Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Imaging technique using ionizing and non-ionizing radiation}} [1] => {{About||the medical specialty covering all imaging modes|Radiology|treatment using radiation|Radiotherapy}} [2] => {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2023}} [3] => {{Infobox medical specialty [4] => | title = Radiography [5] => | subdivisions = Interventional, Nuclear, Therapeutic, Paediatric [6] => | image = Xraymachine.JPG [7] => | caption = [[Projectional radiography]] of the knee in a modern X-ray machine [8] => | system = [[Musculoskeletal system|Musculoskeletal]] [9] => | diseases = [[Cancer]], [[bone fracture]]s [10] => | tests = [[Screening (medicine)|screening tests]], [[X-ray]], [[X-ray computed tomography|CT]], [[MRI]], [[positron emission tomography|PET]], [[bone scan]], [[ultrasonography]], [[mammography]], [[fluoroscopy]] [11] => | specialist = [[Radiographer]] [12] => }} [13] => [14] => '''Radiography''' is an [[imaging technology|imaging technique]] using [[X-ray]]s, [[gamma ray]]s, or similar ionizing radiation and non-ionizing radiation to view the internal form of an object. Applications of radiography include medical ("diagnostic" radiography and "therapeutic") and [[industrial radiography]]. Similar techniques are used in [[airport security]], (where "body scanners" generally use [[backscatter X-ray]]). To create an image in [[conventional radiography]], a beam of X-rays is produced by an [[X-ray generator]] and it is projected towards the object. A certain amount of the X-rays or other radiation are absorbed by the object, dependent on the object's density and structural composition. The X-rays that pass through the object are captured behind the object by a [[X-ray detector|detector]] (either [[photographic film]] or a digital detector). The generation of flat [[two-dimensional]] images by this technique is called [[projectional radiography]]. In [[computed tomography]] (CT scanning), an X-ray source and its associated detectors rotate around the subject, which itself moves through the conical X-ray beam produced. Any given point within the subject is crossed from many directions by many different beams at different times. Information regarding the attenuation of these beams is collated and subjected to computation to generate two-dimensional images on three planes (axial, coronal, and sagittal) which can be further processed to produce a three-dimensional image. [15] => [16] => [[File:Рентген черепа.jpg|thumb|A medical radiograph of a skull]] [17] => [18] => ==Medical uses== [19] => {{Infobox diagnostic | [20] => Name = Radiography | [21] => Image = | [22] => Caption = | [23] => ICD10 = | [24] => ICD9 = {{ICD9proc|87}}, {{ICD9proc|88.0}}-{{ICD9proc|88.6}} | [25] => MeshID = D011859 | [26] => OPS301 = {{OPS301|3–10...3–13}}, {{OPS301|3–20...3–26}} | [27] => OtherCodes = | [28] => }} [29] => Since the body is made up of various substances with differing densities, ionising and non-ionising radiation can be used to reveal the internal structure of the body on an image receptor by highlighting these differences using [[attenuation (electromagnetic radiation)|attenuation]], or in the case of ionising radiation, the absorption of X-ray [[photon]]s by the denser substances (like [[calcium]]-rich bones). The discipline involving the study of anatomy through the use of radiographic images is known as [[radiographic anatomy]]. Medical radiography acquisition is generally carried out by [[radiographer]]s, while image analysis is generally done by [[radiologist]]s. Some radiographers also specialise in image interpretation. Medical radiography includes a range of modalities producing many different types of image, each of which has a different clinical application. [30] => [31] => ===Projectional radiography=== [32] => {{Main|Projectional radiography}} [33] => [[File:Projectional radiography components.jpg|thumb|Acquisition of [[projectional radiography]], with an [[X-ray generator]] and a [[X-ray detector|detector]]]] [34] => [35] => The creation of images by exposing an object to [[X-ray]]s or other high-energy forms of [[electromagnetic radiation]] and capturing the resulting remnant beam (or "shadow") as a latent image is known as "projection radiography". The "shadow" may be converted to light using a fluorescent screen, which is then captured on [[photographic film]], it may be captured by a phosphor screen to be "read" later by a laser (CR), or it may directly activate a matrix of [[Solid state (electronics)|solid-state]] detectors (DR—similar to a very large version of a [[charge-coupled device|CCD]] in a digital camera). [[Bone]] and some organs (such as [[lung]]s) especially lend themselves to projection radiography. It is a relatively low-cost investigation with a high [[diagnosis|diagnostic]] yield. The difference between ''soft'' and ''hard'' body parts stems mostly from the fact that carbon has a very low X-ray cross section compared to calcium. [36] => [37] => ===Computed tomography=== [38] => {{Main|Computed tomography}} [39] => [[File:Ct-workstation-neck.jpg|thumb|Images generated from [[computed tomography]], including a [[3D rendering|3D rendered]] image at upper left]] [40] => [41] => [[Computed tomography]] or CT scan (previously known as CAT scan, the "A" standing for "axial") uses ionizing radiation (x-ray radiation) in conjunction with a computer to create images of both soft and hard tissues. These images look as though the patient was sliced like bread (thus, "tomography" – "tomo" means "slice"). Though CT uses a higher amount of ionizing x-radiation than diagnostic x-rays (both utilising X-ray radiation), with advances in technology, levels of CT radiation dose and scan times have reduced.