Array ( [0] => {{pp-semi-indef|small=yes}} [1] => {{Short description|Mangrove forest in the Bay of Bengal}} [2] => {{Other uses}} [3] => {{EngvarB|date=September 2013}} [4] => {{Use dmy dates |date=December 2020}} [5] => {{Infobox protected area [6] => | name = Sundarbans [7] => | photo = Save the sundarbans 20.jpg [8] => | photo_alt = Sundarbans [9] => | photo_caption = Inside the sundarbans [10] => | photo_width = 300 [11] => | map = South Asia [12] => | map_alt = Sundarbans [13] => | map_caption = Location of the Sundarbans, spanning across the [[Ganges]]-[[Brahmaputra]] delta [14] => | map_width = 300 [15] => | location = [[Khulna Division]], [[Bangladesh]]
[[Presidency division]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]] [16] => | nearest_city = [[Basirhat]], [[Diamond Harbour]], [[Haldia]], [[Khulna]], [[Kolkata]], [[Bagerhat]], [[Patuakhali]], [[Barguna]], [[Satkhira]], [17] => | coordinates = {{coord|21.73318765|N|88.86896612|E|display=inline,title}} [18] => | coords_ref = [19] => | visitation_num = [20] => | visitation_year = [21] => | governing_body = [[Government of Bangladesh]] (66%), [[Government of India]] (34%) [22] => | world_heritage_site = [23] => | embedded = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site [24] => | child = yes [25] => | official_name = The Sundarbans [26] => | location = [[Khulna Division]], [[Bangladesh]] [27] => | includes = {{flatlist| [28] => # [[Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary]] [29] => # [[Sundarbans South Sanctuary]] [30] => # [[Sundarbans East Sanctuary]] [31] => }} [32] => | criteria = {{UNESCO WHS type|(ix)(x)}}(ix)(x) [33] => | ID = 798 [34] => | coordinates = {{coord|21|57|N|89|11|E|format=dms}} [35] => | year = 1997 [36] => | area = {{convert|139500|ha|sqmi|abbr=on}} [37] => | website = [38] => | locmapin = [39] => | map_caption = [40] => }} [41] => {{Designation list [42] => | embed = yes [43] => | designation1 = Ramsar [44] => | designation1_offname = Sundarbans Reserved Forest [45] => | designation1_date = 21 May 1992 [46] => | designation1_number = 560{{Cite web |title=Sundarbans Reserved Forest, Bangladesh |website=[[Ramsar Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/560 |access-date=14 February 2019 |archive-date=13 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211213112741/https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/560 |url-status=live }} [47] => | designation2 = Ramsar [48] => | designation2_offname = Sundarban Wetland [49] => | designation2_date = 30 January 2019 [50] => | designation2_number = 2370{{Cite web |title=Sundarban Wetland, India |website=[[Ramsar Convention|Ramsar]] Sites Information Service |url=https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/2370 |access-date=14 February 2019 |archive-date=19 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220519175050/https://rsis.ramsar.org/ris/2370 |url-status=live }}}} [51] => | embedded2 = {{Infobox UNESCO World Heritage Site [52] => | child = yes [53] => | official_name = Sundarbans National Park [54] => | location = [[Presidency division]], [[West Bengal]], [[India]] [55] => | includes = {{flatlist| [56] => # [[Sundarbans National Park]] [57] => }} [58] => | criteria = {{UNESCO WHS type|(ix)(x)}}(ix)(x) [59] => | ID = 452 [60] => | coordinates = {{coord|21|56|42|N|88|53|45|E|format=dms}} [61] => | year = 1987 [62] => | area = {{convert|133010|ha|sqmi|abbr=on}} [63] => | website = [64] => | locmapin = [65] => | map_caption = [66] => }} [67] => }} [68] => [69] => '''Sundarbans''' (pronounced {{IPAc-en|s|ʌ|n|'|d|ɑːr|b|ə|n|z}}) is a [[mangrove]] area in [[Ganges Delta|the delta]] formed by the confluence of the [[Ganges River|Ganges]], [[Brahmaputra River|Brahmaputra]] and [[Meghna River]]s in the [[Bay of Bengal]]. Sundarban Reserve Forest (SRF) of Bangladesh is the largest mangrove forest in the world. It spans the area from the [[Baleswar River]] in [[Bangladesh]]'s division of [[Khulna Division|Khulna]] to the [[Hooghly River]] in [[India]]'s state of [[West Bengal]]. It comprises closed and open [[mangrove forest]]s, land used for agricultural purpose, [[mudflat]]s and barren land, and is intersected by multiple [[tide|tidal]] streams and channels. Sundarbans is home to the world's largest area of mangrove forests.{{Cite web |title=Sundarbans National Park |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/452/ |access-date=2022-07-29 |website=UNESCO World Heritage Centre |language=en |archive-date=19 November 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231119234446/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/452/ |url-status=live }} Four protected areas in the Sundarbans are enlisted as [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]]s, viz. [[Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary|Sundarbans West]] (Bangladesh), [[Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary|Sundarbans South]] (Bangladesh), [[Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary|Sundarbans East]] (Bangladesh) and [[Sundarbans National Park]] (India).{{cite journal |last1=Giri |first1=C. |last2=Pengra |first2=B. |last3=Zhu |first3=Z. |last4=Singh |first4=A. |last5=Tieszen |first5=L. L. |year=2007 |title=Monitoring mangrove forest dynamics of the Sundarbans in Bangladesh and India using multi-temporal satellite data from 1973 to 2000 |journal=Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science |volume=73 |issue=1–2 |pages=91–100 |doi=10.1016/j.ecss.2006.12.019 |bibcode=2007ECSS...73...91G}} [70] => [71] => Despite the protected status, the Indian Sundarbans were considered endangered in a 2020 assessment under the [[IUCN Red List of Ecosystems]] framework.{{Cite journal |last1=Sievers |first1=M. |last2=Chowdhury |first2=M. R. |last3=Adame |first3=M. F. |last4=Bhadury |first4=P. |last5=Bhargava |first5=R. |last6=Buelow |first6=C. |last7=Friess |first7=D. A. |last8=Ghosh |first8=A. |last9=Hayes |first9=M. A. |last10=McClure |first10=E. C. |last11=Pearson |first11=R. M. |year=2020 |title=Indian Sundarbans mangrove forest considered endangered under Red List of Ecosystems, but there is cause for optimism |journal=Biological Conservation |volume=251 |pages=108751 |doi=10.1016/j.biocon.2020.108751 |bibcode=2020BCons.25108751S |hdl=10072/400371 |s2cid=222206165 |url=https://iucnrle.org/static/media/uploads/references/published-assessments/sievers_etal_2020_indian_sundarbans_mangrove_forest_assessment.pdf |access-date=19 September 2021 |archive-date=15 October 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211015191835/https://iucnrle.org/static/media/uploads/references/published-assessments/sievers_etal_2020_indian_sundarbans_mangrove_forest_assessment.pdf |url-status=dead }} The Sundarbans mangrove forest covers an area of about {{cvt|10000|km2}}, of which forests in Bangladesh's [[Khulna Division]] extend over {{cvt|6517|km2}} and in West Bengal, they extend over {{cvt|3483|km2}} across the [[South 24 Parganas]] and [[North 24 Parganas district]]s.{{cite journal |last1=Pani |first1=D. R. |last2=Sarangi |first2=S. K. |last3=Subudhi |first3=H. N. |last4=Misra |first4=R. C. |last5=Bhandari |first5=D. C. |year=2013 |title=Exploration, evaluation and conservation of salt tolerant rice genetic resources from Sundarbans region of West Bengal |journal=Journal of the Indian Society of Coastal Agricultural Research |volume=30 |issue=1 |pages=45–53 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dilip_Kundu2/post/What_are_the_rice_varieties_that_show_salt_tolerance_naturally/attachment/59d6397779197b8077996ae6/AS%3A401904459894785%401472832898899/download/Art+9+Pani+et+al..pdf |access-date=3 May 2019 |archive-date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026122725/https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Dilip_Kundu2/post/What_are_the_rice_varieties_that_show_salt_tolerance_naturally/attachment/59d6397779197b8077996ae6/AS%3A401904459894785%401472832898899/download/Art+9+Pani+et+al..pdf |url-status=live }} The most abundant tree species are sundri (''[[Heritiera fomes]]'') and gewa (''[[Excoecaria agallocha]]''). The forests provide habitat to 453 [[fauna]] wildlife, including 290 bird, 120 fish, 42 mammal, 35 reptile and eight amphibian species.{{cite journal |last1=Iftekhar |first1=M. S. |last2=Islam |first2=M. R. |year=2004 |title=Managing mangroves in Bangladesh: A strategy analysis |journal=Journal of Coastal Conservation |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=139–146 |url=http://balticeucc.databases.eucc-d.de/files/documents/00000613_C10.139-146.pdf |doi=10.1652/1400-0350(2004)010[0139:MMIBAS]2.0.CO;2 |s2cid=130056584 |access-date=28 November 2018 |archive-date=29 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181129012918/http://balticeucc.databases.eucc-d.de/files/documents/00000613_C10.139-146.pdf |url-status=live }} Despite a total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some invertebrates, there has been a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species in the 20th century, with the ecological quality of the forest declining.{{Cite journal |year=2010 |last1=Manna|first1 = S. |title=Dynamics of Sundarban estuarine ecosystem: Eutrophication induced threat to mangroves |journal=Saline Systems |volume=6 |page=8 |last2=Chaudhuri|first2=K. |last3=Bhattacharyya |first3=S. |last4=Bhattacharyya |first4=M. |pmid=20699005 |pmc=2928246 |doi=10.1186/1746-1448-6-8 |doi-access=free }} [72] => [73] => Despite preservation commitments from both governments, the Sundarbans are under threat from both natural and human-made causes. In 2007, the landfall of [[Cyclone Sidr]] damaged around 40% of the Sundarbans. The forest is also suffering from increased [[salinity]] caused by [[sea level rise|rising sea levels]] due to [[Effects of climate change|climate change]] and reduced freshwater supply. In May 2009 [[Cyclone Aila]] devastated the Sundarbans with massive casualties. At least 100,000 people were affected by this cyclone.{{Cite news |newspaper=The Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/23-dead-1-lakh-affected-as-Cyclone-Aila-hits-Bengal/articleshow/4575274.cms |title=23 dead, 1 lakh affected as Cyclone Aila hits Bengal |access-date=3 March 2019 |archive-date=28 October 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201028113345/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/india/23-dead-1-lakh-affected-as-Cyclone-Aila-hits-Bengal/articleshow/4575274.cms |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |url=https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/38786/cyclone-aila |title=Cyclone Aila |year=2009 |access-date=3 March 2019 |archive-date=5 August 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200805143026/https://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/images/38786/cyclone-aila |url-status=live }} The proposed coal-fired [[Rampal Power Station (Proposed)|Rampal power station]] situated {{cvt|14|km}} north of the Sundarbans at Rampal Upazila of [[Bagerhat District]] in Khulna, Bangladesh, is anticipated to further damage this unique mangrove forest according to a 2016 report by UNESCO.