Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Human vocal communication using spoken language}} [1] => {{About||the process of speaking to a group of people|Public speaking|other uses}} [2] => [[File:Real-time MRI - Speaking (English).ogv|thumb|Speech production visualized by [[Real-time MRI]]]] [3] => {{Linguistics}} [4] => [5] => '''Speech''' is a [[human voice|human vocal]] [[communication]] using [[language]]. Each language uses [[Phonetics|phonetic]] combinations of [[vowel]] and [[consonant]] sounds that form the sound of its words (that is, all English words sound different from all French words, even if they are the same word, e.g., "role" or "hotel"), and using those words in their semantic character as words in the [[lexicon]] of a language according to the [[Syntax|syntactic]] constraints that [[Governance|govern]] lexical words' function in a sentence. In speaking, speakers perform many different intentional [[speech act]]s, e.g., informing, declaring, asking, persuading, directing, and can use [[Elocution|enunciation]], [[Intonation (linguistics)|intonation]], degrees of [[loudness]], [[Speech tempo|tempo]], and other non-representational or [[Paralanguage|paralinguistic]] aspects of vocalization to convey meaning. In their speech, speakers also unintentionally communicate many aspects of their social position such as sex, age, place of origin (through [[Accent (sociolinguistics)|accent]]), physical states (alertness and sleepiness, vigor or weakness, health or illness), psychological states (emotions or moods), physico-psychological states (sobriety or [[Alcohol intoxication|drunkenness]], normal consciousness and [[trance]] states), education or experience, and the like. [6] => [7] => Although people ordinarily use speech in dealing with other persons (or animals), when people [[Profanity|swear]] they do not always mean to communicate anything to anyone, and sometimes in expressing urgent emotions or desires they use speech as a quasi-magical cause, as when they encourage a player in a game to do or warn them not to do something. There are also many situations in which people engage in solitary speech. People [[Talking to oneself|talk to themselves]] sometimes in acts that are a development of what some [[psychologist]]s (e.g., [[Lev Vygotsky]]) have maintained is the use of silent speech in an [[Stream of consciousness (psychology)|interior monologue]] to vivify and organize [[cognition]], sometimes in the momentary adoption of a dual persona as self addressing self as though addressing another person. Solo speech can be used [[Memorization|to memorize]] or to test one's memorization of things, and in [[prayer]] or in [[meditation]] (e.g., the use of a [[mantra]]). [8] => [9] => Researchers study many different aspects of speech: speech production and [[speech perception]] of the [[sound]]s used in a language, [[speech repetition]], [[speech error]]s, the ability to map heard spoken words onto the vocalizations needed to recreate them, which plays a key role in [[children]]'s enlargement of their [[vocabulary]], and what different areas of the [[human brain]], such as [[Broca's area]] and [[Wernicke's area]], underlie speech. Speech is the subject of study for [[linguistics]], [[cognitive science]], [[communication studies]], [[psychology]], [[computer science]], [[speech pathology]], [[otolaryngology]], and [[acoustics]]. [10] => Speech compares with [[written language]],{{Cite web |title=Speech |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=speech |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807131309/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=speech |archive-date=2020-08-07 |access-date=2018-09-13 |website=American Heritage Dictionary}} which may differ in its vocabulary, syntax, and phonetics from the spoken language, a situation called [[diglossia]]. [11] => [12] => The evolutionary [[origin of language|origins of speech]] are unknown and subject to much debate and [[speculation]]. While [[Animal language|animals also communicate]] using vocalizations, and trained [[apes]] such as [[Washoe (chimpanzee)|Washoe]] and [[Kanzi]] can use simple [[sign language]], no animals' vocalizations are articulated phonemically and syntactically, and do not constitute speech. [13] => [14] => ==Evolution== [15] => {{main|Origin of speech}} [16] => Although related to the more general problem of the [[origin of language]], the [[evolution]] of distinctively human speech capacities has become a distinct and in many ways separate area of scientific research.