Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Position that religion should not influence civic and state affairs}} [1] => {{Distinguish|Laicism|Laicity|Laicization}} [2] => {{Distinguish|Irreligion|Secularity|Secularization}} [3] => {{Use Oxford spelling|date=July 2020}} [4] => [5] => {{Religious freedom}} [6] => [7] => '''Secularism''' is the principle of seeking to conduct human affairs based on [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic]] considerations, uninvolved with [[religion]]. [8] => [9] => Secularism is most commonly thought of as the [[Separation of church and state|separation of religion from civil affairs and the state]] and may be broadened to a similar position seeking to remove or to minimize the role of religion in any public sphere.Luke W. Galen. ''The Nonreligious: Understanding Secular People and Societies''. Oxford University Press, 2016. p. 22-23 The term "secularism" has a broad range of meanings, and in the most schematic, may encapsulate any stance that promotes the secular in any given context.{{cite encyclopedia|encyclopedia=A Dictionary of Atheism|title=Secularism|editor-first1=Stephen |editor-last1=Bullivant |editor-first2=Lois|editor-last2=Lee|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=2016}}John R. Shook, ''The Oxford Handbook of Secularism''. Oxford University Press, 2017. p. 10 It may connote [[anti-clericalism]], [[atheism]], [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalism]], [[Nonsectarian|non-sectarianism]], [[Neutrality (philosophy)|neutrality]] on topics of religion, or the complete removal of religious symbols from public institutions.{{cite encyclopedia|first=Nader|last=Hashemi|title= Secularism|encyclopedia=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World|editor-first=John L.|editor-last=Esposito|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=Oxford|year=2009|isbn= 9780195305135}} [10] => [11] => Secularism can be also defined as treating every religion equally and providing equal facility. [12] => [13] => As a philosophy, secularism seeks to interpret life based on principles derived solely from the material world, without recourse to religion. It shifts the focus from religion towards "temporal" and material concerns.{{cite journal |last1=Roznai |first1=Yaniv |title=Negotiating the Eternal: The Paradox of Entrenching Secularism in Constitutions |date=June 7, 2017 |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2982275 |publisher=Social Science Research Network |language=en |journal=[[Michigan State Law Review]] |page=324 |volume=253 |ssrn=2982275 |access-date=August 22, 2022 |archive-date=August 22, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220822132915/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2982275 |url-status=live }}, citing Domenic Marbaniang [14] => [15] => There are distinct traditions of secularism in the West, like the French, Benelux-German, Turkish, and American models, and beyond, [[Secularism in India|as in India]], where the emphasis is more on equality before law and state neutrality and equidistance from all religions rather than a complete blanket separation. The latter in the case of India, is termed as interventionist secularism, wherein the state intervenes to abolish practices of religion which it considers against constitutional principles.{{cite journal | url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1111/jssr.12192 | doi=10.1111/jssr.12192 | title=Interventionist Secularism: A Comparative Analysis of the Turkish Grand National Assembly (1923–1928) and the Indian Constituent Assembly (1946–1949) Debates | date=2015 | last1=Madra | first1=Aysel | journal=Journal for the Scientific Study of Religion | volume=54 | issue=2 | pages=222–241 }} The purposes and arguments in support of secularism vary widely, ranging from assertions that it is a crucial element of [[Modernization theory|modernization]], or that religion and traditional values are backward and divisive, to the claim that it is the only guarantor of free religious exercise. [16] => [17] => == Variations == [18] => Secularism takes different forms with varying stances on where and how religion should be separate from other aspects of society.{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=1–4}} People of any religious denomination can support a secular society, or adopt the principles of secularism, although secularist identity is often associated with non-religious individuals such as atheists.{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=153–157}} Political secularism encompasses the schools of thought in secularism that consider the regulation of religion by a [[secular state]].{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=5–6}} Religious minorities and non-religious citizens in a country tend to support political secularism while members of the majority religion tend to oppose it.{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=9–10}} Secular nationalists are people that support political secularism within their own state.