{{cite news |url=http://en.prothom-alo.com/environment/news/122299/Unesco-calls-for-shelving-Rampal-project |title=Unesco calls for shelving Rampal project |author=Iftekhar Mahmud |work=Prothom Alo |year=2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160926203716/http://en.prothom-alo.com/environment/news/122299/Unesco-calls-for-shelving-Rampal-project |archive-date=26 September 2016 |access-date=13 October 2016}} Climate change is expected to continue to negatively affect both natural systems and human populations in the region, resulting in further ecosystem degradation and [[climate migration]]. Experts examining the region recommend further focus on [[mangrove restoration]] and management and advocating for adaptation of human populations, through processes like [[managed retreat]] and investments in resilient infrastructure.{{Cite report |author1=Danda, A. A. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Ghosh, N. |author3=Bandyopadhyay, J. |author4=Hazra, S. |title=Strategic and Managed Retreat as Adaptation: Addressing Climate Vulnerability in the Sundarbans |publisher=Observer Research Foundation |place=New Delhi |date=2020 |url=https://www.orfonline.org/research/strategic-and-managed-retreat-as-adaptation-addressing-climate-vulnerability-in-the-sundarbans/ |access-date=18 September 2021 |archive-date=7 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210207024321/https://www.orfonline.org/research/strategic-and-managed-retreat-as-adaptation-addressing-climate-vulnerability-in-the-sundarbans/ |url-status=live }} [74] => [75] => ==Etymology== [76] => [77] => The literal meaning of Sundarbans ({{lang-bn|সুন্দরবন|Sundôrbôn}}) is "beautiful forest". Alternatively, it was proposed that the name is a corruption of ''Samudraban'', ''Shomudrobôn'' ("Sea Forest"), or ''Chandra-bandhe'', the name of a tribe.{{cite book |last=Siddiqui |first=N. A. |title=Banglapedia: National Encyclopedia of Bangladesh |publisher=[[Asiatic Society of Bangladesh]] |year=2012 |editor1-last=Islam |editor1-first=S. |editor1-link=Sirajul Islam |edition=Second |chapter=The Sundarbans |editor2-last=Jamal |editor2-first=A. A. |chapter-url=http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sundarbans,_The |access-date=9 May 2016 |archive-date=4 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304200506/http://en.banglapedia.org/index.php?title=Sundarbans,_The |url-status=live }} However, the likely origin of the word is ''Sundari'' or ''Sundri'', the local name of the mangrove species ''[[Heritiera fomes]]'' abundant in the area.{{cite journal |last=Rainey |first=John Rudd |year=1891 |title=The Sundarban: Its Physical Features and Ruins |journal=Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society and Monthly Record of Geography |publisher=JSTOR |volume=13 |issue=5 |pages=273–287 |doi=10.2307/1800883 |jstor=1800883 |issn=0266-626X}} [78] => [79] => ==History== [80] => {{multiple image| perrow=1 |align=right |image1=Sunderbans village 1839.jpg |caption1=Village in a clearing of the Sundarbans. Drawing by Frederic Peter Layard after an original sketch of 1839 |image2=FarmHouseSunderban.JPG |caption2=Farm among paddy fields in the Sundarbans, 2010}} [81] => [82] => The history of human settlement in the Sundarbans area can be traced back to [[Maurya Empire|Mauryan era]] (4th-2nd century BCE).{{Cite news |last1=Bandyopadhyay |first1=Krishnendu |date=August 1, 2016 |title=Civilisation in Sunderbans traced to Mauryan era {{!}} Kolkata News - Times of India |url=https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/civilisation-in-sunderbans-traced-to-mauryan-era/articleshow/53483794.cms |access-date=2022-04-08 |website=The Times of India |language=en |archive-date=8 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220408160922/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/city/kolkata/civilisation-in-sunderbans-traced-to-mauryan-era/articleshow/53483794.cms |url-status=live }} A ruin of an abandoned city was found in the Baghmara Forest Block that is attributed to [[Chand Sadagar]], a pre-Mauryan semi-historical figure in Bengali folklore. Archaeological excavation at [[Kapilmuni Union|Kapilmuni]], [[Paikgachha Upazila|Paikgacha Upazilla]], north of the Sundarbans in Bangladesh, revealed ruins of urban settlement dating back to the [[History of Bangladesh#Early Middle Ages|early middle ages]].{{cite web |last=Iftekhar Mahmud |first=Sk. Al-Ehsan |date=2022-04-16 |title=Ancient ruins near the Sundarbans |url=https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/good-day-bangladesh/ancient-ruins-near-the-sundarbans |access-date=2022-04-16 |website=Prothomalo |archive-date=16 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220416091339/https://en.prothomalo.com/bangladesh/good-day-bangladesh/ancient-ruins-near-the-sundarbans |url-status=live }} During the [[Mughal Empire|Mughal]] period, forest tracts were leased out by the local rulers for establishing settlements.{{cite web |title=Sunderban Mangroves |publisher=Geological Survey of India |url=http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,723772&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL&linkId=1213 |access-date=21 January 2010 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20091210224353/http://www.portal.gsi.gov.in/portal/page?_pageid=127,723772&_dad=portal&_schema=PORTAL&linkId=1213 |archive-date=10 December 2009}} In 1757, The British [[East India Company]] obtained proprietary rights over Sundarbans from the [[Mughal Emperor]] [[Alamgir II]] and completed mapping the area in 1764. However, systematic forest management started a century later. The first Forest Management Division to have jurisdiction over the Sundarbans was established in 1869. In 1875 a large portion of the mangrove forests was declared as [[Nature reserve|reserved]] forests under the Indian Forest Act of 1865 (Act VIII of 1865). The remaining portions of the forests were declared a reserve forest the following year and the forest, which was so far administered by the civil administration district, was placed under the control of the Forest Department. A Forest Division, which is the basic forest management and administration unit, was created in 1879 with the headquarters in today [[Khulna]], Bangladesh. The first management plan was written for the period 1893–1898.{{cite book |editor-last1=Hussain |editor-first1=Z. |editor-last2=Acharya |editor-first2=G. |date=1994 |title=Mangroves of the Sundarbans |volume=2 |location=Bangkok |publisher=International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources |oclc=773534471}}UNDP (1998). [http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/383933.htm Integrated resource development of the Sundarbans Reserved Forests, Bangladesh] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170523051219/http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/383933.htm |date=23 May 2017 }}. Volume I Project BGD/84/056, [[United Nations Development Programme]], [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] of the United Nations, [[Dhaka]], The [[People's Republic of Bangladesh]]. [83] => [84] => ==Geography== [85] => {{unreferenced section|date=November 2018}} [86] => [[File:সুন্দরবনের মানচিত্র.svg|300px|lang=en|thumbnail|Map of the Sundarbans]] [87] => [88] => The Sundarban forest lies in the vast delta on the [[Bay of Bengal]] formed by the super-confluence of the [[Hooghly River|Hooghly]], [[Padma]] (both are distributaries of [[Ganges]]), [[Brahmaputra]] and [[Meghna]] rivers across southern [[Bangladesh]]. The seasonally flooded Sundarbans freshwater swamp forest lies inland from the mangrove forests on the coastal fringe. The forest covers {{convert|10000|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} of which about {{convert|6517|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} are in Bangladesh. The Indian part of Sundarbans is estimated to be about {{convert|3483|km2|mi2|abbr=on}}, of which about {{convert|1700|km2|mi2|abbr=on}} is occupied by water bodies in the forms of river, canals and creeks of width varying from a few metres to several kilometres. [89] => [90] => The Sundarbans is intersected by a complex network of [[tide|tidal]] waterways, [[mudflat]]s and small islands of salt-tolerant mangrove forests. The interconnected network of waterways makes almost every corner of the forest accessible by boat. The area is known for the [[Bengal tiger]] (''Panthera tigris''), as well as numerous fauna including species of birds, [[chital]], [[crocodile]]s and snakes. The fertile soils of the delta have been subject to intensive human use for centuries, and the ecoregion has been mostly converted to intensive agriculture, with few enclaves of forest remaining. The remaining forests, taken together with the Sundarbans mangroves, are important habitat for the endangered tiger. Additionally, the Mangroves species present in the Sundarban area serve a crucial function as a protective barrier for the millions of inhabitants in and around [[Khulna]] and [[Port of Mongla]] against the floods that result from the [[cyclone]]s. It also protects from [[tsunami]] and [[soil erosion]] for the coastal population.