{{Cite journal |last=Hockett |first=Charles F. |author-link=Charles F. Hockett |year=1960 |title=The Origin of Speech |url=http://www.gifted.ucalgary.ca/dflynn/files/dflynn/Hockett60.pdf |url-status=dead |journal=[[Scientific American]] |volume=203 |issue=3 |pages=88–96 |bibcode=1960SciAm.203c..88H |doi=10.1038/scientificamerican0960-88 |pmid=14402211 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140106173517/http://www.gifted.ucalgary.ca/dflynn/files/dflynn/Hockett60.pdf |archive-date=2014-01-06 |access-date=2014-01-06}}{{Cite book |last=Corballis |first=Michael C. |url=https://archive.org/details/fromhandtomoutho0000corb |title=From hand to mouth : the origins of language |publisher=Princeton University Press |year=2002 |isbn=978-0-691-08803-7 |location=Princeton |oclc=469431753 |author-link=Michael Corballis |url-access=registration}}{{Cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Philip |title=The biology and evolution of language |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=1984 |isbn=9780674074132 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |oclc=10071298}}{{Cite book |last=Lieberman |first=Philip |title=Human language and our reptilian brain : the subcortical bases of speech, syntax, and thought |journal=Perspectives in Biology and Medicine |publisher=Harvard University Press |year=2000 |isbn=9780674002265 |volume=44 |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |pages=32–51 |doi=10.1353/pbm.2001.0011 |oclc=43207451 |pmid=11253303 |author-link=Philip Lieberman |issue=1 |s2cid=38780927}}{{Cite journal |last1=Abry |first1=Christian |last2=Boë |first2=Louis-Jean |last3=Laboissière |first3=Rafael |last4=Schwartz |first4=Jean-Luc |year=1998 |title=A new puzzle for the evolution of speech? |journal=[[Behavioral and Brain Sciences]] |volume=21 |issue=4 |pages=512–513 |doi=10.1017/S0140525X98231268 |s2cid=145180611}} The topic is a separate one because language is not necessarily spoken: it can equally be [[Written language|written]] or [[Sign language|signed]]. Speech is in this sense optional, although it is the default modality for language. [17] => [[Image:Places of articulation.svg|thumb|Places of articulation (passive and active):
1. Exo-labial, 2. Endo-labial, 3. Dental, 4. Alveolar, 5. Post-alveolar, 6. Pre-palatal, 7. Palatal, 8. Velar, 9. Uvular, 10. Pharyngeal, 11. Glottal, 12. Epiglottal, 13. Radical, 14. Postero-dorsal, 15. Antero-dorsal, 16. Laminal, 17. Apical, 18. Sub-apical]] [18] => [19] => [[Monkey]]s, non-human [[ape]]s and humans, like many other animals, have evolved specialised mechanisms for producing ''sound'' for purposes of social communication.Kelemen, G. (1963). Comparative anatomy and performance of the vocal organ in vertebrates. In R. Busnel (ed.), ''Acoustic behavior of animals.'' Amsterdam: Elsevier, pp. 489–521. On the other hand, no monkey or ape uses its ''tongue'' for such purposes.{{Cite journal |last1=Riede |first1=T. |last2=Bronson |first2=E. |last3=Hatzikirou |first3=H. |last4=Zuberbühler |first4=K. |date=Jan 2005 |title=Vocal production mechanisms in a non-human primate: morphological data and a model. |url=http://doc.rero.ch/record/278428/files/Riede_T.-Vocal_production_20170126133920-UY.pdf |url-status=live |journal=[[J Hum Evol]] |volume=48 |issue=1 |pages=85–96 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2004.10.002 |pmid=15656937 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220812175036/http://doc.rero.ch/record/278428/files/Riede_T.-Vocal_production_20170126133920-UY.pdf |archive-date=2022-08-12 |access-date=2022-08-12}}{{Cite journal |last1=Riede |first1=T. |last2=Bronson |first2=E. |last3=Hatzikirou |first3=H. |last4=Zuberbühler |first4=K. |date=February 2006 |title=Multiple discontinuities in nonhuman vocal tracts – A reply |journal=Journal of Human Evolution |volume=50 |issue=2 |pages=222–225 |doi=10.1016/j.jhevol.2005.10.005}} The human species' unprecedented use of the tongue, lips and other moveable parts seems to place speech in a quite separate category, making its evolutionary emergence an intriguing theoretical challenge in the eyes of many scholars.