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jang J, Jung SE, Jeong WK, Lim YS, Choi JI, Park MY, Kim Y, Lee SK, Chung JJ, Eo H, Yong HS, Hwang SS | display-authors = 6 | title = Radiation Doses of Various CT Protocols: a Multicenter Longitudinal Observation Study | journal = Journal of Korean Medical Science | volume = 31 |issue=Suppl 1 | pages = S24-31 | date = February 2016 | pmid = 26908984 | pmc = 4756338 | doi = 10.3346/jkms.2016.31.S1.S24 }} CT exams are generally short, most lasting only as long as a breath-hold, [[Radiocontrast|Contrast agents]] are also often used, depending on the tissues needing to be seen. Radiographers perform these examinations, sometimes in conjunction with a radiologist (for instance, when a radiologist performs a CT-guided [[biopsy]]). [42] => [43] => ===Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry=== [44] => {{Main|Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry}} [45] => [46] => [[Dual energy X-ray absorptiometry|DEXA]], or bone densitometry, is used primarily for [[osteoporosis]] tests. It is not projection radiography, as the X-rays are emitted in two narrow beams that are scanned across the patient, 90 degrees from each other. Usually the hip (head of the [[femur]]), lower back ([[Lumbar vertebrae|lumbar spine]]), or heel ([[Calcaneus|calcaneum]]) are imaged, and the bone density (amount of calcium) is determined and given a number (a T-score). It is not used for bone imaging, as the image quality is not good enough to make an accurate diagnostic image for fractures, inflammation, etc. It can also be used to measure total body fat, though this is not common. The radiation dose received from DEXA scans is very low, much lower than projection radiography examinations.{{citation needed|date=August 2020}} [47] => [48] => ===Fluoroscopy=== [49] => {{Main|Fluoroscopy}} [50] => [51] => Fluoroscopy is a term invented by Thomas Edison during his early X-ray studies. The name refers to the fluorescence he saw while looking at a glowing plate bombarded with X-rays.{{cite book |last=Carroll |first=Quinn B | name-list-style = vanc |title=Radiography in the Digital Age|date=2014 |publisher=Charles C Thomas |location=Springfield|isbn=9780398080976 |page=9|edition=2nd|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=foW6CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA9|language=en}} [52] => [53] => The technique provides moving projection radiographs. Fluoroscopy is mainly performed to view movement (of tissue or a contrast agent), or to guide a medical intervention, such as angioplasty, pacemaker insertion, or joint repair/replacement. The last can often be carried out in the operating theatre, using a portable fluoroscopy machine called a C-arm.{{cite book|last1=Seeram|first1=Euclid|last2=Brennan|first2=Patrick C | name-list-style = vanc |title=Radiation Protection in Diagnostic X-Ray Imaging|date=2016|publisher=Jones & Bartlett|isbn=9781284117714|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4-DOCwAAQBAJ&pg=PT408|language=en}} It can move around the surgery table and make digital images for the surgeon. Biplanar Fluoroscopy works the same as single plane fluoroscopy except displaying two planes at the same time. The ability to work in two planes is important for orthopedic and spinal surgery and can reduce operating times by eliminating re-positioning.{{cite journal | vauthors = Schueler BA | title = The AAPM/RSNA physics tutorial for residents: general overview of fluoroscopic imaging | journal = Radiographics | volume = 20 | issue = 4 | pages = 1115–26 | date = July 2000 | pmid = 10903700 | doi = 10.1148/radiographics.20.4.g00jl301115 }} [54] => [55] => ====Angiography==== [56] => {{Main|Angiography}} [57] => [[File:Cerebral angiography, arteria vertebralis sinister injection.JPG|thumb|upright|Angiogram showing a [[Transverse plane|transverse projection]] of the [[vertebral artery|vertebro]] [[basilar artery|basilar]] and [[posterior cerebral]] circulation]] [58] => [59] => [[Angiography]] is the use of fluoroscopy to view the cardiovascular system. An iodine-based contrast is injected into the bloodstream and watched as it travels around. Since liquid blood and the vessels are not very dense, a contrast with high density (like the large iodine atoms) is used to view the vessels under X-ray. Angiography is used to find [[aneurysm]]s, leaks, blockages ([[thrombosis|thromboses]]), new vessel growth, and placement of catheters and stents. [[Angioplasty|Balloon angioplasty]] is often done with angiography. [60] => [61] => ===Contrast radiography=== [62] => {{Main|Radiocontrast agent}} [63] => [64] => Contrast radiography uses a radiocontrast agent, a type of [[contrast medium]], to make the structures of interest stand out visually from their background. Contrast agents are required in conventional [[angiography]], and can be used in both [[projectional radiography]] and [[CT scan|computed tomography]] (called ''[[CT scan#Contrast|contrast CT]]'').