=John Sallis}} [362] => * {{cite book |last=Sallis |first=John |title=Chorology: On Beginning in Plato's "Timaeus" |publisher=Indiana University Press |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-253-21308-2 |author-link=John Sallis}} [363] => * Sayre, Kenneth M. (2005). ''Plato's Late Ontology: A Riddle Resolved''. Parmenides Publishing. {{isbn|978-1-930972-09-4}} [364] => * [[T. K. Seung|Seung, T.K.]] (1996). ''Plato Rediscovered: Human Value and Social Order''. Rowman and Littlefield. {{isbn|0-8476-8112-2}} [365] => * {{cite book |last=Smith |first=William. |title=Dictionary of Greek and Roman Biography and Mythology |publisher=University of Michigan/Online version |year=1867}} [366] => * Stewart, John. (2010). ''Kierkegaard and the Greek World – Socrates and Plato''. Ashgate. {{isbn|978-0-7546-6981-4}} [367] => * Thesleff, Holger (2009). ''Platonic Patterns: A Collection of Studies by Holger Thesleff'', Parmenides Publishing, {{isbn|978-1-930972-29-2}} [368] => * [[Gregory Vlastos|Vlastos, Gregory]] (1981). ''Platonic Studies'', Princeton University Press, {{isbn|0-691-10021-7}} [369] => * [[Gregory Vlastos|Vlastos, Gregory]] (2006). ''Plato's Universe – with a new Introduction by [[Luc Brisson]]'', Parmenides Publishing. {{isbn|978-1-930972-13-1}} [370] => * Zuckert, Catherine (2009). ''Plato's Philosophers: The Coherence of the Dialogues'', The University of Chicago Press, {{isbn|978-0-226-99335-5}} [371] => {{refend}} [372] => [373] => == External links == [374] => {{Library resources box |by=yes |onlinebooks=yes |others=yes |about=yes |label=Plato |viaf= |lccn= |lcheading= |wikititle= }} [375] => {{Portal|Philosophy}} [376] => {{sister project links|d=Q859|n=no|c=Category:Plato|s=Author:Plato|v=Socrates, Plato and Aristotle}} [377] => *{{wikisourcelang-inline|el|Πλάτων|Platon}} [378] => * Works available online: [379] => ** {{StandardEbooks|Standard Ebooks URL=https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/plato}} [380] => ** {{PerseusAuthor|Plato}} – Greek & English hyperlinked text [381] => ** {{Gutenberg author |id=93}} [382] => ** {{Internet Archive author}} [383] => ** {{Librivox author |id=599}} [384] => * ''[http://www.iep.utm.edu/plato/ Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'' [385] => * ''[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/plato Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy]'' [386] => * Other resources: [387] => ** {{InPho|thinker|3724}} [388] => ** {{PhilPapers|category|plato}} [389] => ** {{Cite CE1913|wstitle=Plato and Platonism |short=x}} [390] => {{Plato navbox|state=collapsed}} [391] => {{Navboxes [392] => | title = Articles related to Plato [393] => | list = [394] => {{Greek schools of philosophy}} [395] => {{Ancient Greece topics}} [396] => {{Epistemology}} [397] => {{Metaphysics}} [398] => {{Ethics}} [399] => {{Social and political philosophy}} [400] => {{Political philosophy}} [401] => }} [402] => {{Authority control}} [403] => [404] => [[Category:Plato| ]] [405] => [[Category:Platonism|Plato]] [406] => [[Category:420s BC births]] [407] => [[Category:340s BC deaths]] [408] => [[Category:5th-century BC Greek writers]] [409] => [[Category:4th-century BC Greek philosophers]] [410] => [[Category:4th-century BC Greek writers]] [411] => [[Category:Academic philosophers]] [412] => [[Category:Ancient Athenian philosophers]] [413] => [[Category:Ancient Greek epistemologists]] [414] => [[Category:Ancient Greek ethicists]] [415] => [[Category:Ancient Greek logicians]] [416] => [[Category:Ancient Greek metaphysicians]] [417] => [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of mind]] [418] => [[Category:Ancient Greek physicists]] [419] => [[Category:Ancient Greek political philosophers]] [420] => [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of art]] [421] => [[Category:Ancient Greek philosophers of language]] [422] => [[Category:Ancient Greek slaves and freedmen]] [423] => [[Category:Ancient Syracuse]] [424] => [[Category:Attic Greek writers]] [425] => [[Category:Epigrammatists of the Greek Anthology]] [426] => [[Category:Idealists]] [427] => [[Category:Logicians]] [428] => [[Category:Moral realists]] [429] => [[Category:Natural law ethicists]] [430] => [[Category:Natural philosophers]] [431] => [[Category:Ontologists]] [432] => [[Category:Philosophers of death]] [433] => [[Category:Philosophers of education]] [434] => [[Category:Philosophers of love]] [435] => [[Category:Pupils of Socrates]] [436] => [[Category:Rationalists]] [437] => [[Category:Theorists on Western civilization]] [438] => [[Category:Classical theism]] [] => )
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Plato

Plato was a philosopher in ancient Greece and is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in Western philosophy and the founder of the Academy in Athens. He was a student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, and his writings cover a wide range of topics including philosophy, ethics, politics, and metaphysics.

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He was a student of Socrates and teacher of Aristotle, and his writings cover a wide range of topics including philosophy, ethics, politics, and metaphysics. Plato's philosophy is known for its idealism, as he believed that the material world is a mere reflection of a higher realm of perfect and unchanging Forms. He also emphasized the importance of reason and believed that true knowledge could be obtained through dialectic, a method of questioning and discussing ideas. One of Plato's most famous works is "The Republic," where he outlines his ideal society governed by philosopher-kings. He also explored the nature of love, knowledge, justice, and the soul in his dialogues, which are written as conversations between Socrates and other characters. Plato's ideas have had a profound impact on Western thought and his influence can be seen in fields such as philosophy, politics, psychology, and education. His legacy continues to be studied and debated by scholars around the world.

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