{{Cite journal |last=Fitch |first=W.Tecumseh |date=July 2000 |title=The evolution of speech: a comparative review |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=4 |issue=7 |pages=258–267 |citeseerx=10.1.1.22.3754 |doi=10.1016/S1364-6613(00)01494-7 |pmid=10859570 |s2cid=14706592}} [20] => [21] => Determining the timeline of human speech evolution is made additionally challenging by the lack of data in the fossil record. The human [[vocal tract]] does not fossilize, and indirect evidence of vocal tract changes in hominid fossils has proven inconclusive. [22] => [23] => == Production == [24] => {{main|Speech production|Linguistics}} [25] => [26] => Speech production is an unconscious multi-step process by which thoughts are generated into spoken utterances. Production involves the unconscious mind selecting appropriate words and the appropriate form of those words from the lexicon and morphology, and the organization of those words through the syntax. Then, the phonetic properties of the words are retrieved and the sentence is articulated through the articulations associated with those phonetic properties.{{Cite journal |last=Levelt |first=Willem J. M. |year=1999 |title=Models of word production |journal=Trends in Cognitive Sciences |volume=3 |issue=6 |pages=223–32 |doi=10.1016/s1364-6613(99)01319-4 |pmid=10354575 |s2cid=7939521}} [27] => [28] => In [[linguistics]], [[articulatory phonetics]] is the study of how the tongue, lips, jaw, vocal cords, and other speech organs are used to make sounds. Speech sounds are categorized by [[manner of articulation]] and [[place of articulation]]. Place of articulation refers to where in the neck or mouth the airstream is constricted. Manner of articulation refers to the manner in which the speech organs interact, such as how closely the air is restricted, what form of airstream is used (e.g. [[Pulmonic consonant|pulmonic]], implosive, ejectives, and clicks), whether or not the vocal cords are vibrating, and whether the nasal cavity is opened to the airstream.{{Cite book |last1=Catford |first1=J.C. |title=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |last2=Esling |first2=J.H. |publisher=Elsevier Science |year=2006 |editor-last=Brown |editor-first=Keith |edition=2nd |location=Amsterdam |pages=425–42 |chapter=Articulatory Phonetics}} The concept is primarily used for the production of [[consonant]]s, but can be used for [[vowels]] in qualities such as [[Voicing (phonetics)|voicing]] and [[nasalization]]. For any place of articulation, there may be several manners of articulation, and therefore several [[homorganic]] consonants. [29] => [30] => Normal human speech is pulmonic, produced with pressure from the [[lung]]s, which creates [[phonation]] in the [[glottis]] in the [[larynx]], which is then modified by the vocal tract and mouth into different vowels and consonants. However humans can pronounce words without the use of the lungs and glottis in [[alaryngeal speech]], of which there are three types: [[esophageal speech]], pharyngeal speech and buccal speech (better known as [[Donald Duck talk]]). [31] => [32] => === Errors === [33] => {{main|Speech error}} [34] => [35] => Speech production is a complex activity, and as a consequence errors are common, especially in children. Speech errors come in many forms and are used to provide evidence to support hypotheses about the nature of speech.{{Cite book |last=Fromkin |first=Victoria |title=Speech Errors as Linguistic Evidence |publisher=Mouton |year=1973 |location=The Hague |pages=11–46 |chapter=Introduction}} As a result, speech errors are often used in the construction of models for language production and [[Language acquisition|child language acquisition]]. For example, the fact that children often make the error of over-regularizing the -ed past tense suffix in English (e.g. saying 'singed' instead of 'sang') shows that the regular forms are acquired earlier.