{{Cite journal |last1=Behera |first1=R. S. |last2=Shaoo |first2=C. K. |last3=Sahu |first3=R. K. |year=2021 |title=Mangroves – Nature's shield against natural disasters and climate change |journal=SocialDhara |url=https://socialdhara.com/mangroves-natures-shield-against-natural-disasters/ |access-date=3 February 2022 |archive-date=3 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220203150318/https://socialdhara.com/mangroves-natures-shield-against-natural-disasters/ |url-status=live }} [91] => [92] => ==Physiography== [93] => {{multiple image |perrow=1 |image1=Sundarbans SPOT 1219.jpg |caption1=[[SPOT (satellite)|SPOT satellite]] image of Sundarbans, released by [[CNES]] |image2 = Sundarbans.jpg |caption2=[[Landsat 7]] image of Sundarbans, released by [[NASA Earth Observatory]]}} [94] => [95] => The mangrove-dominated [[Ganges Delta]] – the Sundarbans – is a complex [[ecosystem]] comprising one of the three largest single tracts of mangrove forests of the world. The larger part is situated in Bangladesh, a smaller portion of it lies in India. The Indian part of the forest is estimated to be about 40 percent, while the Bangladeshi part is 60 percent. To the south the forest meets the Bay of Bengal; to the east it is bordered by the [[Baleswar River]] and to the north there is a sharp interface with intensively cultivated land. The natural drainage in the upstream areas, other than the main river channels, is everywhere impeded by extensive embankments and [[polder]]s. The Sundarbans was originally measured (about 200 years ago) to be of about {{convert|16700|km2|mi2}}. Now it has dwindled into about one-third of its original size. The total land area today is {{convert|4143|km2|mi2}}, including exposed [[sandbar]]s with a total area of {{convert|42|km2|mi2}}; the remaining water area of {{convert|1874|km2|mi2}} encompasses rivers, small streams and canals. Rivers in the Sundarbans are meeting places of salt water and freshwater. Thus, it is a region of transition between the freshwater of the rivers originating from the Ganges and the saline water of the Bay of Bengal. [96] => [97] => The Sundarbans along the Bay of Bengal has evolved over the millennia through natural deposition of upstream sediments accompanied by intertidal segregation. The physiography is dominated by deltaic formations that include innumerable drainage lines associated with surface and subaqueous levees, splays and tidal flats. There are also marginal marshes above mean tide level, tidal sandbars and islands with their networks of tidal channels, subaqueous distal bars and proto-delta clays and silt sediments. The Sundarbans' floor varies from {{convert|0.9|to|2.11|m|ft}} above sea level.Katebi, M.N.A. and Habib, M.G. (1987). Sundarbans and Forestry in Coastal Area Resource Development and Management Part II, BRAC Printers, Dhaka, Bangladesh. [98] => [99] => Biotic factors here play a significant role in physical coastal evolution, and for [[wildlife]] a variety of [[habitat]]s have developed which include beaches, [[Estuary|estuaries]], permanent and semi-permanent swamps, tidal flats, [[tidal creek]]s, coastal dunes, back dunes and levees. The mangrove vegetation itself assists in the formation of new landmass and the intertidal vegetation plays a significant role in swamp morphology. The activities of mangrove fauna in the intertidal mudflats develop [[micromorphological]] features that trap and hold sediments to create a substratum for mangrove seeds. The morphology and evolution of the [[Aeolian processes|eolian]] dunes is controlled by an abundance of [[xerophytic]] and [[halophytic]] plants. Creepers, grasses and sedges stabilise sand dunes and uncompacted sediments. The Sunderbans mudflats (Banerjee, 1998) are found at the estuary and on the deltaic islands where low velocity of river and tidal current occurs. The flats are exposed in low tides and submerged in high tides, thus being changed morphologically even in one tidal cycle. The tides are so large that approximately one third of the land disappears and reappears every day.{{cite news |last=Shapiro |first=Ari |date=20 May 2016 |title=Rising Tides Force Thousands To Leave Islands of Eastern India |url=https://www.npr.org/2016/05/20/478915685/rising-tides-force-thousands-to-leave-islands-of-eastern-india |publisher=NPR |access-date=22 May 2016 |archive-date=27 April 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190427022914/https://www.npr.org/2016/05/20/478915685/rising-tides-force-thousands-to-leave-islands-of-eastern-india |url-status=live }} The interior parts of the mudflats serve as a perfect home for mangroves. [100] => [101] => {{See also|List of rivers of Sundarbans}} [102] => [103] => ==Ecoregions== [104] => Sundarbans features two [[ecoregion]]s — "Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests" (IM0162) and "Sundarbans mangroves" (IM1406).[http://www.certisource.co.uk/Press_Articles/Article_Archive/articles/Ecoregions%20profile%20-%20pick%20from%20over%20100%20rain%20forests.htm Ecoregions: Indo-Malayan] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090628180622/http://www.certisource.co.uk/Press_Articles/Article_Archive/articles/Ecoregions%20profile%20-%20pick%20from%20over%20100%20rain%20forests.htm |date=28 June 2009 }}, [[World Wildlife Fund]] [105] => [106] => ===Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests=== [107] => The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests are a [[tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests|tropical moist broadleaf forest]] ecoregion of Bangladesh. It represents the brackish swamp forests that lie behind the ''Sundarbans Mangroves'', where the salinity is more pronounced. The freshwater ecoregion is an area where the water is only slightly brackish and becomes quite fresh during the rainy season, when the freshwater plumes from the Ganges and the Brahmaputra rivers push the intruding salt water out and bring a deposit of silt. It covers {{convert|14600|km2|sqmi}} of the vast [[Ganges-Brahmaputra Delta]], extending from the northern part of [[Khulna District]] and finishing at the mouth of the Bay of Bengal with scattered portions extending into India's [[West Bengal]] state. The Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie between the upland [[Lower Gangetic plains moist deciduous forests]] and the [[brackish]]-water [[Sundarbans mangroves]] bordering the Bay of Bengal.{{WWF ecoregion|id=im0162|name=Sundarbans freshwater swamp forests}} [108] => [109] => A victim of large-scale clearing and settlement to support one of the densest human populations in Asia, this ecoregion is under a great threat of extinction. Hundreds of years of habitation and exploitation have exacted a heavy toll on this ecoregion's habitat and biodiversity. There are two protected areas – Narendrapur (110 km2) and Ata Danga Baor (20 km2) that cover a mere 130 km2 of the ecoregion. Habitat loss in this ecoregion is so extensive, and the remaining habitat is so fragmented, that it is difficult to ascertain the composition of the original vegetation of this ecoregion. According to Champion and Seth (1968), the freshwater swamp forests are characterised by ''[[Heritiera]] minor'', ''[[Xylocarpus]] molluccensis'', ''[[Bruguiera|Bruguiera conjugata]]'', ''[[Sonneratia]] apetala'', ''[[Avicennia officinalis]]'', and ''[[Sonneratia caseolaris]]'', with ''[[Pandanus tectorius]]'', ''[[Hibiscus tiliaceus]]'', and ''[[Nipa fruticans]]'' along the fringing banks. [110] => [111] => ===Sundarbans Mangroves=== [112] => {{See also|Mangrove}} [113] => [[File:Ecoregion IM1406.svg|thumb|Ecoregion IM406, also known as the Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregion]] [114] => The Sundarbans Mangroves ecoregion on the coast forms the seaward fringe of the [[river delta|delta]] and is the world's largest mangrove ecosystem, with {{convert|20400|km2|sqmi}} of an area covered. The dominant mangrove species ''[[Heritiera fomes]]'' is locally known as ''sundri'' or ''sundari''. Mangrove forests are not home to a great variety of plants. They have a thick canopy, and the undergrowth is mostly seedlings of the mangrove trees. Besides the ''sundari'', other tree species in the forest include ''[[Avicennia]]'', ''[[Xylocarpus mekongensis]]'', ''[[Xylocarpus granatum]]'', ''[[Sonneratia apetala]]'', ''[[Bruguiera gymnorhiza]]'', ''[[Ceriops decandra]]'', ''[[Aegiceras corniculatum]]'', ''[[Rhizophora mucronata]]'', and ''[[Nypa fruticans]]'' palms.{{WWF ecoregion|id=im1406|name=Sundarbans Mangroves}} [115] => Twenty-six of the fifty broad mangrove species found in the world grow well in the Sundarbans. The commonly identifiable vegetation types in the dense Sundarbans mangrove forests are salt water mixed forest, mangrove scrub, brackish water mixed forest, littoral forest, wet forest and wet alluvial grass forests. The Bangladesh mangrove vegetation of the Sundarbans differs greatly from other non-deltaic coastal mangrove forests and upland forests associations. Unlike the former, the [[Rhizophoraceae]] are of minor importance.{{Cite journal|last1=Rahman|first1=MR|last2=Asaduzzaman|first2=M|date=2013-04-16|title=Ecology of Sundarban, Bangladesh|journal=Journal of Science Foundation|volume=8|issue=1–2|pages=35–47|doi=10.3329/jsf.v8i1-2.14618|issn=1728-7855|doi-access=free}} [116] => [117] => ===Ecological succession=== [118] => [[Ecological succession]] is generally defined as the successive occupation of a site by different plant communities.{{cite book |last1=Weaver |first1=J. E. |last2=Clements |first2=F. E. |date=1938 |title=Plant Ecology |edition=2nd |publisher=McGraw-Hill Book Company |oclc=502944133}} In an accreting mudflats the outer community along the sequence represents the pioneer community which is gradually replaced by the next community representing the seral stages and finally by a climax community typical of the climatic zone.{{cite journal |last=Watson |first=J.G. |year= 1928 |title=Mangrove swamps of the Malayan peninsula |journal=Malayan Forest Records |volume=6 |pages=1–275}} [[Robert Scott Troup]] suggested that succession began in the newly accreted land created by fresh deposits of eroded soil. The pioneer vegetation on these newly accreted sites is ''[[Sonneratia]]'', followed by ''[[Avicennia]]'' and ''[[Nypa fruticans|Nypa]]''. As the ground is elevated as a result of soil deposition, other trees make their appearance. The most prevalent, though one of the late species to appear, is ''[[Excoecaria]]''. As the level of land rises through accretion and the land is only occasionally flooded by tides, ''[[Heritiera fomes]]'' begins to appear.{{cite book |last=Troup |first=R. S. |author-link=Robert Scott Troup |date=1921 |title=The Silviculture of Indian Trees |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ISPxAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA155 |location=Oxford |publisher=Clarendon Press |page=155 |quote=On newly formed islands, flooded by every tide, ''Sonneratia'' usually springs up first, followed by ''Avicennia'' and the palm ''Nipa fruticans''. As the ground rises other trees make their appearance, the most prevalent, though one of the later species to appear, being ''Exaecaria Agallocha''. As the level rises by accretion, and the land is only occasionally flooded by the tide, the ''sundri'' makes its appearance.}} [119] => [120] => ==Flora== [121] => {{multiple image |perrow=1 |align=right |image1=Sundarbans 02.jpg |caption1=Sundari tree (''[[Heritiera littoralis]]'')|image2=XP Nepf D4090.JPG |caption2 = Golpata (''[[Nypa fruticans]]'')}} [122] => [123] => A total of 245 genera and 334 plant species were recorded by [[David Prain]] in 1903.