{{cite book|last1=Quader|first1=Mohammed A|last2=Sawmiller|first2=Carol J|last3=Sumpio|first3=Bauer E | name-list-style = vanc |title=Textbook of Angiology|isbn=978-1-4612-7039-3|pages=775–783|chapter=Radio Contrast Agents: History and Evolution|doi=10.1007/978-1-4612-1190-7_63|year=2000}}{{cite book|last1=Brant|first1=William E |last2=Helms|first2=Clyde A | name-list-style = vanc |title=Fundamentals of Diagnostic Radiology|date=2007|publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins|location=Philadelphia|isbn=9780781761352|page=3|edition=3rd|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Sossht2t5XwC&pg=PA3|language=en|chapter=Diagnostic Imaging Methods}} [65] => [66] => ===Other medical imaging=== [67] => Although not technically radiographic techniques due to not using X-rays, imaging modalities such as [[Positron emission tomography|PET]] and [[Magnetic resonance imaging|MRI]] are sometimes grouped in radiography because the [[radiology]] department of hospitals handle all forms of [[Medical imaging|imaging]]. Treatment using radiation is known as [[radiotherapy]]. [68] => [69] => ==Industrial radiography== [70] => {{Main|Industrial radiography}} [71] => [72] => [[Industrial radiography]] is a method of [[non-destructive testing]] where many types of manufactured components can be examined to verify the internal structure and integrity of the specimen. Industrial Radiography can be performed utilizing either [[X-rays]] or [[gamma rays]]. Both are forms of [[electromagnetic radiation]]. The difference between various forms of electromagnetic energy is related to the [[wavelength]]. X and gamma rays have the shortest wavelength and this property leads to the ability to penetrate, travel through, and exit various materials such as [[carbon steel]] and other metals. Specific methods include [[industrial computed tomography]]. [73] => [74] => [[File:Darwinius radiographs.jpg|thumb|Radiography may also be used in [[paleontology]], such as for these radiographs of the ''[[Darwinius masillae|Darwinius]]'' fossil [[Ida (fossil)|Ida]].]] [75] => [76] => ==Image quality== [77] => Image quality will depend on resolution and density. [78] => Resolution is the ability an image to show closely spaced structure in the object as separate entities in the image while density is the blackening power of the image. [79] => Sharpness of a radiographic image is strongly determined by the size of the X-ray source. This is determined by the area of the electron beam hitting the anode. [80] => A large photon source results in more blurring in the final image and is worsened by an increase in image formation distance. This blurring can be measured as a contribution to the [[modulation transfer function]] of the imaging system. The memory devices used in large-scale radiographic systems are also very important. They work efficiently to store the crucial data of contrast and density in the radiography image and produce the output accordingly. Smaller capacity memory drives with high-density connectors are also important to deal with internal vibration or shock. [81] => [82] => ==Radiation dose== [83] => The dosage of radiation applied in radiography varies by procedure. For example, the effective dosage of a chest x-ray is 0.1 mSv, while an abdominal CT is 10 mSv.{{cite web |title=Reducing Radiation from Medical X-rays |url=https://www.fda.gov/ForConsumers/ConsumerUpdates/ucm095505.htm#HowMuch |website=FDA.gov |access-date=9 September 2018}} The [[American Association of Physicists in Medicine]] (AAPM) have stated that the "risks of medical imaging at patient doses below 50 mSv for single procedures or 100 mSv for multiple procedures over short time periods are too low to be detectable and may be nonexistent." Other scientific bodies sharing this conclusion include the [[International Organization for Medical Physics|International Organization of Medical Physicists]], the [[United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation|UN Scientific Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation]], and the [[International Commission on Radiological Protection]]. Nonetheless, radiological organizations, including the [[Radiological Society of North America]] (RSNA) and the [[American College of Radiology]] (ACR), as well as multiple government agencies, indicate safety standards to ensure that radiation dosage is as low as possible.{{cite journal |last1=Goldberg |first1=Jeanne | name-list-style = vanc |title=From the Spectral to the Spectrum |journal=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |date=September–October 2018 |volume=42 |issue=5}} [84] => [85] => ===Shielding=== [86] => {| class="wikitable floatright" style = "text-align:center" [87] => |- [88] => !X-rays generated by