{{Cite journal |last1=Plunkett |first1=Kim |last2=Juola |first2=Patrick |year=1999 |title=A connectionist model of english past tense and plural morphology |journal=Cognitive Science |volume=23 |issue=4 |pages=463–90 |citeseerx=10.1.1.545.3746 |doi=10.1207/s15516709cog2304_4}}{{Cite journal |last1=Nicoladis |first1=Elena |last2=Paradis |first2=Johanne |year=2012 |title=Acquiring Regular and Irregular Past Tense Morphemes in English and French: Evidence From Bilingual Children |journal=Language Learning |volume=62 |issue=1 |pages=170–97 |doi=10.1111/j.1467-9922.2010.00628.x}} Speech errors associated with certain kinds of aphasia have been used to map certain components of speech onto the brain and see the relation between different aspects of production; for example, the difficulty of [[expressive aphasia]] patients in producing regular past-tense verbs, but not irregulars like 'sing-sang' has been used to demonstrate that regular inflected forms of a word are not individually stored in the lexicon, but produced from affixation to the base form.{{Cite journal |last=Ullman |first=Michael T. |display-authors=etal |year=2005 |title=Neural correlates of lexicon and grammar: Evidence from the production,reading, and judgement of inflection in aphasia. |journal=Brain and Language |volume=93 |issue=2 |pages=185–238 |doi=10.1016/j.bandl.2004.10.001 |pmid=15781306 |s2cid=14991615}} [36] => [37] => ==Perception== [38] => {{main|Speech perception}} [39] => [40] => Speech perception refers to the processes by which humans can interpret and understand the sounds used in language. The study of speech perception is closely linked to the fields of [[phonetics]] and [[phonology]] in linguistics and cognitive psychology and perception in psychology. Research in speech perception seeks to understand how listeners recognize speech sounds and use this information to understand [[spoken language]]. Research into speech perception also has applications in building [[speech recognition|computer systems that can recognize speech]], as well as improving speech recognition for hearing- and language-impaired listeners.{{Cite book |last=Kennison |first=Shelia |title=Introduction to Language Development |publisher=Sage. |year=2013 |location=Los Angeles}} [41] => [42] => Speech perception is [[Categorical perception|categorical]], in that people put the sounds they hear into categories rather than perceiving them as a spectrum. People are more likely to be able to hear differences in sounds across categorical boundaries than within them. A good example of this is [[Voice-onset time|voice onset time]] (VOT), one aspect of the phonetic production of consonant sounds. For example, Hebrew speakers, who distinguish voiced /b/ from voiceless /p/, will more easily detect a change in VOT from -10 ( perceived as /b/ ) to 0 ( perceived as /p/ ) than a change in VOT from +10 to +20, or -10 to -20, despite this being an equally large change on the VOT spectrum.{{Cite journal |last1=Kishon-Rabin |first1=Liat |last2=Rotshtein |first2=Shira |last3=Taitelbaum |first3=Riki |year=2002 |title=Underlying Mechanism for Categorical Perception: Tone-Onset Time and Voice-Onset Time Evidence of Hebrew Voicing |journal=Journal of Basic and Clinical Physiology and Pharmacology |volume=13 |issue=2 |pages=117–34 |doi=10.1515/jbcpp.2002.13.2.117 |pmid=16411426 |s2cid=9986779}} [43] => [44] => == Development == [45] => [46] => {{main|Language development}} [47] => [48] => Most human children develop proto-speech babbling behaviors when they are four to six months old. Most will begin saying their first words at some point during the first year of life. Typical children progress through two or three word phrases before three years of age followed by short sentences by four years of age.{{Cite web |title=Speech and Language Developmental Milestones |url=https://www.nidcd.nih.gov/health/speech-and-language |website=National Institute on Deafness and Other Communication Disorders |date=13 October 2022 |publisher=National Insistitutes of Health |language=en}} [49] => [50] => ===Repetition=== [51] => {{main|Speech repetition}} [52] => [53] => In speech repetition, speech being heard is quickly turned from sensory input into motor instructions needed for its immediate or delayed vocal imitation (in [[Baddeley's model of working memory#Phonological loop|phonological memory]]). This type of mapping plays a key role in enabling children to expand their spoken vocabulary. Masur (1995) found that how often children repeat novel words versus those they already have in their lexicon is related to the size of their lexicon later on, with young children who repeat more novel words having a larger lexicon later in development. Speech repetition could help facilitate the acquisition of this larger lexicon.