{{cite book |last=Prain |first=David |author-link=David Prain |date=1903 |chapter=Flora of the Sundribuns |title=Records of the Botanical Survey of India |volume=2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hBpAAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA251 |location=Calcutta |publisher=Allied Book Centre |page=251}} While most of the mangroves in other parts of the world are characterised by members of the [[Rhizophoraceae]], Avicenneaceae or [[Combretaceae]], the mangroves of Bangladesh are dominated by the [[Malvaceae]] and [[Euphorbiaceae]]. [124] => [125] => The Sundarbans flora is characterised by the abundance of sundari (''[[Heritiera fomes]]''), gewa (''[[Excoecaria agallocha]]''), goran (''[[Ceriops decandra]]'') and keora (''Sonneratia apetala'') all of which occur prominently throughout the area. The characteristic tree of the forest is the ''sundari'' (''[[Heritiera littoralis]]''), from which the name of the forest had probably been derived. It yields a hard wood, used for building houses and making boats, furniture and other things. New forest accretions is often conspicuously dominated by keora (''Sonneratia apetala'') and tidal forests. It is an indicator species for newly accreted mudbanks and is an important species for wildlife, especially spotted deer (''[[Axis axis]]''). There is abundance of {{transliteration|bn|dhundul}} or {{transliteration|bn|passur}} (''[[Xylocarpus granatum]]'') and {{transliteration|bn|kankra}} (''[[Bruguiera gymnorhiza]]'') though distribution is discontinuous. Among palms, ''Poresia coaractata'', ''Myriostachya wightiana'' and golpata (''[[Nypa fruticans]]''), and among grasses spear grass (''[[Imperata cylindrica]]'') and khagra (''Phragmites karka'') are well distributed. [126] => [127] => The varieties of the forests that exist in Sundarbans include mangrove scrub, [[Littoral zone|littoral forest]], [[saline water|saltwater]] [[mixed forest]], [[brackish water]] mixed forest and [[swamp forest]]. Besides the forest, there are extensive areas of brackish water and [[freshwater]] [[marshes]], [[intertidal]] [[mudflat]]s, [[sandflat]]s, [[sand dune]]s with typical dune vegetation, open [[grassland]] on sandy soils and raised areas supporting a variety of terrestrial shrubs and trees. Since Prain's report there have been considerable changes in the status of various mangrove species and taxonomic revision of the man-grove flora.{{cite journal |last1=Khatun |first1=B.M.R. |last2=Hafiz |first2=Syed |year=1987 |title=Taxonomic studies in the genus ''Avicennia'' L. from Bangladesh |journal=Bangladesh J. Bot. |volume=16 |issue=1 |pages=39–44}} However, very little exploration of the botanical nature of the Sundarbans has been made to keep up with these changes. Differences in vegetation have been explained in terms of freshwater and low salinity influences in the Northeast and variations in [[Drainage basin|drainage]] and [[siltation]]. The Sundarbans has been classified as a moist tropical forest demonstrating a whole mosaic of [[Seral community|seres]], comprising primary colonisation on new [[Accretion (coastal management)|accretions]] to more mature beach forests. Historically vegetation types have been recognised in broad correlation with varying degrees of water salinity, freshwater flushing and physiography. [128] => [129] => ==Fauna== [130] => The Sundarbans provides a unique ecosystem and a rich wildlife habitat. According to the 2015 tiger census in Bangladesh, and the 2011 tiger census in India, the Sundarbans have about 180 tigers (106 in Bangladesh and 74 in India). Earlier estimates, based on counting unique [[pugmark]]s, were much higher. The more recent counts have used [[camera trap]]s, an improved methodology that yields more accurate results.{{cite news |title=Only 100 tigers left in Bangladesh's famed Sundarbans forest why only 100 tigers???¿ |url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/27/only-100-tigers-left-in-bangladeshs-famed-sundarbans-forest |newspaper=The Guardian |agency=Agence France-Presse |date=27 July 2015 |access-date=13 December 2016 |archive-date=22 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220522212305/https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2015/jul/27/only-100-tigers-left-in-bangladeshs-famed-sundarbans-forest |url-status=live }}{{cite news|title=India wild tiger census shows population rise|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12877560|work=BBC News|date=28 March 2011|access-date=31 March 2011|archive-date=23 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220423062951/https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-south-asia-12877560|url-status=live}}{{cite web |url=http://www.bforest.gov.bd/highlights.php |title=Joint Tiger census-2004 in Sundarban Reserved Forests |website=Bangladesh Forest Department |publisher=Ministry of Environment and Forest |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20041207075333/http://www.bforest.gov.bd/highlights.php |archive-date=7 December 2004 |access-date=6 May 2012}} Tiger attacks [[Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans|were historically common in the area]], and are still frequent in the Sundarbans, with around 40 people killed in 2000–2010. [131] => [132] => Most importantly, mangroves are a transition from the marine to freshwater and terrestrial systems, and provide critical habitat for numerous species of small fish, crabs, shrimps and other crustaceans that adapt to feed and shelter, and reproduce among the tangled mass of roots, known as [[pneumatophore]]s, which grow upward from the anaerobic mud to get the supply of oxygen. [133] => A 1991 study has revealed that the Indian part of the Sundarbans supports diverse biological resources including at least 150 species of commercially important fish, 270 species of birds, 42 species of mammals, 35 reptiles and 8 amphibian species, although new ones are being discovered. This represents a significant proportion of the species present in Bangladesh (i.e. about 30% of the reptiles, 37% the birds and 34% of the mammals) and includes many species which are now extinct elsewhere in the country.{{cite book |last=Scott |first=D. A. |date=1991 |chapter=Asia and the Middle East in |editor-last1=Finlayson |editor-first1=C. M. |editor-last2=Moser |editor-first2=M. |title=Wetlands |url=https://archive.org/details/wetlands00rvat_0 |url-access=registration |publisher=Oxford |pages=[https://archive.org/details/wetlands00rvat_0/page/151 151]–178 |isbn=978-0-8160-2556-5}} Two amphibians, 14 reptiles, 25 aves and five mammals are endangered. The Sundarbans is an important wintering area for migrant water birds{{cite journal |last1=Zöckler |first1=C. |last2=Balachandran |first2=S. |last3=Bunting |first3=G.C. |last4=Fanck |first4=M. |last5=Kashiwagi |first5=M. |last6=Lappo |first6=E.G. |last7=Maheswaran |first7=G. |last8=Sharma |first8=A. |last9=Syroechkovski |first9=E.E. |last10=Webb |first10=K. |year=2005 |url=http://m-h-s.org/stiftung/upload/pdf-downloadbar/Ornith_Expedition_Indien.pdf |title=The Indian Sunderbans: an important wintering site for Siberian waders |journal=Wader Study Group Bulletin |volume=108 |pages=42–46 |access-date=7 May 2012 |archive-date=9 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170809054917/http://m-h-s.org/stiftung/upload/pdf-downloadbar/Ornith_Expedition_Indien.pdf |url-status=dead }} and is an area suitable for watching and studying avifauna.Habib, M.G. (1999). Message In: Nuruzzaman, M., I.U. Ahmed and H. Banik (eds.). The Sundarbans world heritage site: an introduction, Forest Department, Ministry of Environment and Forest, Government of the People's Republic of Bangladesh. [134] => [135] => The management of wildlife is restricted to, firstly, the protection of fauna from poaching, and, secondly, designation of some areas as wildlife sanctuaries where no extraction of [[forest produce]] is allowed and where the wildlife face few disturbances. Although the fauna of Bangladesh have diminished in recent times and the Sundarbans has not been spared from this decline, the mangrove forest retains several good wildlife habitats and their associated fauna. Of these, the tiger and dolphin are target species for planning wildlife management and tourism development. There are high profile and vulnerable mammals living in two contrasting environments, and their statuses and management are strong indicators of the general condition and management of wildlife. Some species are protected by legislation, notably by the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973).[https://web.archive.org/web/20110727024639/http://www.nishorgo.org/nishorgo/wildlife_Act/Amended_Wildlife_Order_Eng.pdf THE ORIGINAL BANGLADESH WILDLIFE PRESERVATION ORDER 1973 THE DRAFT]. nishorgo.org [136] => [137] => ===Mammals=== [138] => {{multiple image |perrow=1 |align=right |image1=Sundarban Tiger.jpg |caption1=A Bengal tiger in the Sundarbans |image2=Axishirsche in den Sundarbans.JPG | caption2= [[Chital]] deer (''Axis axis'') |image3=Monkeys of The Sundarbans 07.jpg |caption3 = A [[Rhesus macaque]] (''Macaca mulatta'')}} [139] => [140] => The Sundarbans are an important habitat for the [[Bengal tiger]] (''Panthera tigris'').{{cite thesis |last=Khan |first=M. M. H. |year=2004 |title=Ecology and conservation of the Bengal tiger in the Sundarbans Mangrove forest of Bangladesh |type=PhD thesis |publisher=University of Cambridge |location=Cambridge |url=http://www.carnivoreconservation.org/files/thesis/khan_2004_phd.pdf |access-date=26 February 2018 |archive-date=26 October 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191026122726/http://www.carnivoreconservation.org/files/thesis/khan_2004_phd.pdf |url-status=live }} The forest also provides habitat for small wild cats such as the [[jungle cat]] (''Felis chaus''), [[fishing cat]] (''Prionailurus viverrinus''), and [[leopard cat]] (''P. bengalensis'').{{cite journal |last=Khan |first=M. M. H. |year=2004 |title=Food habit of the Leopard Cat ''Prionailurus bengalensis'' (Kerr, 1792) in the Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary, Bangladesh |journal=Zoos' Print Journal |volume=19 |issue=5 |pages=1475–1476 |doi=10.11609/JoTT.ZPJ.1101.1475-6|doi-access=free }} [141] => [142] => Several predators dwell in the labyrinth of channels, branches, and roots that poke up into the air. This is the only mangrove ecoregion that harbors the Indo-Pacific region's largest terrestrial predator, the Bengal tiger. Unlike in other habitats, tigers live here and swim among the mangrove islands, where they hunt scarce prey such as the [[chital]] deer (''Axis axis''), [[Indian muntjac]]s (''Muntiacus muntjak''), [[wild boar]] (''Sus scrofa''), and [[Rhesus macaque]] (''Macaca mulatta''). It is estimated that there are now 180 Bengal tigers and about 30,000 spotted deer in the area. The tigers are known to attack and kill humans who venture into the forest, with around 40 deaths recorded in 2000–2010.