{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=159–161}} [19] => [20] => Scholars identify several variations of political secularism in society. The strictest form, associated with the French [[Secularism in France|laique]] model, advocates a state that is both firmly and officially distanced from all religions and [[irreligion|non-religious philosophical convictions]] in all of its manifestations and official dealings, without exception. A more "[[secular humanism|humanistic]]" form is indifferent towards religions ''per se'' but also advocates for the states to operate on purely a rational basis of [[evidence-based policy]] and a focus on human needs and welfare, entailing non-discrimination between peoples of differing religions and non-religious philosophical convictions throughout society.{{cite book |last1=Sharma |first1=Laxminidhi |title=Dharma Darshan Ki Rooprekha |date=2000 |publisher=Abhivyakti Prakashan |location=Allahabad |page=431}}{{cite thesis |type=MPhil |last=Marbaniang|first=Domenic |date=2005|title=Secularism in India: A Historical Analysis |institution=ACTS Academy of Higher Education}} A third "liberal" or "[[Pillarisation|pillarized]]" form of secularism holds that governments may in some instances express sympathy to, provide funding to, license state services to, or otherwise allow unique special treatment of religions (common in German-speaking and [[Benelux]] secular states), so long as states nevertheless treat these convictions equally, and are neither hostile nor preferential towards any particular set of religious or non-religious philosophical convictions such as [[secular humanism|humanists]]. In these countries, secular humanist organisations typically receive state funding according to the same funding formulas used to provide state funding to religious groups.{{cite web|url=https://understandinghumanism.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Humanism-becoming-the-mainstream.pdf|title=Humanism becoming the mainstream in Norway|work=Understanding Humanism|publisher=[[Humanists UK]]|date=October 2021|accessdate=22 May 2023|archive-date=22 May 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230522114547/https://understandinghumanism.org.uk/wp-content/uploads/2021/10/Humanism-becoming-the-mainstream.pdf|url-status=live}} In Indian political discourse, the pejorative term [[pseudo-secularism]] is also used to highlight instances where it is believed that while the state purports to be secular, indifferent, or impartial towards religions, its policies in reality favor a particular religion over others. [21] => [22] => There are many principles that are associated with all forms of political secularism. It typically promotes legal equality between people of different religions, opposing a legal hierarchy on the basis of religious belief or lack of religious belief. It is also associated with a separation of church and state, considering these to be two distinct entities that should be treated separately. State supremacy is a secular principle that supports obedience to the [[rule of law]] over religious diktat or canon law, while internal constraint is a secular principle that opposes governmental control over one's personal life. Under political secularism, the government can enforce how people act but not what they believe. Similarly, freedom of thought is supported by secularism. Order is supported by secularists, specifically in that one's beliefs should not be permitted to disturb the civil peace. [[Religious tolerance]] is supported both for people of other religions and for a lack of piety demonstrated by members of one's own religion. Political secularism also supports [[reason]] as a virtue.{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=16–48}} Secularists also support freedom from religion as an extension to freedom of religion.{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=163–164}} [23] => [24] => == History == [25] => [[File:Holyoake2.JPG|thumb|The [[British people|British]] writer [[George Holyoake]] (1817–1906) employed the term "secularism" in 1851.{{cite book |last=Holyoake |first=G. J. |author-link=George Holyoake |year=1896 |title=English Secularism: A Confession of Belief |publisher=Library of Alexandria |isbn=978-1-4655-1332-8}}]] [26] => Secularism in practice has existed since ancient times. In societies such as [[Ancient Greece]], a limited secularism was practiced in which religion was not involved in governance, though it was still prevalent in public life.{{harvnb|Copson|2019|ps=: Although they had public temples and their festivals were important civic occasions, in the city states of classical Greece gods and goddesses were not involved in 'politics'...This is a sort of secularism, in which the aims of the state are separate from religious aims, but it is not secularism in the full modern sense.