{{Cite journal |last=Masur |first=Elise |year=1995 |title=Infants' Early Verbal Imitation and Their Later Lexical Development |journal=Merrill-Palmer Quarterly |volume=41 |issue=3 |pages=286–306}} [54] => [55] => ==Problems== [56] => [57] => {{See also|Speech disorder}} [58] => {{More medical citations needed|section|date=August 2022}} [59] => [60] => There are several organic and psychological factors that can affect speech. Among these are: [61] => [62] => # Diseases and disorders of the [[lung]]s or the [[vocal cords]], including [[paralysis]], respiratory infections (bronchitis), [[vocal fold nodules]] and [[cancer]]s of the lungs and throat. [63] => # Diseases and disorders of the [[Human brain|brain]], including [[alogia]], [[aphasia]]s, [[dysarthria]], [[dystonia]] and [[speech processing]] disorders, where impaired [[motor planning]], nerve transmission, phonological processing or perception of the message (as opposed to the actual sound) leads to poor speech production. [64] => # Hearing problems, such as [[otitis media|otitis media with effusion]], and listening problems, [[auditory processing disorder]]s, can lead to phonological problems. In addition to [[dysphasia]], [[Anomic aphasia|anomia]] and auditory processing disorder impede the quality of auditory perception, and therefore, expression. Those who are [[deafness|deaf]] or hard of hearing may be considered to fall into this category. [65] => # Articulatory problems, such as slurred speech, [[stuttering]], [[lisp (speech)|lisping]], [[cleft palate]], [[ataxia]], or [[nerve]] damage leading to problems in [[Manner of articulation|articulation]]. [[Tourette syndrome]] and [[tic]]s can also affect speech. Various [[congenital disorder|congenital]] and acquired [[tongue disease]]s can affect speech as can [[motor neuron disease]]. [66] => # [[Psychiatric]] disorders have been shown to change speech acoustic features, where for instance, [[fundamental frequency]] of voice (perceived as pitch) tends to be significantly lower in [[major depressive disorder]] than in healthy controls.{{Cite journal |vauthors=Low DM, Bentley KH, Ghosh, SS |date=2020 |title=Automated assessment of psychiatric disorders using speech: A systematic review |journal=Laryngoscope Investigative Otolaryngology |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages=96–116 |doi=10.1002/lio2.354 |pmc=7042657 |pmid=32128436 |doi-access=free}} Therefore, speech is being investigated as a potential biomarker for mental health disorders. [67] => [68] => Speech and language disorders can also result from stroke,{{Cite journal |last=Richards |first=Emma |date=June 2012 |title=Communication and swallowing problems after stroke |journal=Nursing and Residential Care |volume=14 |issue=6 |pages=282–286 |doi=10.12968/nrec.2012.14.6.282}} brain injury,{{Cite book |title=Brain injury medicine principles and practice |date=2013 |publisher=Demos Medical |isbn=9781617050572 |editor-last=Zasler |editor-first=Nathan D. |edition=2nd |location=New York |pages=1086–1104, 1111–1117 |editor-last2=Katz |editor-first2=Douglas I. |editor-last3=Zafonte |editor-first3=Ross D. |editor-last4=Arciniegas |editor-first4=David B. |editor-last5=Bullock |editor-first5=M. Ross |editor-last6=Kreutzer |editor-first6=Jeffrey S.