{{Cite iucn |author1=Goodrich, J. |author2=Lynam, A. |author3=Miquelle, D. |author4=Wibisono, H. |author5=Kawanishi, K. |author6=Pattanavibool, A. |author7=Htun, S. |author8=Tempa, T. |author9=Karki, J. |author10=[[Yadvendradev Vikramsinh Jhala|Jhala, Y.]] |author11=Karanth, U. |title=''Panthera tigris'' |page=e.T15955A50659951 |year=2015}} [143] => [144] => {{multiple image |perrow=1 |image1=Saltwater Crocodiles of Sundarbans 03.jpg|caption1=A saltwater crocodile on a river bank in the Sundarbans|image2=2009 Pristis microdon1.JPG |caption2=A [[largetooth sawfish]] |image3=Periophthalmus argentilineatus.jpg |caption3=A [[mudskipper]]}} [145] => [146] => ==Endangered and extinct species== [147] => {{multiple image |align = right |perrow =1 [148] => | image1 = Jamrach-1877.jpg [149] => | caption1 = Extinct [[Lesser Indian rhinoceros|Indian Javan rhinoceros]] of Sunderbans, drawing from 1877 [150] => | image2 = GangeticDolphin.jpg [151] => | caption2 = [[South Asian river dolphin|Gangetic dolphin]], drawing from 1894}} [152] => Forest inventories reveal a decline in standing volume of the two main commercial mangrove species – sundari (''[[Heritiera]]'' spp.) and [[Euphorbiaceae|gewa]] (''Excoecaria agallocha'') — by 40% and 45% respectively between 1959 and 1983. Despite a total ban on all killing or capture of wildlife other than fish and some [[invertebrates]], it appears that there is a consistent pattern of depleted biodiversity or loss of species (notably at least six mammals and one important reptile) in the 20th century, and that the "ecological quality of the original mangrove forest is declining". [153] => [154] => The endangered species that live within the Sundarbans and extinct species that used to be include the Bengal tiger, [[estuarine crocodile]], [[northern river terrapin]] (''Batagur baska''), [[olive ridley sea turtle]], [[Gangetic dolphin]], ground turtles, [[hawksbill sea turtle]]s and king crabs (horse shoe). The Sundarbans hold globally important numbers of the critically endangered [[masked finfoot]] and are important wintering sites for the [[spoon-billed sandpiper]] and the [[Indian skimmer]].{{cite web | url=http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/sunderbans-(east-south-west-wildlife-sanctuaries)-iba-bangladesh/details | title=BirdLife Data Zone | access-date=2 December 2022 | archive-date=2 December 2022 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221202132031/http://datazone.birdlife.org/site/factsheet/sunderbans-(east-south-west-wildlife-sanctuaries)-iba-bangladesh/details | url-status=live }} Some species such as [[hog deer]] (''Axis porcinus''), [[water buffalo]]s (''Bubalus bubalis''), [[barasingha]] or swamp deer (''Cervus duvauceli''), [[Javan rhinoceros]] (''Rhinoceros sondaicus''), [[Indian rhinoceros]] (''Rhinoceros unicornis'') and the [[mugger crocodile]] (''Crocodylus palustris'') started to become extinct in the Sundarbans towards the middle of the 20th century, because of extensive poaching and hunting by the British and locals.Sarker, S.U. 1993. Ecology of Wildlife UNDP/FAO/BGD/85/011. Field Document N. 50 Institute of Forestry and Environmental Sciences. Chittagong, Bangladesh. There are other threatened mammal species, such as the [[capped langur]] (''Semnopithecus pileatus''), [[smooth-coated otter]] (''Lutrogale perspicillata''), [[Asian small-clawed otter]] (''Aonyx cinerea'') and [[large Indian civet]] (''Viverra zibetha''). [155] => [156] => ==Climate change impact== [157] => {{See|Climate change in South Asia}}{{multiple image | align=right |perrow =1 | image1 = Sundarbans a few months after cyclone sidr.jpg | caption1 = Sundarbans a few months after [[Cyclone Sidr]] | image2 = Mudflat and clouds in Sundarbans.jpg | caption2 = [[Mudflat]]s in Sundarbans}} [158] => [159] => The physical development processes along the coast are influenced by a multitude of factors, comprising wave motions, micro and macro-tidal cycles and long shore currents typical to the coastal tract. The shore currents vary greatly along with the [[monsoon]]. These are also affected by [[cyclonic]] action. Erosion and accretion through these forces maintains varying levels, as yet not properly measured, of physiographic change whilst the mangrove vegetation itself provides a remarkable stability to the entire system. During each monsoon season almost all the Bengal Delta is submerged, much of it for half a year. The sediment of the lower delta plain is primarily advected inland by monsoonal coastal setup and cyclonic events. One of the greatest challenges people living on the [[Ganges Delta]] may face in coming years is the threat of rising sea levels caused mostly by [[subsidence]] in the region and partly by climate change. [160] => [161] => In many of the Bangladesh's mangrove wetlands, freshwater reaching the mangroves was considerably reduced from the 1970s because of diversion of freshwater in the upstream area by neighbouring [[India]] through the use of the [[Farakka Barrage]] bordering [[Rajshahi]], Bangladesh. Also, the Bengal [[Drainage basin|Basin]] is slowly tilting towards the east because of neo-[[tectonic]] movement, forcing greater freshwater input to the Bangladesh Sundarbans. As a result, the salinity of the Bangladesh Sundarbans is much lower than that of the Indian side. A 1990 study noted that there "is no evidence that environmental degradation in the [[Himalayas]] or a 'greenhouse' induced rise in sea level have aggravated floods in Bangladesh"; however, a 2007 report by UNESCO, "Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage" has stated that an anthropogenic {{convert|45|cm|in|adj=on}} rise in sea level (likely by the end of the 21st century, according to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), combined with other forms of anthropogenic stress on the Sundarbans, could lead to the destruction of 75 percent of the Sundarbans mangroves.[https://whc.unesco.org/documents/publi_climatechange.pdf Case Studies of Climate Change] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090327130901/https://whc.unesco.org/documents/publi_climatechange.pdf |date=27 March 2009 }}, UNESCO, 2007 Already, [[Lohachara Island]] and [[South Talpatti Island|New Moore Island/South Talpatti Island]] have disappeared under the sea, and [[Ghoramara Island]] is half submerged.{{cite news |last=George |first=Nirmala |date=24 March 2010 |title=Disputed isle in Bay of Bengal disappears into sea |url=https://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/as_india_disappearing_island |newspaper=Yahoo News |agency=Associated Press |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100329164736/http://news.yahoo.com/s/ap/as_india_disappearing_island |archive-date=29 March 2010 |access-date=24 March 2010}} [162] => [163] => In a study conducted in 2012, the Zoological Society of London (ZSL) found out that the Sunderban coast was retreating up to {{convert|200|m}} in a year. Agricultural activities had destroyed around {{convert|17179|ha}} of mangroves within three decades (1975–2010). Shrimp cultivation had destroyed another {{convert|7554|ha}}. [164] => [165] => Researches from the School of Oceanographic Studies, Jadavpur University, estimated the annual rise in sea level to be {{convert|8|mm}} in 2010. It had doubled from {{convert|3.14|mm}} recorded in 2000. The rising sea levels had also submerged around {{convert|7500|ha}} of forest areas. This, coupled with an around {{convert|1.5|C-change}} rise in surface water temperatures and increased levels of salinity have posed a problem for the survival of the indigenous flora and fauna. The Sundari trees are exceptionally sensitive to salinity and are being threatened with extinction. [166] => [167] => Loss of the mangrove forest will result in the loss of the protective biological shield against cyclones and tsunamis. This may put the surrounding coastal communities at high risk. Moreover, the submergence of land mass have rendered up to 6,000 families homeless and around 70,000 people are immediately threatened with the same.{{cite web|title=Mangrove forests threatened by Climate Change in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh and India|url=http://takvera.blogspot.in/2013/01/mangrove-forests-threatened-by-climate.html|date=12 January 2013|access-date=29 November 2014|archive-date=6 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141206170403/http://takvera.blogspot.in/2013/01/mangrove-forests-threatened-by-climate.html|url-status=live}}{{self-published inline|date=September 2016}}{{cite web|title=Global Warming: Rising Seas creates 70,000 Climate Refugees|url=http://takvera.blogspot.com.au/2006/12/global-warming-rising-seas-creates.html|date=27 December 2006|access-date=29 November 2014|archive-date=4 December 2014|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141204172938/http://takvera.blogspot.com.au/2006/12/global-warming-rising-seas-creates.html|url-status=live}}{{self-published inline|date=September 2016}}{{cite journal |last1=Cornforth |first1=William A. |last2=Fatoyinbo |first2=Temilola E. |last3=Freemantle |first3=Terri P. |last4=Pettorelli |first4=Nathalie |year=2013 |title=Advanced Land Observing Satellite Phased Array Type L-Band SAR (ALOS PALSAR) to Inform the Conservation of Mangroves: Sundarbans as a Case Study |journal=Remote Sensing |volume=5 |issue=1 |pages= 224–237 |doi=10.3390/rs5010224|bibcode=2013RemS....5..224C |doi-access=free }} This is causing the flight of human capital to the mainland, about 13% in the decade of 2000–2010.{{Cite web|title = 'Everyday disasters' driving flight from Sundarbans|url = http://www.trust.org/item/20150407060825-66t6a/?source=search|website = trust.org|access-date = 5 June 2015|archive-date = 5 June 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150605213517/http://www.trust.org/item/20150407060825-66t6a/?source=search|url-status = dead}} [168] => [169] => A 2015 ethnographic study, conducted by a team of researchers from Heidelberg university in Germany, found a crisis brewing in the Sunderbans. The study contended that poor planning on the part of the India and Bangladesh governments coupled with natural ecological changes were forcing the flight of human capital from the region{{Cite web|title = Poor planning, climate shifts devastating India's Sundarbans|url = http://www.trust.org/item/20121117004000-yc0l9/?source=search|website = trust.org|access-date = 5 June 2015|archive-date = 5 June 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150605194903/http://www.trust.org/item/20121117004000-yc0l9/?source=search|url-status = dead}} [170] => [171] => ==Hazards== [172] => ===Natural hazards=== [173] => According to a report created by UNESCO, the landfall of [[Cyclone Sidr]] damaged around 40% of Sundarbans in 2007.