}} [27] => [28] => In Europe, secularism emerged in the [[early modern period]]. Due to [[Differentiation (sociology)#Functional differentiation|functional differentiation]], religion changed from being the predominant lens through which reality was interpreted to providing only an alternative explanatory approach.Bizeul, Yves (2013)."Secularism in Europe", European Liberal Forum [29] => [30] => In 1636, [[Roger Williams]] founded the [[Providence Plantations]] as a settlement with total freedom of religion, in present-day [[Rhode Island]].{{sfn|Copson|2019|loc=Secularism in Western Societies}} Secular ideas were strongly challenged by religious leaders and the [[Catholic Church]] in particular, causing a religious [[culture war]]. During the [[American Revolution]], [[Thomas Jefferson]] and [[James Madison]] incorporated the ideas of [[John Locke]] into the government of the United States, including his secularism, though a true secular state was not achieved until the 20th century.{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=51–54}} French secularism in the [[Age of Enlightenment]] was based on [[Gallicanism]], which emphasised state supremacy, as well as [[anti-clericalism]] and [[materialism]].{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=65–66}} Revolutionary France opposed Catholic influence in the country, and it briefly replaced Christianity with the deistic [[Cult of Reason]].{{sfn|Copson|2019|loc=Secularism in Western Societies}} [31] => [32] => The first to use the already-extant word "secularism" in a modern sense, was the British [[Agnosticism|agnostic]] writer [[George Holyoake]], in 1851. Finding "[[atheism]]" too aggravating, he sought a term that would describe a stance advocating to conduct life based on naturalistic (secular) considerations only, but without necessarily rejecting religion, thus enabling cooperation with believers.Shook, Zuckerman, pp. 3–4. Holyoake's definition of secularism differs from its usage by later writers. As the Humanist Heritage website notes, Holyoake provides a definition of secularism "much akin to modern definitions of [[humanism]]... broader than just atheism."{{cite news |title=George Jacob Holyoake (1817–1906) |work=Humanist Heritage |publisher=[[Humanists UK]] |url=https://heritage.humanists.uk/george-jacob-holyoake/ |accessdate=8 October 2021 |archive-date=8 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211008111734/https://heritage.humanists.uk/george-jacob-holyoake/ |url-status=live }} More modern definitions of secularism are likely to pertain to [[separation of church and state]] rather than personal beliefs. [33] => [34] => Many Christian countries began to undergo societal [[secularisation]] during the 20th century, with levels of belief and practice declining. Sociologists disagree as to whether this represents a periodic fluctuation or a larger trend toward long-term adoption of secularism.{{Cite book |last=Gorski |first=Philip S. |title=Handbook of the Sociology of Religion |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2003 |isbn=9780521000789 |editor-last=Dillon |editor-first=Michele |pages=110–122 |chapter=Historicizing the Secularization Debate: An Agenda for Research}} The principle of ''[[Laïcité]]'', the French notion of strict separation, was enshrined into law in 1905.{{sfn|Copson|2019|loc=Secularism in Western Societies}} After the rise to power of [[Mustafa Kemal Atatürk]] in 1923, Turkish secularism, or ''[[laiklik]]'', became a state ideology under [[Kemalism]], aiming to modernise the country. [[Turkey]]'s secular tradition prior to Atatürk's reforms was limited, and 20th century Turkish secularism was initially modelled after French ''laïcité''. Turkey remains virtually the only Muslim-majority nation with an effective secular government, though secularism remains a controversial ideology in Turkey, and the country's ruling party [[Justice and Development Party (Turkey)|AKP]] is more anti-Kemalist than anti-secularist.{{Cite book |last1=Sevinc |first1=Kenan |url=http://oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-10 |title=Secularism in Turkey |last2=Hood |first2=Ralph W. |last3=Coleman |first3=Thomas |date=2017-01-10 |publisher=Oxford University Press |editor-last=Zuckerman |editor-first=Phil |volume=1 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.013.10 |isbn=978-0-19-998845-7 |editor-last2=Shook |editor-first2=John R. |access-date=2022-08-01 |archive-date=2021-11-29 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211129021449/https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199988457.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199988457-e-10 |url-status=live }} India became a secular state after it achieved independence in 1947; [[Mahatma Gandhi]] supported pluralist secularism as a means to curb tensions in the religiously diverse nation. The Indian model of secularism stressed equality of citizens regardless of faith before the law, along with some separation. The [[Universal Declaration of Human Rights]] was proclaimed in 1948, protecting freedom of religion in international law.