}} hearing loss,{{Cite journal |last=Ching |first=Teresa Y. C. |date=2015 |title=Is early intervention effective in improving spoken language outcomes of children with congenital hearing loss? |journal=American Journal of Audiology |volume=24 |issue=3 |pages=345–348 |doi=10.1044/2015_aja-15-0007 |pmc=4659415 |pmid=26649545}} developmental delay,{{Cite web |last=The Royal Children's Hospital |first=Melbourne |title=Developmental Delay: An Information Guide for Parents |url=http://www.rch.org.au/uploadedFiles/Main/Content/cdr/Dev_Delay.pdf |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160329131745/http://www.rch.org.au/uploadedFiles/Main/Content/cdr/Dev_Delay.pdf |archive-date=29 March 2016 |access-date=2 May 2016 |website=The Royal Children's Hospital Melbourne }} a cleft palate,{{Cite book |last=Bauman-Waengler |first=Jacqueline |title=Articulatory and phonological impairments: a clinical focus |date=2011 |publisher=Pearson Education |isbn=9780132719957 |edition=4th ed., International |location=Harlow |pages=378–385}} cerebral palsy,{{Cite web |title=Speech and Language Therapy |url=http://www.cerebralpalsy.org/about-cerebral-palsy/treatment/therapy/speech-language-therapy |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160508005427/http://www.cerebralpalsy.org/about-cerebral-palsy/treatment/therapy/speech-language-therapy |archive-date=8 May 2016 |access-date=2 May 2016 |website=CerebralPalsy.org}} or emotional issues.{{Cite book |last=Cross |first=Melanie |title=Children with social, emotional and behavioural difficulties and communication problems: there is always a reason |date=2011 |publisher=Jessica Kingsley Publishers |edition=2nd |location=London}} [69] => [70] => ===Treatment=== [71] => [72] => {{main|Speech–language pathology}} [73] => Speech-related diseases, disorders, and conditions can be treated by a speech-language pathologist (SLP) or speech therapist. SLPs assess levels of speech needs, make diagnoses based on the assessments, and then treat the diagnoses or address the needs.{{Cite web |title=Speech–Language Pathologists |url=http://www.asha.org/Students/Speech-Language-Pathologists/ |access-date=6 April 2015 |website=ASHA.org |publisher=American Speech–Language–Hearing Association}} [74] => [75] => ==Brain physiology== [76] => [77] => === Classical model === [78] => [[File:BrocasAreaSmall.png|thumb|180x180px|Broca's and Wernicke's areas|alt=Diagram of the brain]] [79] => [80] => The classical or [[Wernicke–Geschwind model|Wernicke-Geschwind model]] of the language system in the brain focuses on [[Broca's area]] in the inferior [[prefrontal cortex]], and [[Wernicke's area]] in the posterior [[superior temporal gyrus]] on the [[Lateralization of brain function|dominant hemisphere]] of the brain (typically the left hemisphere for language). In this model, a linguistic auditory signal is first sent from the [[auditory cortex]] to Wernicke's area. The [[lexicon]] is accessed in Wernicke's area, and these words are sent via the [[arcuate fasciculus]] to Broca's area, where morphology, syntax, and instructions for articulation are generated. This is then sent from Broca's area to the [[motor cortex]] for articulation.Kertesz, A. (2005). "Wernicke–Geschwind Model". In L. Nadel, ''Encyclopedia of cognitive science''. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. [81] => [82] => [[Paul Broca]] identified an approximate region of the brain in 1861 which, when damaged in two of his patients, caused severe deficits in speech production, where his patients were unable to speak beyond a few monosyllabic words. This deficit, known as Broca's or [[expressive aphasia]], is characterized by difficulty in speech production where speech is slow and labored, function words are absent, and syntax is severely impaired, as in [[telegraphic speech]]. In expressive aphasia, speech comprehension is generally less affected except in the comprehension of grammatically complex sentences.Hillis, A.E., & Caramazza, A. (2005). "Aphasia". In L. Nadel, ''Encyclopedia of cognitive science''. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley. Wernicke's area is named after [[Carl Wernicke]], who in 1874 proposed a connection between damage to the posterior area of the left superior temporal gyrus and aphasia, as he noted that not all aphasic patients had had damage to the prefrontal cortex.