peak voltages below !! Minimum thickness
of lead [89] => |- [90] => |75 kV || 1.0 mm [91] => |- [92] => |100 kV || 1.5 mm [93] => |- [94] => |125 kV || 2.0 mm [95] => |- [96] => |150 kV || 2.5 mm [97] => |- [98] => |175 kV || 3.0 mm [99] => |- [100] => |200 kV || 4.0 mm [101] => |- [102] => |225 kV || 5.0 mm [103] => |- [104] => |300 kV || 9.0 mm [105] => |- [106] => |400 kV || 15.0 mm [107] => |- [108] => |500 kV || 22.0 mm [109] => |- [110] => |600 kV || 34.0 mm [111] => |- [112] => |900 kV || 51.0 mm [113] => |} [114] => [115] => [[Lead]] is the most common shield against X-rays because of its high density (11,340 kg/m3), stopping power, ease of installation and low cost. The maximum range of a high-energy photon such as an X-ray in matter is infinite; at every point in the matter traversed by the photon, there is a probability of interaction. Thus there is a very small probability of no interaction over very large distances. The shielding of photon beam is therefore exponential (with an [[attenuation length]] being close to the [[radiation length]] of the material); doubling the thickness of shielding will square the shielding effect. [116] => [117] => Table in this section shows the recommended thickness of lead shielding in function of X-ray energy, from the Recommendations by the Second International Congress of Radiology.Alchemy Art Lead Products – [http://www.alchemycastings.com/pdf/SheetLead.pdf Lead Shielding Sheet Lead For Shielding Applications]. Retrieved 7 December 2008. [118] => [119] => ===Campaigns=== [120] => In response to increased concern by the public over radiation doses and the ongoing progress of best practices, The Alliance for Radiation Safety in Pediatric Imaging was formed within the [[Society for Pediatric Radiology]]. In concert with the [[American Society of Radiologic Technologists]], the [[American College of Radiology]], and the [[American Association of Physicists in Medicine]], the Society for Pediatric Radiology developed and launched the Image Gently campaign which is designed to maintain high quality imaging studies while using the lowest doses and best radiation safety practices available on pediatric patients.{{cite web|url=http://www.pedrad.org/associations/5364/ig/?page=365 |title=IG new: The Alliance | image gently |publisher=Pedrad.org |access-date=16 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130609063515/http://www.pedrad.org/associations/5364/ig/?page=365 |archive-date=9 June 2013 }} This initiative has been endorsed and applied by a growing list of various professional medical organizations around the world and has received support and assistance from companies that manufacture equipment used in radiology. [121] => [122] => Following upon the success of the Image Gently campaign, the American College of Radiology, the Radiological Society of North America, the American Association of Physicists in Medicine, and the American Society of Radiologic Technologists have launched a similar campaign to address this issue in the adult population called Image Wisely.{{cite web|url=http://www.imagewisely.org/ |title=Radiation Safety in Adult Medical Imaging |publisher=Image Wisely |access-date=16 August 2013}} The [[World Health Organization]] and [[International Atomic Energy Agency]] (IAEA) of the United Nations have also been working in this area and have ongoing projects designed to broaden best practices and lower patient radiation dose.{{cite web |url=http://new.paho.org/hq10/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3365&Itemid=2164 |title=Optimal levels of radiation for patients – Pan American Health Organization – Organización Panamericana de la Salud |publisher=New.paho.org |date=24 August 2010 |access-date=16 August 2013 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130525051814/http://new.paho.org/hq10/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=3365&Itemid=2164 |archive-date=25 May 2013 }}{{cite web|url=https://rpop.iaea.org/RPOP/RPoP/Content/index.htm |title=Radiation Protection of Patients |publisher=Rpop.iaea.org |date=14 March 2013 |access-date=16 August 2013}}{{cite web|url=https://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/about/GI_TM_Report_2008_Dec.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131029171805/http://www.who.int/ionizing_radiation/about/GI_TM_Report_2008_Dec.pdf |archive-date=29 October 2013 |url-status=live |title=World Health Organisation: Global Initiative on Radiation Safety in Healthcare Settings: Technical Meeting Report |publisher=Who.int |access-date=16 August 2013}} [123] => [124] => ===Provider payment=== [125] => Contrary to advice that emphasises only conducting radiographs when in the patient's interest, recent evidence suggests that they are used more frequently when dentists are paid under fee-for-service.