{{sfn|Copson|2019|loc=Secularism diversifies}} [35] => [36] => == State secularism == [37] => [[File:State Religions.svg|thumb|upright=1.15|left|Countries with a [[state religion]]]] [38] => {{main|Secular state|Separation of church and state}} [39] => [40] => In political terms, secularism is a movement towards the separation of religion and government, often termed the separation of church and state. This can refer to reducing ties between a government and a [[state religion]], replacing laws based on scripture (such as ''[[Halakha]]'', ''[[Dharmaśāstra]]'', and ''[[Sharia]]'') with [[Civil law (legal system)|civil laws]], and eliminating discrimination on the basis of religion. This is said to add to democracy by protecting the rights of religious minorities.Feldman, Noah (2005). p. 14. "[Legal secularists] claim that separating religion from the public, governmental sphere is necessary to ensure the full inclusion of all citizens." Separation of church and state is one possible strategy to be deployed by secular governments. From the democratic to the authoritarian, such governments share a concern to limit the religious side in the relationship. Each state may find its own unique policy prescriptions. These may include separation, careful monitoring and regulation of organised religion such as in France, Turkey, India and others.{{cite book |author-link=Jacques Berlinerblau |last=Berlinerblau |first=Jacques |title=How to be Secular |publisher=Houghton Mifflin Harcourt |page=xvi}} [41] => [42] => In accord with the belief in the separation of church and state, secularists tend to prefer that politicians make decisions for secular rather than religious reasons.Feldman Noah (2005). pp. 6–8. In this respect, policy decisions pertaining to topics like [[abortion]], [[Birth control|contraception]], [[embryonic stem cell]] research, [[same-sex marriage]], and [[sex education]] are prominently focused upon by American secularist organisations such as the [[Center for Inquiry]].{{cite news |newspaper=The Washington Post |date=November 15, 2006 |last=Kaufman |first=Marc |url=https://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/14/AR2006111401176.html |title=Think Tank Will Promote Thinking |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171029121345/http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2006/11/14/AR2006111401176.html |archive-date=2017-10-29 }}{{cite web |url=http://www.cfidc.org/declaration.html |title=Declaration in Defense of Science and Secularism |publisher=Cfidc.org |access-date=2011-03-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090117073312/http://www.cfidc.org/declaration.html |archive-date=2009-01-17 |url-status=dead }} Religious fundamentalists often oppose a secular form of government, arguing that it contradicts the character of historically religious nations, or infringes on their rights to express themselves in the public sphere. In the United States, for example, the word "secularism" became equivalent to "anti-religion" due to such efforts.{{cite news|url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/jacques-berlinerblau/secularism-is-not-atheism_b_1699588.html|first=Jacques |last=Berlinerblau|title=Secularism Is Not Atheism|work=[[The Huffington Post]]|date=2012-07-28|access-date=2013-05-27|archive-date=2017-10-18|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171018101452/https://www.huffingtonpost.com/jacques-berlinerblau/secularism-is-not-atheism_b_1699588.html|url-status=live}} Religious minorities, however, often support secularism as a means of defending their rights against the majority.Feldman, Noah (2005). p. 13. [43] => [44] => State secularism is most often associated with the [[Age of Enlightenment]] in Europe and it plays a major role in [[Western culture|Western society]]. Some of the most well known examples for states considered "constitutionally secular" are the United States, France,{{Cite web |url=https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/coming-to-france/france-facts/secularism-and-religious-freedom-in-france-63815/article/secularism-and-religious-freedom-in-france |title=Secularism and Religious Freedom in France |access-date=2020-10-26 |archive-date=2020-10-30 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201030014337/https://www.diplomatie.gouv.fr/en/coming-to-france/france-facts/secularism-and-religious-freedom-in-france-63815/article/secularism-and-religious-freedom-in-france |url-status=live }} Turkey, India, Mexico,Schmitt (1962); Blancarte (2006). and South Korea, though none of these nations have identical forms of governance with respect to religion. For example, in India, secularism does not completely separate state and religion, while in France, secularism precludes such mutual involvement.