{{Cite book |last=Wernicke K. |title=Reader in the History of Aphasia: From '''sasi'''(Franz Gall to) |publisher=John Benjamins Pub Co |year=1995 |isbn=978-90-272-1893-3 |editor-last=Paul Eling |volume=4 |location=Amsterdam |pages=69–89 |chapter=The aphasia symptom-complex: A psychological study on an anatomical basis (1875)}} Damage to Wernicke's area produces Wernicke's or [[receptive aphasia]], which is characterized by relatively normal syntax and prosody but severe impairment in lexical access, resulting in poor comprehension and nonsensical or [[Jargon aphasia|jargon speech]]. [83] => [84] => === Modern research === [85] => Modern models of the neurological systems behind linguistic comprehension and production recognize the importance of Broca's and Wernicke's areas, but are not limited to them nor solely to the left hemisphere.{{Cite journal |last1=Nakai |first1=Y |last2=Jeong |first2=JW |last3=Brown |first3=EC |last4=Rothermel |first4=R |last5=Kojima |first5=K |last6=Kambara |first6=T |last7=Shah |first7=A |last8=Mittal |first8=S |last9=Sood |first9=S |last10=Asano |first10=E |year=2017 |title=Three- and four-dimensional mapping of speech and language in patients with epilepsy |journal=Brain |volume=140 |issue=5 |pages=1351–70 |doi=10.1093/brain/awx051 |pmc=5405238 |pmid=28334963}} Instead, multiple streams are involved in speech production and comprehension. Damage to the left [[lateral sulcus]] has been connected with difficulty in processing and producing morphology and syntax, while lexical access and comprehension of irregular forms (e.g. eat-ate) remain unaffected.{{Cite book |last1=Tyler |first1=Lorraine K. |title=The Perception of Speech: from sound to meaning |last2=Marslen-Wilson |first2=William |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-19-956131-5 |editor-last=Moore |editor-first=Brian C.J. |location=Oxford |pages=193–217 |chapter=Fronto-temporal brain systems supporting spoken language comprehension |author-link=Lorraine Tyler (academic) |editor-last2=Tyler |editor-first2=Lorraine K. |editor-last3=Marslen-Wilson |editor-first3=William D.}} [86] => Moreover, the circuits involved in human speech comprehension dynamically adapt with learning, for example, by becoming more efficient in terms of processing time when listening to familiar messages such as learned verses.{{Cite journal |last1=Cervantes Constantino |first1=F |last2=Simon |first2=JZ |year=2018 |title=Restoration and Efficiency of the Neural Processing of Continuous Speech Are Promoted by Prior Knowledge |journal=Frontiers in Systems Neuroscience |volume=12 |issue=56 |pages=56 |doi=10.3389/fnsys.2018.00056 |pmc=6220042 |pmid=30429778 |doi-access=free}} [87] => [88] => ==Animal communication== [89] => [90] => {{main|Talking animals}} [91] => Some non-human animals can produce sounds or gestures resembling those of a human language.{{Cite web |date=16 February 2015 |title=Can any animals talk and use language like humans? |url=http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150216-can-any-animals-talk-like-humans |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210131025001/http://www.bbc.com/earth/story/20150216-can-any-animals-talk-like-humans |archive-date=31 January 2021 |access-date=12 August 2022 |website=BBC}} Several species or groups of animals have developed [[animal communication|forms of communication]] which superficially resemble verbal language, however, these usually are not considered a language because they lack one or more of the [[Language#Definitions|defining characteristics]], e.g. [[grammar]], [[syntax]], [[Recursion#Recursion in language|recursion]], and [[Displacement (linguistics)|displacement]]. Researchers have been successful in teaching some animals to make gestures similar to [[sign language]],{{Citation |last1=Hillix |first1=William A. |title=Washoe, the First Signing Chimpanzee |date=2004 |work=Animal Bodies, Human Minds: Ape, Dolphin, and Parrot Language Skills |pages=69–85 |publisher=Springer US |doi=10.1007/978-1-4757-4512-2_5 |isbn=978-1-4419-3400-0 |last2=Rumbaugh |first2=Duane M.}}{{Cite web |last=Hu |first=Jane C. |date=Aug 20, 2014 |title=What Do Talking Apes Really Tell Us? |url=https://slate.com/technology/2014/08/koko-kanzi-and-ape-language-research-criticism-of-working-conditions-and-animal-care.html |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181012060915/http://www.slate.com/articles/health_and_science/science/2014/08/koko_kanzi_and_ape_language_research_criticism_of_working_conditions_and.html |archive-date=October 12, 2018 |access-date=Jan 19, 2020 |website=Slate}} although whether this should be considered a language has been disputed.