{{cite journal | vauthors = Chalkley M, Listl S | title = First do no harm - The impact of financial incentives on dental X-rays | journal = Journal of Health Economics | volume = 58 | issue = March 2018 | pages = 1–9 | date = March 2018 | pmid = 29408150 | doi = 10.1016/j.jhealeco.2017.12.005 | doi-access = free | hdl = 2066/190628 | hdl-access = free }} [126] => [127] => ==Equipment== [128] => [[File:Coude fp.PNG|thumb|A plain radiograph of the [[elbow]]]] [129] => [[File:AP lumbar xray.jpg|thumb|upright|AP radiograph of the [[lumbar spine]]]] [130] => [[File:Hand Xray (48630648876).jpg|thumb|upright|A hand prepared to be X-rayed]] [131] => [132] => ===Sources=== [133] => {{Further|X-ray generator}} [134] => [135] => In medicine and dentistry, [[projectional radiography]] and [[CT scan|computed tomography images]] generally use X-rays created by [[X-ray generator]]s, which generate X-rays from [[X-ray tube]]s. The resultant images from the radiograph (X-ray generator/machine) or CT scanner are correctly referred to as "radiograms"/"roentgenograms" and "tomograms" respectively. [136] => [137] => A number of other sources of [[X-ray]] [[photon]]s are possible, and may be used in industrial radiography or research; these include [[betatron]]s, [[Linear particle accelerator|linear accelerators]] (linacs), and [[synchrotron]]s. For [[gamma ray]]s, [[radioactive]] sources such as [[Iridium-192|192Ir]], [[Cobalt-60|60Co]], or [[Caesium-137|137Cs]] are used. [138] => [139] => ===Grid=== [140] => An [[anti-scatter grid]] may be placed between the patient and the detector to reduce the quantity of scattered x-rays that reach the detector. This improves the contrast resolution of the image, but also increases radiation exposure for the patient.{{cite book |last=Bushberg |first=Jerrold T | name-list-style = vanc |title=The Essential Physics of Medical Imaging |date=2002 |publisher=Lippincott Williams & Wilkins |location=Philadelphia |isbn=9780683301182 |page=210 |edition=2nd |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VZvqqaQ5DvoC&pg=PA210 }} [141] => [142] => ===Detectors=== [143] => {{Main|X-ray detector}} [144] => [145] => Detectors can be divided into two major categories: imaging detectors (such as [[photographic plate]]s and X-ray film ([[photographic film]]), now mostly replaced by various [[digitizing]] devices like [[image plate]]s or [[flat panel detector]]s) and dose measurement devices (such as [[ionization chamber]]s, [[Geiger counter]]s, and [[dosimeter]]s used to measure the local [[exposure (radiation)|radiation exposure]], [[absorbed dose|dose]], and/or dose rate, for example, for verifying that [[radiation protection]] equipment and procedures are effective on an ongoing basis).{{cite journal | vauthors = Ranger NT | title = Radiation detectors in nuclear medicine | journal = Radiographics | volume = 19 | issue = 2 | pages = 481–502 | date = 1999 | pmid = 10194791 | doi = 10.1148/radiographics.19.2.g99mr30481 | doi-access = }}{{cite journal | vauthors = DeWerd LA, Wagner LK | title = Characteristics of radiation detectors for diagnostic radiology | journal = Applied Radiation and Isotopes | volume = 50 | issue = 1 | pages = 125–36 | date = January 1999 | pmid = 10028632 | doi = 10.1016/S0969-8043(98)00044-X }}{{cite book | last1 = Anwar | first1 = Kamal | name-list-style = vanc | title = Particle Physics | pages = 1–78 | date = 2013 | publisher = Springer-Verlag | location = Berlin | isbn = 978-3-642-38660-2 | chapter = Nuclear Radiation Detectors | doi = 10.1007/978-3-642-38661-9_1 | series = Graduate Texts in Physics }} [146] => [147] => === Side markers === [148] => A radiopaque anatomical side marker is added to each image. For example, if the patient has their right hand x-rayed, the radiographer includes a radiopaque "R" marker within the field of the x-ray beam as an indicator of which hand has been imaged. If a physical marker is not included, the radiographer may add the correct side marker later as part of digital post-processing.{{cite journal | vauthors = Barry K, Kumar S, Linke R, Dawes E | title = A clinical audit of anatomical side marker use in a paediatric medical imaging department | journal = Journal of Medical Radiation Sciences | volume = 63 | issue = 3 | pages = 148–54 | date = September 2016 | pmid = 27648278 | pmc = 5016612 | doi = 10.1002/jmrs.176 }} [149] => [150] => ===Image intensifiers and array detectors=== [151] => {{Main|X-ray image intensifier}} [152] => As an alternative to X-ray detectors, [[X-ray image intensifier|image intensifiers]] are analog devices that readily convert the acquired X-ray image into one visible on a video screen. This device is made of a vacuum tube with a wide input surface coated on the inside with [[caesium iodide]] (CsI). When hit by X-rays material phosphors which causes the [[photocathode]] adjacent to it to emit electrons. These electrons are then focused using electron lenses inside the intensifier to an output screen coated with phosphorescent materials. The image from the output can then be recorded via a camera and displayed.{{cite book|last1=Hendee|first1=William R.