{{Cite journal|last=Das Acevedo|first=Veena|date=27 December 2018|title=Secularism in the Indian Context|url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/law-and-social-inquiry/article/secularism-in-the-indian-context/54DC764998B762B94326B7F8035ECB85|journal=Law & Social Inquiry|volume=38|pages=139|access-date=15 May 2020|archive-date=2 November 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102223852/https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/law-and-social-inquiry/article/secularism-in-the-indian-context/54DC764998B762B94326B7F8035ECB85|url-status=live}}{{Cite web|title=LAÏCITÉ: A MODEL OR A THREAT FOR FREEDOM OF RELIGION?|url=https://www.religiousfreedominstitute.org/cornerstone/lacit-a-model-or-a-threat-for-freedom-of-religion|website=Religious Freedom Institute|date=24 May 2019 |language=en-US|access-date=2020-05-15|archive-date=2020-08-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807020142/https://www.religiousfreedominstitute.org/cornerstone/lacit-a-model-or-a-threat-for-freedom-of-religion|url-status=live}} [45] => [46] => === Frameworks === [47] => Separationist secularism enforces the separation of church and state. Under this system, the state does not support any religious group and does not enforce religious laws. Challenges facing separationist secularism include how the government should regulate secular activities of religious groups and how to govern separately from religion when citizens, including government employees, are religious. The [[federal judiciary of the United States]] interpreted the [[Constitution of the United States|United States Constitution]] as supporting this system during the 20th century, based on the ideas of John Locke and Thomas Jefferson.{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=53–62}} [48] => [49] => ''Laïcité'' is a secularist framework developed and used in France. Under this system, the state has legal supremacy over religion and enforces the restriction of religion in the public sphere. It was established by a [[1905 French law on the Separation of the Churches and the State|1905 law]], and subsequent laws have restricted the use of religious iconography in public or by children.{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=64–65}} Kemalist secularism, or ''laiklik'', is an adaptation of ''laïcité'' that Mustafa Kemal Atatürk established in Turkey in the 1920s and 1930s.{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=112–116}} [50] => [51] => [[Accommodationism]] is a system of actively supporting religion in general without favouring a specific religious sect. Under this system, the state applies few restrictions to religion and often provides religious organisations with financial support. India uses this system, incorporating Western ideas of secularism in combination with the Indian tradition of religious and ethnic pluralism. One source of disagreement regarding accommodationism in India is the right of Muslims to live under both the civil code and Sharia simultaneously and the complications that result from this. Accommodationism also has a [[Accommodationism in the United States|history in the United States]], and the U.S. has increasingly moved toward accommodationism in the 21st century.{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=76–}} [52] => [53] => [[State atheism]] is a total ban on religion. Under this system, the state enforces laws that do not allow religious practice or the expression of religious beliefs in society. Unlike other secularist frameworks, state atheism does not permit freedom of thought or the separation of government from personal belief. Because of this distinction, state atheism may or may not be considered a form of secularism. It is typically associated with [[Marxism]] and [[Communist state]]s, in which it is described as "[[Marxist–Leninist atheism|scientific atheism]]".{{Sfn|Berlinerblau|2021|pp=99–110}} [54] => [55] => == Secular society == [56] => In studies of religion, modern [[democracy|democracies]] are generally recognised as secular. This is due to the near-complete freedom of religion (religious beliefs generally are not subject to legal or social sanctions), and the lack of authority of religious leaders over political decisions. Nevertheless, it has been claimed that surveys done by [[Pew Research Center]] show Americans as generally being more comfortable with religion playing a major role in public life, while in Europe the impact of the church on public life is declining.{{cite web |url=http://www.pewforum.org/2005/04/21/secular-europe-and-religious-america-implications-for-transatlantic-relations/ |title=Secular Europe and Religious America: Implications for Transatlantic Relations |date=2005-04-21 |website=Pew Research Center |access-date=4 July 2018 |archive-date=2018-07-04 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180704153201/http://www.pewforum.org/2005/04/21/secular-europe-and-religious-america-implications-for-transatlantic-relations/ |url-status=live }} [57] => [58] => Most societies become increasingly secular as the result of social, economic development and [[progress]], rather than through the actions of a dedicated secular movement.