{{Cite journal |last=Terrace |first=Herbert S. |date=December 1982 |title=Why Koko Can't Talk |journal=The Sciences |volume=22 |issue=9 |pages=8–10 |doi=10.1002/j.2326-1951.1982.tb02120.x |issn=0036-861X}} [92] => [93] => == See also == [94] => {{Portal|Language|Linguistics|Freedom of speech|Society}} [95] => * [[FOXP2]] [96] => * [[Freedom of speech]] [97] => * [[Imagined speech]] [98] => * [[Index of linguistics articles]] [99] => * [[List of language disorders]] [100] => * [[Spatial hearing loss]] [101] => * [[Speechwriter]] [102] => * [[Talking bird]]s [103] => * [[Vocology]] [104] => [105] => ==References== [106] => {{Reflist}} [107] => [108] => ==Further reading== [109] => * {{in lang|fr}} Fitzpatrick, Élizabeth M. ''Apprendre à écouter et à parler''. [[University of Ottawa Press]], 2013. [https://web.archive.org/web/20140424100603/http://130.102.44.245/books/9782760320437?auth=0 Available at] [[Project MUSE]]. [110] => [111] => ==External links== [112] => {{sisterlinks}} [113] => * [https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8XQlIvlWqpo Speaking captured by real-time MRI], [[YouTube]] [114] => {{Communication studies}} [115] => {{Authority control}} [116] => [117] => {{Nonverbal communication}} [118] => [119] => [[Category:Speech| ]] [120] => [[Category:Oral communication| ]] [121] => [[Category:Language]] [122] => [[Category:Animal sounds]] [123] => [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [] => )
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Speech

Speech is the vocalized form of human communication. It is a fundamental aspect of human interaction and plays a crucial role in conveying thoughts, ideas, and emotions.

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It is a fundamental aspect of human interaction and plays a crucial role in conveying thoughts, ideas, and emotions. Speech is a complex process that involves the production and perception of sounds, as well as the understanding and interpretation of language. The study of speech encompasses various disciplines, including linguistics, phonetics, psychology, and communication science. Researchers analyze speech to understand its structure, patterns, and variations, as well as how it is connected to social and cultural contexts. Speech production involves the coordination of various articulatory organs, including the lungs, vocal cords, and articulators like the tongue and lips. These organs work together to produce a stream of sounds that constitute speech. The sounds are produced by manipulating airflow, vocalization, and muscular movements. Speech perception, on the other hand, involves the processing and interpretation of these sounds by the human brain. Listeners use various auditory cues and linguistic knowledge to understand and interpret speech. This process is influenced by factors such as language proficiency, accents, dialects, and individual differences. Speech is a versatile and flexible communication tool that can convey a wide range of information and meanings. It can be used to express thoughts, convey emotions, engage in social interactions, and transmit knowledge. Speech is also closely linked to human identity, culture, and socialization, as it plays a significant role in language acquisition and development. Furthermore, speech has important implications for individuals with speech disorders or communication difficulties. Speech therapists and clinicians work with individuals to improve speech production, fluency, and communication skills through various interventions and therapies. In modern times, speech technology has revolutionized communication by enabling machines and devices to understand and generate speech. Technologies such as speech recognition and synthesis have been widely implemented in various applications, including voice assistants, transcription services, and language translation tools. Overall, speech is a vital aspect of human communication that encompasses various disciplines and has both practical and theoretical implications. Its study and understanding contribute to advancements in linguistics, psychology, technology, and other related fields.

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