{{cite news|title=Cyclone Sidr damaged 40% of Sundarbans: UNESCO|url=http://ibnlive.in.com/news/cyclone-sidr-damaged-40-of-sundarbans-unesco/54259-11.html|archive-url=https://archive.today/20150221192011/http://ibnlive.in.com/news/cyclone-sidr-damaged-40-of-sundarbans-unesco/54259-11.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=21 February 2015|work=ibnlive.in|access-date=21 February 2015}} [174] => [175] => ===Human made hazards=== [176] => {{Further|Rampal Power Station|2014 Sundarbans oil spill}} [177] => [178] => In August 2010, a memorandum of understanding was signed between [[Bangladesh Power Development Board]] (BPDB) and India's state-owned [[National Thermal Power Corporation]] (NTPC) where they designated to implement the coal-fired Rampal power station by 2016.''New Age | Newspaper''''Final report on environmental impact assessment of 2x (500–660) MW coal-based thermal power plant to be constructed at the location of Khulna – India Environment Portal'' The proposed project, on an area of over 1,834 acres of land, is situated {{convert|14|km}} north of the Sundarbans.{{cite news |last=Rahman |first=Khalilur |date=24 February 2013 |title=Demand for Rampal power plant relocation |url=http://today.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/public/last-page/demand-for-rampal-power-plant-relocation |newspaper=The Financial Express |location=Dhaka |access-date=2 September 2018 |archive-date=26 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126143548/https://today.thefinancialexpress.com.bd/public/last-page/demand-for-rampal-power-plant-relocation |url-status=live }} This project violates the [[environmental impact assessment]] guidelines for coal-based thermal power plants.{{cite news |last=Kumar |first=Chaitanya |date=24 September 2013 |title=Bangladesh Power Plant Struggle Calls for International Solidarity |url=http://www.huffingtonpost.com/chaitanya-kumar/bangladesh-power-plant-st_b_3983560.html |newspaper=The World Post |access-date=18 November 2016 |archive-date=8 August 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170808154126/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/chaitanya-kumar/bangladesh-power-plant-st_b_3983560.html |url-status=live }} Environmental activists contend that the proposed location of the Rampal Station would violate provisions of the [[Ramsar Convention]].{{cite news |date=29 September 2013 |title=The Roar of Disapproval |url=https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-3084633261.html |url-access=subscription |newspaper=Dhaka Courier |via=[[HighBeam Research]] |access-date=29 November 2015 |archive-date=20 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160220221855/https://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P3-3084633261.html |url-status=dead }}{{cite news |date=27 October 2015 |title=Rampal plant won't hamper environ |url=http://thedailynewnation.com/news/71523/rampal-plant-wont-hamper-environ.html |newspaper=The New Nation |access-date=29 November 2015 |archive-date=26 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220126142544/https://thedailynewnation.com/news/71523/rampal-plant-wont-hamper-environ.html |url-status=live }} The government of Bangladesh rejected the allegations that the coal-based power plant would adversely affect the world's largest mangrove forest.{{cite news |last=Habib |first=Haroon |date=27 September 2013 |title=Bangladesh begins import of power from India |url=http://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/bangladesh-begins-import-of-power-from-india/article5176272.ece |newspaper=The Hindu |access-date=18 November 2016 |archive-date=10 February 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140210022711/http://www.thehindu.com/business/Industry/bangladesh-begins-import-of-power-from-india/article5176272.ece |url-status=live }} [179] => [180] => On 9 December 2014 an oil-tanker named ''Southern Star VII'', carrying {{convert|358000|L|impgal usgal}} of [[furnace oil]], was sunk in the Sela river{{Cite news|url = http://globalvoicesonline.org/2014/12/14/massive-oil-spill-threatens-bangladeshs-sundarbans/|title = Massive Oil Spill Threatens Bangladesh's Sundarbans|work = Global Voices Online|access-date = 15 December 2014|archive-date = 14 August 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150814234842/https://globalvoicesonline.org/2014/12/14/massive-oil-spill-threatens-bangladeshs-sundarbans/|url-status = live}} of Sundarbans after it had been hit by a cargo vessel.{{Cite news|url = http://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/pollution/350-tonne-oil-spill-by-Bangladeshi-ship-threatens-Sunderbans/articleshow/45483696.cms|title = 350-tonne oil spill by Bangladeshi ship threatens Sunderbans|last = Krishnendu Mukherjee|first = Rakhi Chakrabarty|work = [[The Times of India]]|access-date = 15 December 2014|archive-date = 9 April 2022|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20220409183046/https://timesofindia.indiatimes.com/home/environment/pollution/350-tonne-oil-spill-by-Bangladeshi-ship-threatens-Sunderbans/articleshow/45483696.cms|url-status = live}}{{cite news|last1=Phillips|first1=Tom|date=13 December 2014|title=Fears for rare wildlife as oil 'catastrophe' strikes Bangladesh|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/bangladesh/11291856/Fears-for-rare-wildlife-as-oil-catastrophe-strikes-Sundarbans.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220112/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/asia/bangladesh/11291856/Fears-for-rare-wildlife-as-oil-catastrophe-strikes-Sundarbans.html |archive-date=12 January 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|work=[[The Daily Telegraph]]|access-date=15 December 2014}}{{cbignore}} The oil spread over {{convert|350|km2|abbr=on}} area after the clash, as of 17 December.{{Cite web |url=http://www.dw.de/assessing-the-oil-spills-impact-on-bangladeshs-sundarbans-forest/a-18137182 |title="Assessing the oil spill's impact on Bangladesh's Sundarbans forest". ''Deutsche Welle''. 17 December 2014. |access-date=24 December 2014 |archive-date=24 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141224222107/http://www.dw.de/assessing-the-oil-spills-impact-on-bangladeshs-sundarbans-forest/a-18137182 |url-status=live }} The slick spread to a second river and a network of canals in the Sundarbans and blackened the shoreline.{{cite news|title=Bangladesh launches campaign to clean up Sunderbans oil spill|url=http://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/bangladesh-launches-campaign-to-clean-up-sunderbans-oil-spill/article6689136.ece|work=[[The Hindu]]|access-date=15 December 2014|archive-date=9 April 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220409052339/https://www.thehindu.com/sci-tech/energy-and-environment/bangladesh-launches-campaign-to-clean-up-sunderbans-oil-spill/article6689136.ece/|url-status=live}} The event was very threatening to trees, plankton, and vast populations of small fishes and dolphins.{{cite news|title = Bangladesh begins oil clean-up after spill|url = http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2014/12/bangladesh-begins-oil-clean-up-after-spill-2014121292319849578.html|date = 12 December 2014|publisher = Al Jazeera|access-date = 15 December 2014|archive-date = 12 February 2015|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20150212061004/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2014/12/bangladesh-begins-oil-clean-up-after-spill-2014121292319849578.html|url-status = live}} The event occurred at a protected Sundarbans mangrove area, home to the rare [[Irrawaddy dolphin|Irrawaddy]] and [[Ganges dolphin]]s.{{cite news|title = Bangladesh oil spill threatens rare dolphins|url = http://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2014/12/bangladesh-oil-spill-threatens-rare-dolphins-20141211165442529249.html|date = 11 December 2014|publisher = Al Jazeera|access-date = 15 December 2014|archive-date = 7 September 2020|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20200907183757/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/asia/2014/12/bangladesh-oil-spill-threatens-rare-dolphins-20141211165442529249.html|url-status = live}} Until 15 December 2014 only {{convert|50000|L|impgal usgal}} of oil from the area had been cleaned up by local residents, the [[Bangladesh Navy]], and [[Government of Bangladesh|the government of Bangladesh]].{{cite news|title = India on alert after Sunderbans oil spill in Bangladesh|url = https://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30448377|work = BBC News|access-date = 16 December 2014|archive-date = 15 December 2014|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20141215053354/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-asia-30448377|url-status = live}}{{cite news |title=No capacity to tackle oil spills |url=http://www.thedailystar.net/no-capacity-to-tackle-oil-spills-55592 |work=[[The Daily Star (Bangladesh)|The Daily Star]] |date=16 December 2014 |access-date=16 December 2014 |archive-date=9 January 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150109100333/http://www.thedailystar.net/no-capacity-to-tackle-oil-spills-55592 |url-status=live }} Some reports indicated that the event killed some wildlife. On 13 December 2014, a dead [[Irrawaddy dolphin]] was seen floating on the Harintana-Tembulbunia channel of the Sela River.