{{Cite journal |last1=Pomona College, US |last2=Lozano |first2=Fernando A. |date=2017 |title=The rise of secularism and its economic consequences |url=https://wol.iza.org/articles/the-rise-of-secularism-and-its-economic-consequences |journal=IZA World of Labor |doi=10.15185/izawol.384 |doi-access=free |access-date=2022-06-27 |archive-date=2022-05-22 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522035939/https://wol.iza.org/articles/the-rise-of-secularism-and-its-economic-consequences |url-status=live |hdl=10419/171192 |hdl-access=free }} Modern [[sociology]] has, since [[Max Weber]], often been preoccupied with the problem of [[authority]] in secularised societies and with secularisation as a sociological or historical process.''The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism'', Max Weber, London, Routledge Classics, 2001, pp. 123–25. Contemporary ethical debate in the West is often described as "secular", as it is detached from religious considerations. Twentieth-century scholars, whose work has contributed to the understanding of these matters, include [[Carl L. Becker]], [[Karl Löwith]], [[Hans Blumenberg]], [[M. H. Abrams]], [[Peter L. Berger]], [[Paul Bénichou]] and [[D. L. Munby]], among others. [59] => [60] => There is not one singular secular culture, as different people identify as secularists for different reasons and under different belief systems. Secularism is typically associated with [[progressivism]] and [[social liberalism]]. In democratic countries, middle and upper class white urban males with high education are more likely to identify as secularist than any other demographic group. In societies where secularism is more common, such as in Western Europe, demographics of secularists are closer to even. How a society considers what is secular may also change, where nominally spiritual beliefs become part of public or private life without being recognised as religious. As secularists are a minority in most communities, secularism is often stigmatised. Proponents of religious society challenge secular society on the basis of morality, saying that secularism lacks a meaningful way to incentivise moral behaviour among its members.{{Cite book |last=Smith |first=Jesse M. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Secularism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |editor-last=Zuckerman |editor-first=Phil |chapter=Secular Living: Many Paths, Many Meanings |editor-last2=Shook |editor-first2=John R.}} [61] => [62] => == Secular philosophy == [63] => Secularism is considered in [[political philosophy]] and [[philosophy of religion]]. As a philosophy, secularism is closely associated with naturalism and materialism, rejecting consideration of immaterial or supernatural substances, such as a soul, in favour of a material universe.Yaniv Roznai citing Domenic Marbaniang in "Negotiating the Eternal: The Paradox of Entrenching Secularism in Constitutions", ''[[Michigan State Law Review]]'' 253, 2017, p. 324 This secular materialism and rationalism forms the basis of most modern empirical science.{{Cite journal |last=Farman |first=Abou |date=2013 |title=Speculative Matter: Secular Bodies, Minds, and Persons |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/cuan.12035 |journal=Cultural Anthropology |volume=28 |issue=4 |pages=737–759 |doi=10.1111/cuan.12035}} During the Age of Enlightenment, liberal European philosophers such as [[Baruch Spinoza]], [[John Locke]], [[Montesquieu]], [[Voltaire]], [[David Hume]], [[Adam Smith]], and [[Jean-Jacques Rousseau]] all proposed various forms of separation of church and state.{{sfn|Copson|2019|loc=Secularism in Western Societies}} The work of well known moral philosophers such as [[Derek Parfit]] and [[Peter Singer]], and even the whole field of contemporary bioethics, have been described as explicitly secular or non-religious.{{Cite book |author-link=Derek Parfit |last=Parfit |first=Derek |title=Reasons and persons |date=1984 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-19-824615-2 |location=Oxford [Oxfordshire] |ol=3172889M |id=0198246153}}{{cite web |author-link=Brian Leiter |last=Leiter |first=Brian |url=http://leiterreports.typepad.com/blog/2009/06/is-secular-moral-theory-really-relatively-young.html |title=Is "Secular Moral Theory" Really Relatively Young? |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180405141814/http://leiterreports.typepad.com/blog/2009/06/is-secular-moral-theory-really-relatively-young.html|archive-date=2018-04-05 |work=Leiter Reports: A Philosophy Blog |date=June 28, 2009}}{{cite journal |author-link=Richard Dawkins |last=Dawkins |first=Richard |url=http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library&page=dawkins_18_2 |url-status=dead |title=When Religion Steps on Science's Turf: The Alleged Separation Between the Two Is Not So Tidy |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061225041316/http://www.secularhumanism.org/index.php?section=library|archive-date=2006-12-25 |journal=Free Inquiry |volume=18 |number=2}}{{Cite journal |last1=Solomon |first1=D. |year=2005 |title=Christian Bioethics, Secular Bioethics, and the Claim to Cultural Authority |journal=Christian Bioethics |volume=11 |issue=3 |pages=349–59 |doi=10.1080/13803600500501571 |pmid=16423736}} [64] => [65] => A major issue considered by secular philosophy is the nature of morality in a material universe. [[Secular ethics]] and [[secular morality]] describe systems of right and wrong that do not depend on religious or supernatural concepts. Much of the philosophy of [[Friedrich Nietzsche]] is developed in response to this issue. Under secular ethics, good is typically defined as that which contributes to "human flourishing and justice" rather than an abstract or idealised conception of good. Secular ethics are often considered within the frame of humanism.{{Cite book |last=Teehan |first=John |title=The Oxford Handbook of Secularism |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |editor-last=Zuckerman |editor-first=Phil |chapter=Ethics, Secular and Religious: An Evolved-Cognitive Analysis |editor-last2=Shook |editor-first2=John R.}} [66] => [67] => === Secularism in late 20th century political philosophy === [68] => It can be seen by many of the organisations (NGOs) for secularism that they prefer to define ''secularism'' as the common ground for all [[life stance]] groups, religious or atheistic, to thrive in a society that honours freedom of speech and conscience. An example of that is the [[National Secular Society]] in the UK. This is a common understanding of what secularism stands for among many of its activists throughout the world. However, many scholars of Christianity and conservative politicians seem to interpret secularism more often than not, as an antithesis of religion and an attempt to push religion out of society and replace it with atheism or a void of values, [[nihilism]]. This dual aspect (as noted above in "Secular ethics") has created difficulties in political discourse on the subject. It seems that most political theorists in philosophy following the landmark work of [[John Rawls]]' ''[[A Theory of Justice]]'' in 1971 and its following book, ''[[Political Liberalism]]'' (1993),{{Cite book|last=Rawls |first=John |author-link=John Rawls |title=Political Liberalism: Expanded Edition|date=2011-01-01|publisher=Columbia University Press|isbn=978-0-231-52753-8|pages=457|oclc=948824118}} would rather use the conjoined concept ''[[overlapping consensus]]'' rather than secularism. In the latter Rawls holds the idea of an overlapping consensus as one of three main ideas of [[Classical liberalism|political liberalism]]. He argues that the term ''secularism'' cannot apply;
But what is a secular argument? Some think of any argument that is reflective and critical, publicly intelligible and rational, as a secular argument; [...], Nevertheless, a central feature of political liberalism is that it views all such arguments the same way it views religious ones, and therefore these secular philosophical doctrines do not provide public reasons. Secular concepts and reasoning of this kind belong to [[Metaphysics|first philosophy]] and [[Ethics|moral doctrine]], and fall outside the domain of the political.
Still, Rawl's theory is akin to Holyoake's vision of a tolerant democracy that treats all [[life stance]] groups alike. Rawl's idea it that it is in everybody's own interest to endorse "a reasonable constitutional democracy" with "principles of toleration". His work has been highly influential on scholars in political philosophy and his term, ''overlapping consensus'', seems to have for many parts replaced ''secularism'' among them. In textbooks on modern political philosophy, like Colin Farrelly's, ''An Introduction to Contemporary Political Theory'',{{Cite book|title=Contemporary political theory: a reader|last=Farrelly |first=Colin Patrick |date=2004-01-01|publisher=Sage|isbn=978-0-7619-4908-4|oclc=290530058}} and Will Kymlicka's, ''Contemporary Political Philosophy'',{{Cite book|title=Contemporary political philosophy: an introduction |first=Will|last=Kymlicka|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-878274-2|oclc=611694157|year=2002}} the term secularism is not even indexed and in the former it can be seen only in one footnote. However, there is no shortage of discussion and coverage of the topic it involves. It is just called ''overlapping consensus, [[Pluralism (philosophy)|pluralism]]'', ''[[multiculturalism]]'' or expressed in some other way. In The ''Oxford Handbook of Political Theory'',{{Cite book|title=The Oxford handbook of political theory|last1=Dryzek |first1=John S.