|last2=Ritenour|first2=E. Russell| name-list-style = vanc |title=Medical Imaging Physics|date=2002|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|location=Hoboken, NJ|isbn=9780471461135|edition=4th|chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=55lh1B82SLsC&pg=PA236|chapter=Fluoroscopy}} [153] => [154] => Digital devices known as array detectors are becoming more common in fluoroscopy. These devices are made of discrete pixelated detectors known as [[thin-film transistor]]s (TFT) which can either work ''indirectly'' by using photo detectors that detect light emitted from a scintillator material such as CsI, or ''directly'' by capturing the electrons produced when the X-rays hit the detector. Direct detectors do not tend to experience the blurring or spreading effect caused by phosphorescent scintillators or by film screens since the detectors are activated directly by X-ray photons.{{cite journal | vauthors = Seibert JA | title = Flat-panel detectors: how much better are they? | journal = Pediatric Radiology | volume = 36 Suppl 2 | issue = S2 | pages = 173–81 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16862412 | pmc = 2663651 | doi = 10.1007/s00247-006-0208-0 }} [155] => [156] => ==Dual-energy== [157] => [[Spectral imaging (radiography)|''Dual-energy'' radiography]] is where images are acquired using two separate [[tube voltage]]s. This is the standard method for [[Dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry|bone densitometry]]. It is also used in [[CT pulmonary angiogram|CT pulmonary angiography]] to decrease the required dose of [[iodinated contrast]].{{cite journal|url=http://www.massgeneral.org/imaging/news/radrounds/july_2015/|title=Dual Energy CT Imaging for Suspected Pulmonary Embolism Using a Lower Dose of Contrast Agent|journal=Radiology Rounds|volume=13|issue=7|first=Janet|last=Cochrane Miller|name-list-style=vanc|year=2015|access-date=5 February 2018|archive-date=10 May 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170510221710/http://www.massgeneral.org/imaging/news/radrounds/july_2015/|url-status=dead}} [158] => [159] => ==History== [160] => {{Further|X-ray#History}} [161] => [[File:Crookes tube xray experiment.jpg|thumb|left|Taking an X-ray image with early [[Crookes tube]] apparatus, late 1800s]] [162] => [163] => Radiography's origins and [[fluoroscopy#History|fluoroscopy's origins]] can both be traced to 8 November 1895, when German physics professor [[Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen]] discovered the X-ray and noted that, while it could pass through human tissue, it could not pass through bone or metal.{{cite web|url=http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/CommunityCollege/Radiography/Introduction/history.htm|access-date=27 April 2013|title=History of Radiography|work=NDT Resource Center|publisher=Iowa State University}} Röntgen referred to the radiation as "X", to indicate that it was an unknown type of radiation. He received the first [[Nobel Prize in Physics]] for his discovery.{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/articles/karlsson/|title=The Nobel Prizes in Physics 1901–2000|last=Karlsson|first=Erik B.| name-list-style = vanc |date=9 February 2000|publisher=The Nobel Foundation|access-date=24 November 2011|location=Stockholm}} [164] => [165] => There are conflicting accounts of his discovery because Röntgen had his lab notes burned after his death, but this is a likely reconstruction by his biographers:{{cite web |title= 5 unbelievable things about X-rays you can't miss |url= https://www.vix.com/en/ovs/curiosities/8709/5-unbelievable-things-about-x-rays-you-cant-miss |website= vix.com |access-date= 23 October 2017 |archive-date= 24 December 2020 |archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20201224113106/https://www.vix.com/en/ovs/curiosities/8709/5-unbelievable-things-about-x-rays-you-cant-miss |url-status= dead }}{{cite book | last = Glasser| first = Otto | name-list-style = vanc | title = Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the early history of the roentgen rays| publisher = Norman Publishing| date = 1993| pages = 10–15| url = https://books.google.com/books?id=5GJs4tyb7wEC&pg=PA10| isbn = 978-0930405229}} Röntgen was investigating [[cathode rays]] using a [[fluorescent]] screen painted with barium [[platinocyanide]] and a [[Crookes tube]] which he had wrapped in black cardboard to shield its fluorescent glow. He noticed a faint green glow from the screen, about 1 metre away. Röntgen realized some invisible rays coming from the tube were passing through the cardboard to make the screen glow: they were passing through an opaque object to affect the film behind it.