|first2=Bonnie|last2=Honig|date=2009-01-01|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-927003-3|pages=636|oclc=474737332}} there is one chapter called "Political secularism", by [[Rajeev Bhargava]]. It covers secularism in a global context, and starts with this sentence: "Secularism is a beleaguered doctrine." [69] => [70] => == See also == [71] => * [[Desecularization]] [72] => * [[Postsecularism]] [73] => * [[Pseudo-secularism]] [74] => * [[Secular liberalism]] [75] => [76] => == References == [77] => {{reflist}} [78] => [79] => == Bibliography == [80] => [81] => * {{Cite book |last=Berlinerblau |first=Jacques |author-link=Jacques Berlinerblau |title=Secularism: The Basics |publisher=Routledge |year=2021 |isbn=9780367691578 |edition=1st}} [82] => * {{Cite book |last=Copson |first=Andrew |author-link=Andrew Copson |title=Secularism: A Very Short Introduction |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2019 |isbn=9780198747222 }} [83] => [84] => == Further reading == [85] => {{Refbegin|40em}} [86] => * [[Paul Cliteur|Cliteur, Paul]] (2010). ''The Secular Outlook: In Defense of Moral and Political Secularism.'' {{ISBN|978-1-4443-3521-7}} [87] => * [[Susan Jacoby|Jacoby, Susan]] (2004). ''Freethinkers: a History of American Secularism''. New York: Metropolitan Books. {{ISBN|0-8050-7442-2}} [88] => * [[Talal Asad|Asad, Talal]] (2003). ''Formations Of The Secular: Christianity, Islam, Modernity''. Stanford University Press. {{ISBN|0-8047-4768-7}} [89] => * Taylor, Charles (2007). ''A Secular Age''. Cambridge: The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-674-02676-6}} [90] => * Kosmin, Barry A. and Ariela Keysar (2007). ''Secularism and Secularity: Contemporary International Perspectives''. Institute for the Study of Secularism in Society and Culture. {{ISBN|978-0-9794816-0-4|0-9794816-0-0}} [91] => * Martin, David (2005). ''On Secularization: Towards a Revised General Theory''. Aldershot: Ashgate. {{ISBN|0-7546-5322-6}} [92] => * [[Iain Benson|Benson, Iain]] (2004). ''Considering Secularism'' in Farrows, Douglas(ed.). ''Recognizing Religion in a Secular Society'' McGill-Queens Press. {{ISBN|0-7735-2812-1}} [93] => * [[Jacques Berlinerblau|Berlinerblau, Jacques]] (2012) "How to be Secular: A Call to Arms for Religious Freedom" {{ISBN|978-0-547-47334-5}} [94] => * Cinar, Alev (2006). ''Modernity, Islam, and Secularism in Turkey: Bodies, Places, and Time''. University of Minnesota Press. {{ISBN|0-8166-4411-X}} [95] => * [[Greg Urban|Urban, Greg]] (2008). ''The circulation of secularism.'' [https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10767-008-9040-x ''International Journal of Politics, Culture and Society''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201102223853/https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s10767-008-9040-x |date=2020-11-02 }}, Vol. 21, (1–4), December. pp. 17–37. [96] => {{Refend}} [97] => [98] => == External links == [99] => {{Library resources box|by=no|onlinebooks=no|about=yes|wikititle=secularism}} [100] => {{Wiktionary|secularism}} [101] => {{Wikiquote}} [102] => * [[Iain Benson]] [https://ssrn.com/abstract=1654427 "Considering Secularism"] [103] => * Steven Kettell, ''[https://oxfordre.com/politics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780190228637.001.0001/acrefore-9780190228637-e-898 Secularism and Religion]'', Oxford Research Encyclopedias. [104] => [105] => {{Relpolnav}} [106] => {{Authority control}} [107] => [108] => {{Portal bar|Political science}} [109] => [110] => [[Category:Secularism| ]] [111] => [[Category:Political philosophy]] [112] => [[Category:Religion and politics]] [113] => [[Category:1851 neologisms]] [] => )
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Secularism

Secularism is a philosophy that upholds the separation of religious and governmental institutions. It promotes the idea of a neutral public sphere, in which individuals of different religious beliefs, as well as those who do not adhere to any religion, are treated equally by the state.

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It promotes the idea of a neutral public sphere, in which individuals of different religious beliefs, as well as those who do not adhere to any religion, are treated equally by the state. The concept of secularism originated during the European Enlightenment as a reaction against the dominance of the Church over political and social life. It gained prominence during the 19th and 20th centuries, particularly as societies became more diverse and religious conflicts intensified. Secularism advocates for the freedom of religion, as well as the freedom from religion, recognizing the right of individuals to hold their own beliefs or lack thereof. This approach aims to ensure that no religion receives preferential treatment or imposes its beliefs on others through the state. However, secularism does not promote atheism or the eradication of religion altogether, but rather emphasizes religious pluralism and the pursuit of common values that are independent of religious doctrine. It is a foundational principle in many modern democratic societies, guaranteeing equal rights and protection for all citizens, regardless of their religious affiliation.

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