{{cite web|url=https://www.pbs.org/newshour/rundown/2012/12/i-have-seen-my-death-how-the-world-discovered-the-x-ray.html|title='I Have Seen My Death': How the World Discovered the X-Ray|first=Howard|last=Markel|name-list-style=vanc|date=20 December 2012|access-date=27 April 2013|work=PBS NewsHour|publisher=PBS|archive-date=20 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200820120013/https://www.pbs.org/newshour/tag/newsdesk/2012/12/i-have-seen-my-death-how-the-world-discovered-the-x-ray.html|url-status=dead}} [166] => [167] => [[File:First medical X-ray by Wilhelm Röntgen of his wife Anna Bertha Ludwig's hand - 18951222.jpg|thumb|upright|The first radiograph]] [168] => [169] => Röntgen discovered X-rays' medical use when he made a picture of his wife's hand on a photographic plate formed due to X-rays. The photograph of his wife's hand was the first ever photograph of a human body part using X-rays. When she saw the picture, she said, "I have seen my death." [170] => [171] => The first use of X-rays under clinical conditions was by [[John Hall-Edwards]] in [[Birmingham|Birmingham, England]], on 11 January 1896, when he radiographed a needle stuck in the hand of an associate. On 14 February 1896, Hall-Edwards also became the first to use X-rays in a surgical operation.{{cite web|url=http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/xray |title=Major John Hall-Edwards |access-date=17 May 2012 |publisher=Birmingham City Council |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120928204852/http://www.birmingham.gov.uk/xray |archive-date=28 September 2012 }} [172] => [173] => The United States saw its first medical X-ray obtained using a [[discharge tube]] of [[Ivan Puluj|Ivan Pulyui]]'s design. In January 1896, on reading of Röntgen's discovery, Frank Austin of [[Dartmouth College]] tested all of the discharge tubes in the physics laboratory and found that only the Pulyui tube produced X-rays. This was a result of Pulyui's inclusion of an oblique "target" of [[mica]], used for holding samples of [[fluorescent]] material, within the tube. On 3 February 1896 Gilman Frost, professor of medicine at the college, and his brother Edwin Frost, professor of physics, exposed the wrist of Eddie McCarthy, whom Gilman had treated some weeks earlier for a fracture, to the X-rays and collected the resulting image of the broken bone on [[Photographic plate|gelatin photographic plates]] obtained from Howard Langill, a local photographer also interested in Röntgen's work.{{cite journal | vauthors = Spiegel PK | title = The first clinical X-ray made in America – 100 years | journal = American Journal of Roentgenology | volume = 164 | issue = 1 | pages = 241–3 | date = January 1995 | pmid = 7998549 | doi = 10.2214/ajr.164.1.7998549 | publisher = American Roentgen Ray Society | doi-access = free }} [174] => [175] => [[File:James Green & James H. Gardiner - Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles - 1897 - Rana Esculenta.jpg|thumb|upright|1897 sciagraph (X-ray photograph) of ''[[Pelophylax lessonae]]'' (then ''Rana Esculenta''), from James Green & James H. Gardiner's "Sciagraphs of British Batrachians and Reptiles"]] [176] => [177] => X-rays were put to diagnostic use very early; for example, [[Alan Archibald Campbell-Swinton]] opened a radiographic laboratory in the United Kingdom in 1896, before the dangers of ionizing radiation were discovered. Indeed, [[Marie Curie]] pushed for radiography to be used to treat wounded soldiers in World War I. Initially, many kinds of staff conducted radiography in hospitals, including physicists, photographers, physicians, nurses, and engineers. The medical speciality of radiology grew up over many years around the new technology. When new diagnostic tests were developed, it was natural for the [[radiographer]]s to be trained in and to adopt this new technology. Radiographers now perform [[fluoroscopy]], [[computed tomography]], [[mammography]], [[ultrasound]], [[nuclear medicine]] and [[magnetic resonance imaging]] as well. Although a nonspecialist dictionary might define radiography quite narrowly as "taking X-ray images", this has long been only part of the work of "X-ray departments", radiographers, and radiologists. Initially, radiographs were known as roentgenograms,{{cite journal | vauthors = Ritchey B, Orban B | title = The Crests of the Interdental Alveolar Septa | journal = The Journal of Periodontology | date = April 1953 | volume = 24 | issue = 2 | pages = 75–87 | doi = 10.1902/jop.1953.24.2.75 }} while ''skiagrapher'' (from the [[Ancient Greek]] words for "shadow" and "writer") was used until about 1918 to mean ''radiographer''. The Japanese term for the radiograph, {{Nihongo|2=レントゲン|3=rentogen}}, shares its etymology with the original English term. [178] => [179] => == See also == [180] => * [[Autoradiograph]] [181] => * [[Background radiation]] [182] => * [[Computer-aided diagnosis]] [183] => * [[GXMO]] [184] => * [[Imaging science]] [185] => * [[List of civilian radiation accidents]] [186] => * [[Medical imaging in pregnancy]] [187] => * [[Radiation]] [188] => * [[Digital radiography]] [189] => * [[Radiation contamination]] [190] => * [[Radiographer]] [191] => * [[Thermography]] [192] => [193] => == References == [194] => {{Reflist}} [195] => [196] => == Further reading == [197] => {{Refbegin}} [198] => * {{cite report |title=X-Ray Hesitancy: Patients' Radiophobic Concerns Over Medical X-rays. Dose-Response. |author1=Oakley, PA |author2=Harrison, DE |work=Specific Safety Guide No. SSG-11 |publisher=International Atomic Energy Agency |doi=10.1177/1559325820959542 |location=Vienna |date=2020|doi-access=free |pmc=7503016 }} [199] => * {{cite journal |vauthors=Seliger HH |title=Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen and the Glimmer of Light |journal=Physics Today |date=November 1995 |volume=48 |issue=11 |pages=25–31 |doi=10.1063/1.881456 |bibcode=1995PhT....48k..25S |hdl=10013/epic.43596.d001|doi-access=free }} [200] => * {{Cite book |veditors=Bronzino JD |vauthors=Shroy Jr RE |contribution=X-Ray equipment |title=The Biomedical Engineering handbook |publisher=CRC Press and IEEE Press |date=1995 |pages=953–960 |isbn=978-0-8493-8346-5}} [201] => * {{Cite book |vauthors=Herman GT |author-link=Gabor Herman |title=Fundamentals of Computerized Tomography: Image Reconstruction from Projections |date=2009 |publisher=Springer |edition=2nd |isbn=978-1-85233-617-2}} [202] => * {{cite journal |vauthors=Yu SB, Watson AD |title=Metal-Based X-ray Contrast Media |journal=Chemical Reviews |volume=99 |issue=9 |pages=2353–78 |date=September 1999 |pmid=11749484 |doi=10.1021/cr980441p}} [203] => {{Refend}} [204] => [205] => == External links == [206] => {{Commons category|Radiography}} [207] => * [https://medpix.nlm.nih.gov/home MedPix] Medical Image Database [208] => * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IcWjZbXiFkM Video on X-ray inspection and industrial computed tomography], Karlsruhe University of Applied Sciences [209] => * [https://www.nist.gov/pml/x-ray-mass-attenuation-coefficients NIST's XAAMDI: X-Ray Attenuation and Absorption for Materials of Dosimetric Interest Database] [210] => * [https://www.nist.gov/pml/xcom-photon-cross-sections-database NIST's XCOM: Photon Cross Sections Database] [211] => * [https://www.nist.gov/pml/x-ray-form-factor-attenuation-and-scattering-tables NIST's FAST: Attenuation and Scattering Tables] [212] => * [http://www.johnstonsarchive.net/nuclear/radevents/1984MOR1.html A lost industrial radiography source event] [213] => * [https://www.radiologyinfo.org/en/x-ray RadiologyInfo -] The radiology information resource for patients: Radiography (X-rays) [214] => [215] => {{X-ray science}} [216] => {{Medicine}} [217] => {{Medical imaging}} [218] => {{Authority control}} [219] => [220] => [[Category:Radiography| ]] [] => )
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Radiography

Radiography is a medical imaging technique that uses X-rays to view the internal structures of the body, such as bones, tissues, and organs. It is commonly employed to diagnose and treat various medical conditions.

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It is commonly employed to diagnose and treat various medical conditions. The Wikipedia page on Radiography provides an overview of the history, technology, applications, procedures, and safety precautions associated with this imaging modality. The page begins by exploring the roots of radiography, dating back to the discovery of X-rays by Wilhelm Conrad Roentgen in 1895. It highlights the key technological advancements that subsequently revolutionized the field, including the development of X-ray machines, film-based imaging, and digital radiography. The applications section delves into the wide range of uses of radiography across different medical specialties. It explains how X-rays are employed to detect fractures, tumors, infections, and other abnormalities within the body. It also touches upon specialized radiographic techniques like fluoroscopy, mammography, and dental radiography. The page then delves into the process of radiography, outlining the steps involved in acquiring X-ray images. It covers topics such as patient preparation, positioning, image acquisition, and the role of radiologic technologists in performing these procedures. Furthermore, it explains various imaging modalities that can be used in conjunction with radiography, such as computed tomography (CT) scans and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Safety is a crucial aspect of radiography, and the page emphasizes the importance of radiation protection. It describes the methods employed to minimize patients' and healthcare workers' exposure to radiation during imaging procedures. Furthermore, it discusses possible risks associated with radiation exposure and the steps taken to ensure safe practices in radiology departments. The page also addresses the limitations and potential risks of radiography, such as the harmful effects of excessive radiation, including cancer risks. It recognizes the need for balancing the benefits of using X-rays for diagnosis and treatment against their potential risks. Additionally, it touches upon alternative imaging techniques that can be used when radiography is not suitable. Overall, the Wikipedia page on radiography provides a comprehensive introduction to this imaging technique. It covers its history, technology, applications, procedures, safety precautions, and limitations. It serves as a valuable resource for medical professionals, students, and anyone seeking to understand the principles and applications of radiography in the medical field.

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