{{cite news |last=Siddique |first=Abu Bakar |date=14 December 2014 |title=First dead dolphin spotted |url=http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/14/first-dead-dolphin-spotted |newspaper=Dhaka Tribune |access-date=18 December 2014 |archive-date=16 December 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141216080827/http://www.dhakatribune.com/bangladesh/2014/dec/14/first-dead-dolphin-spotted |url-status=live }} [181] => [182] => ==Economy== [183] => {{multiple image | align = right |perrow=1 | image1 = Fishing boats in Sundarbans.jpg [184] => | caption1 = [[Commercial fishing]] boat in Sundarbans | image2 =Boat,_trees_and_water_in_Sundarbans.jpg [185] => | caption2 = Logging boat in the Sundarbans | image3 = Ferry in Sundarbans.jpg | caption3 = Ferry boat in the Sundarbans}} [186] => [187] => The Sundarbans plays an important role in the economy of the southwestern region of Bangladesh as well as in the national economy. It is the single largest source of [[forest produce]] in the country. The forest provides raw materials for wood-based industries. In addition to traditional forest produce like timber, fuelwood, pulpwood etc., large-scale harvest of non-wood forest products such as thatching materials, [[honey]], beeswax, fish, crustacean and mollusc resources of the forest takes place regularly. The vegetated tidal lands of the Sundarbans function as an essential habitat, produces nutrients and purifies water. The forest also traps nutrient and sediment, acts as a storm barrier, shore stabiliser and energy storage unit. Last but not the least, the Sunderbans provides an aesthetic attraction for local and foreign tourists. The water houseboat in the Sundarbans is also a recent attraction among the tourists. [188] => [189] => The forest has immense protective and productive functions. Constituting 51% of the total [[Reserve forest|reserved forest estate]] of Bangladesh, it contributes about 41% of total forest revenue and accounts for about 45% of all timber and fuel wood output of the country. A number of industries (e.g., newsprint mill, match factory, hardboard, boat building, furniture making) are based on raw materials obtained from the Sundarbans ecosystem. [[Non-timber forest product]]s and [[plantation]]s help generate considerable employment and income opportunities for at least half a million poor coastal people. It provides natural protection to life and properties of the coastal population in [[cyclone]]-prone Bangladesh. [190] => [191] => ===Agriculture=== [192] => [[File:Flooded rice fields in monsoon.jpg|thumb|During monsoon the [[paddy field]]s in the Sunderbans are entirely flooded.]] [193] => Part of the Sundarbans is shielded from tidal inflow by leaves and there one finds villages and agriculture. During the [[monsoon]] season, the low lying agricultural lands are waterlogged and the summer crop (''[[kharif crop]]'') is therefore mainly [[deepwater rice]] or floating rice. In the dry winter season the land is normally uncropped and used for cattle grazing. However, the lands near the villages are irrigated from ponds that were filled up during monsoon, and vegetable crops (''[[Rabi crop]]s'') can be grown here.H.S.Sen, 1992. ''Research on water management in the Sundarbans, West Bengal, India.'' Published in the Annual Report 1992 of the International Institute for Land Reclamation and improvement, Wageningen, the Netherlands. On line:[https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/sunderbans.pdf] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180210070910/https://www.waterlog.info/pdf/sunderbans.pdf|date=10 February 2018}} [194] => [195] => ===Habitation=== [196] => The Sundarbans has a population of over 4 million{{cite news |author=Subir Bhaumik |title=Fears rise for sinking Sundarbans |url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/south_asia/3102948.stm |work=BBC News |date=15 September 2003 |access-date=26 December 2006 |archive-date=22 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210322071923/https://secure-uk.imrworldwide.com/v51.js |url-status=live }} but much of it is mostly free of permanent human habitation. Despite human habitations and a century of economic exploitation of the forest well into the late 1940s, the Sundarbans retained a forest closure of about 70% according to the [[Department for International Development|Overseas Development Administration]] (ODA) of the United Kingdom in 1980. [197] => [198] => ==Administration== [199] => [[File:Sundarban police boat.jpg|thumb|Police Boat Patrolling in [[Sundarban National Park]], West Bengal]] [200] => {{Unreferenced section|date=April 2020}} [201] => The Sundarbans area is one of the most densely populated areas in the world, and the population is increasing.{{Citation needed|date=July 2018}} As a result, half of this ecoregion's mangrove forests have been cut down to supply fuelwood and other natural resources. Despite the intense and large-scale exploitation, this still is one of the largest contiguous areas of mangroves in the world. Another threat comes from deforestation and water diversion from the rivers inland, which causes far more silt to be brought to the estuary, clogging up the waterways. [202] => [203] => The Directorate of Forest is responsible for the administration and management of Sundarban National Park in West Bengal. The [[Principal Chief Conservator of Forests]] (PCCF), Wildlife & Bio-Diversity & ex-officio Chief Wildlife Warden, West Bengal is the senior most executive officer looking over the administration of the park. The Chief Conservator of Forests (South) & Director, Sundarban Biosphere Reserve is the administrative head of the park at the local level and is assisted by a Deputy Field Director and an Assistant Field Director. The park area is divided into two ranges, overseen by range forest officers. Each range is further sub-divided into beats. The park also has floating watch stations and camps to protect the property from poachers. [204] => [205] => The park receives financial aid from the State Government as well as the [[Ministry of Environment and Forests]] under various Plan and Non-Plan Budgets. Additional funding is received under the [[Project Tiger]] from the Central Government. In 2001, a grant of US$20,000 was received as a preparatory assistance for promotion between India and Bangladesh from the [[World Heritage Fund]]. [206] => [207] => A new Khulna Forest Circle was created in Bangladesh back in 1993 to preserve the forest, and Chief Conservators of Forests have been posted since. The direct administrative head of the Division is the Divisional Forest Officer, based at Khulna, who has a number of professional, subprofessional and support staff and logistic supports for the implementation of necessary management and administrative activities. The basic unit of management is the compartment. There are 55 compartments in four Forest Ranges and these are clearly demarcated mainly by natural features such as rivers, canals and creeks. [208] => [209] => Recently West Bengal Cabinet has approved a new district in South 24 Parganas and proposed district was named Sundarban.{{Cite web |date=2022-08-01 |title=Explained: 7 new districts in West Bengal — how and why are districts created or abolished in India? |url=https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/everyday-explainers/explained-7-new-districts-west-bengal-districts-created-abolished-8064221/ |access-date=2022-08-02 |website=The Indian Express |language=en |archive-date=2 August 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220802163006/https://indianexpress.com/article/explained/everyday-explainers/explained-7-new-districts-west-bengal-districts-created-abolished-8064221/ |url-status=live }} [210] => [211] => ==Protected areas== [212] => [[File:Sunderbans map.png|thumb|A map of the protected areas of the Indian Sunderbans, showing the boundaries of the tiger reserve, the national park and the three wildlife sanctuaries, conservation and lodging centres, subsistence towns, and access points. The entire forested (dark green) area constitutes the Biosphere Reserve, with the remaining forests outside the national park and wildlife sanctuaries being given the status of a [[reserve forest]].]] [213] => [214] => The Bangladesh part of the forest lies under two forest divisions, and four administrative ranges viz Chandpai (Khulna District), [[Sarankhola]] (Khulna), and [[Burigoalini]] ([[Satkhira District]]) and has sixteen forest stations. It is further divided into fifty-five compartments and nine blocks. There are three wildlife sanctuaries established in 1977 under the Bangladesh Wildlife (Preservation) Order, 1973 (P.O. 23 of 1973). The West Bengal part of the forest lies under the district of South & North 24 Parganas. [215] => [216] => Protected areas cover 15% of the Sundarbans mangroves including [[Sundarbans National Park]] and [[Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary]], in West Bengal, [[Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary|Sundarbans East]], [[Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary|Sundarbans South]] and [[Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary|Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuaries]] in Bangladesh. [217] => [218] => In May 2019, the local authorities in Bangladesh killed 4 tiger poachers in a shootout in the Sunderbans mangrove area where currently 114 tigers dwell. [219] => [220] => ===Sundarban National Park=== [221] => {{main|Sundarbans National Park}} [222] => The Sundarban National Park is a [[National Park]], [[Tiger Reserve]], and a [[Biosphere Reserve]] in West Bengal, India. It is part of the Sundarbans on the [[Ganges Delta]], and adjacent to the Sundarbans Reserve Forest in Bangladesh. The [[River delta|delta]] is densely covered by mangrove forests, and is one of the largest reserves for the [[Bengal tiger]]. It is also home to a variety of bird, reptile and [[invertebrate]] species, including the [[salt-water crocodile]]. The present Sundarbans National Park was declared as the core area of Sundarbans Tiger Reserve in 1973 and a wildlife sanctuary in 1977. On 4 May 1984 it was declared a National Park. [223] => [224] => ===Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary=== [225] => {{main|Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary}} [226] => Sundarbans West Wildlife Sanctuary is a UNESCO World Heritage Site in Bangladesh. The region supports mangroves, including: sparse stands of Gewa (''[[Excoecaria agallocha]]'') and dense stands of Goran (''[[Ceriops]] tagal''), with discontinuous patches of Hantal palm (''[[Phoenix paludosa]]'') on drier ground, river banks and levees. The fauna of the sanctuary is very diverse with some 40 species of mammals, 260 species of birds and 35 species of reptiles. The greatest of these being the Bengal tiger of which an estimated 350 remain in the Bangladesh Sundarbans. Other large mammals are [[wild boar]], chital horin ([[spotted deer]]), Indian otter and [[macaque monkey]]. Five species of marine turtles frequent the coastal zone and two endangered reptiles are present – the [[estuarine crocodile]] and the [[Indian python]].UNESCO World Heritage Nomination, 1997 [227] => [228] => ===Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary=== [229] => {{main|Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary}} [230] => Sundarbans East Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of {{convert|31227|ha|acre}} in Bangladesh. Sundari trees (''Heritiera fomes'') dominate the flora, interspersed with Gewa (''[[Excoecaria agallocha]]'') and Passur (''Xylocarpus mekongensis'') with Kankra (''[[Bruguiera gymnorhiza]]'') occurring in areas subject to more frequent flooding. There is an understory of Shingra (''Cynometra ramiflora'') where, soils are drier and Amur (''Aglaia cucullata'') in wetter areas and Goran (''[[Ceriops]] decandra'') in more saline places. Nypa palm (''Nypa fruticans'') is widespread along drainage lines. [231] => [232] => ===Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary=== [233] => {{main|Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary}} [234] => Sundarbans South Wildlife Sanctuary extends over an area of {{convert|36970|ha|acre}} in Bangladesh. There is evidently the greatest seasonal variation in salinity levels and possibly represents an area of relatively longer duration of moderate salinity where Gewa (''[[Excoecaria agallocha]]'') is the dominant woody species. It is often mixed with Sundri, which is able to displace in circumstances such as artificially opened canopies where Sundri does not regenerate as effectively. It is also frequently associated with a dense understory of Goran (''[[Ceriops]] tagal'') and sometimes Passur. [235] => [236] => ===Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary=== [237] => {{main|Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary}} [238] => Sajnakhali Wildlife Sanctuary is a {{convert|362|km2|mi2|adj=on}} area in the northern part of the Sundarbans delta in [[South 24 Parganas district]], West Bengal, India. It is mainly mangrove scrub, forest and swamp. It was set up as a sanctuary in 1976. It is home to a rich population of different species of wildlife, such as [[water fowl]], [[heron]], [[pelican]], [[Chital|spotted deer]], [[rhesus macaque]]s, [[wild boar]], tigers, [[Asian water monitor|water monitor lizards]], [[fishing cat]]s, [[otter]]s, [[olive ridley turtle]]s, [[crocodile]]s, [[Batagur baska|batagur terrapins]], and migratory birds. [239] => [240] => ==In popular culture== [241] => {{multiple image | align = right |perow =1 | image1 = Göttin Manasa in Lehm.jpg | caption1 = Idol of [[Manasa]], the deity of snakes | image2 = Banbibi (cropped).jpg | caption2 = [[Bonbibi]], the goddess of Sundarbans}} [242] => [243] => The Sundarbans is celebrated through numerous Bengali folk songs and dances, often centred around the folk heroes, gods and goddesses specific to the Sunderbans (like [[Bonbibi]] and [[Dakshin Rai]]) and to the Lower Gangetic Delta (like [[Manasa]] and [[Chand Sadagar]]). The Bengali folk epic [[Manasamangal]] mentions ''Netidhopani'' and has some passages set in the Sundarbans during the heroine [[Behula]]'s quest to bring her husband ''Lakhindar'' back to life. [244] => [245] => The area provides the setting for several novels by [[Emilio Salgari]], (e.g. ''[[The Mystery of the Black Jungle]]''). ''Sundarbaney Arjan Sardar'', a novel by Shibshankar Mitra, and ''[[Padma Nadir Majhi]]'', a novel by [[Manik Bandopadhyay]], are based on the rigors of lives of villagers and fishermen living in the Sunderbans region, and are woven into the Bengali psyche to a great extent. Part of the plot of [[Salman Rushdie]]'s [[Booker Prize]] winning novel ''[[Midnight's Children]]'' is set in the Sundarbans. This forest is adopted as the setting of [[Kunal Basu]]'s short story "The Japanese Wife" and the subsequent [[The Japanese Wife|film adaptation]]. Most of the plot of an internationally acclaimed novelist, [[Amitav Ghosh]]'s 2004 novel, ''[[The Hungry Tide]]'', is set in the Sundarbans. The plot centres on a headstrong American cetologist who arrives to study a rare species of river dolphin, enlisting a local fisherman and translator to aid her. The book also mentions two accounts of the Bonbibi story of "Dukhey's Redemption".Ghosh, A. (2005). ''The Hungry Tide: A Novel.'', Boston: Houghton Mifflin, pp. 84–88, 292–97 {{ISBN|0-14-301556-7}}. Manik Bandopadhyay's ''[[Padma Nadir Majhi]]'' was made into a movie by [[Goutam Ghose]]. [246] => [247] => The Sunderbans has been the subject of a detailed and well-researched scholarly work on Bonbibi (a 'forest goddess' venerated by Hindus), on the relation between the islanders and tigers and on conservation and how it is perceived by the inhabitants of the Sundarbans,Jalais, Annu. (2010). ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=XIW3AwAAQBAJ Forest of Tigers: People, Politics and Environment in the Sundarbans]'', Routledge: New Delhi, London, New York, {{ISBN|0-415-69046-3}}. as well as numerous non-fiction books, including ''The Man-Eating Tigers of Sundarbans'' by Sy Montegomery for a young audience, which was shortlisted for the [[Dorothy Canfield Fisher Children's Book Award]]. In ''Up The Country'', [[Emily Eden]] discusses her travels through the Sunderbans.{{cite book|author=Eden, Emily |title='Up the country': letters written to her sister from the upper provinces of India|url=https://archive.org/details/upcountryletter03edengoog|year=1867|publisher=R. Bentley}} Numerous documentary movies have been made about the Sunderbans, including the 2003 [[IMAX]] production ''Shining Bright'' about the Bengal tiger. The acclaimed [[BBC]] TV series ''[[Ganges (BBC TV series)|Ganges]]'' documents the lives of villagers, especially [[honey collector]]s, in the Sundarbans. [248] => [249] => ==See also== [250] => {{Portal|Ecology}} [251] => * [[Sundarbans Tiger Project]] [252] => * [[Indian Council of Forestry Research and Education]] [253] => * [[Sangu Wildlife Sanctuary]] [254] => * [[Environmental impact of development in the Sundarbans]] [255] => * [[Tiger attacks in the Sundarbans]] [256] => [257] => ==References== [258] => {{Reflist|refs= [259] => {{cite report |url=http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/383933.htm |title=Integrated Resource Management Plan of the Sundarbans Reserved Forest, FAO Project BGD/84/056 |publisher=FAO |location=Rome, Italy |year=1995 |access-date=11 January 2008 |archive-date=23 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170523051219/http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/383933.htm |url-status=dead }} [260] => [261] => {{cite report |author=Forestal |year=1960 |title=Forest Inventory 1958–59 Sundarbans Forests |location=Oregon, Canada |publisher=Forestal Forestry and Engineering International Ltd.}} [262] => [263] => {{cite report |author=Chaffey, D. R. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Miller, F. R. |author3=Sandom, J. H. |year=1985 |title=A forest inventory of the Sundarbans, Bangladesh |publisher=Land Resources Development Centre|location=Surbiton, England}} [264] => [265] => {{cite conference |author=Wahid, S.M. |name-list-style=amp |author2=Alam, M.J. |author3=Rahman, A. |year=2002 |title=Mathematical river modelling to support ecological monitoring of the largest mangrove forest of the world – the Sundarbans |conference=Proceedings of First Asia-Pacific DHI software conference, 17–18 June 2002}} [266] => }} [267] => [268] => ==Sources== [269] => {{Refbegin}} [270] => * {{EB1911|wstitle=Sundarbans}} [271] => * Laskar Muqsudur Rahman, [http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p015_2/rmrs_p015_2_143_148.pdf The Sundarbans: A Unique Wilderness of the World] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080228194444/http://www.fs.fed.us/rm/pubs/rmrs_p015_2/rmrs_p015_2_143_148.pdf |date=28 February 2008 }}; at [http://www.fs.fed.us/ USDA Forest Reserve] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/19970708105238/http://www.fs.fed.us/ |date=8 July 1997 }}; McCool, Stephen F.; Cole, David N.; Borrie, William T.; O'Loughlin, Jennifer, comps. 2000. Wilderness science in a time of change conference, Volume 2: Wilderness within the context of larger systems; 1999 May 23–27; Missoula, MT. Proceedings RMRS-P-15-VOL-2. Ogden, UT: US Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, [[Rocky Mountain Research Station]]. [272] => * Terminal Report, [http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/383933.htm Integrated Resource Development of the Sundarbans Reserved Forest] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170523051219/http://www.fao.org/docrep/field/383933.htm |date=23 May 2017 }}: Project Findings and Recommendations, [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (acting as executing agency for the [[United Nations Development Programme]]), United Nations, Rome, 1998 (prepared for the Government of Bangladesh) [273] => * Blasco, F. (1975). ''The Mangroves of India''. Institut Francis de Pondichéry, Travaux de las Section Scientifique et Technique, Tome XIV, Facicule 1. Pondicherry, India. [274] => * Jalais, Annu. (2005). "Dwelling on Morichjhanpi: When Tigers Became 'Citizens', Refugees 'Tiger-Food'"; ''Economic and Political Weekly'', 23 April 2005, pp. 1757 – 1762. [275] => * Jalais, Annu. (2007). "The Sundarbans: Whose World Heritage Site?", ''Conservation and Society'' (vol. 5, no. 4). [276] => * Jalais, Annu. (2008). "Unmasking the Cosmopolitan Tiger", ''Nature and Culture'' (vol. 3, no. 1), pp. 25–40. [277] => * Jalais, Annu. (2008). "Bonbibi: Bridging Worlds", ''Indian Folklore'', serial no. 28, Jan 2008. [278] => * Jalais, Annu. (2009). "Confronting Authority, Negotiating Morality: tiger prawn seed collection in the Sundarbans", International Collective in Support of Fishworkers, Yemaya, 32, Nov. [https://www.icsf.net/en/yemaya/detail/EN/1582.html] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180902084426/https://www.icsf.net/en/yemaya/detail/EN/1582.html |date=2 September 2018 }}; Also in French: http://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-8148.html {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130511170603/http://base.d-p-h.info/en/fiches/dph/fiche-dph-8148.html |date=11 May 2013 }} [279] => * Jalais, Annu. (2010). "Braving Crocodiles with Kali: Being a prawn-seed collector and a modern woman in the 21st century Sundarbans", ''Socio-Legal Review'', Vol. 6. [280] => * Montgomery, Sy (1995). ''Spell of the Tiger: The Man-Eaters of Sundarbans''. Houghton Mifflin Company, New York. [281] => * Rivers of Life: Living with Floods in Bangladesh. M. Q. Zaman. ''Asian Survey'', Vol. 33, No. 10 (October 1993), pp. 985–996 [282] => * {{cite journal |last1=Allison |first1=M. A. |last2=Kepple |first2=E. B. |date=September 2001 |title=Modern sediment supply to the lower delta plain of the Ganges-Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh |journal=Geo-Marine Letters |volume=21 |issue=2 |pages=66 |doi=10.1007/s003670100069|bibcode=2001GML....21...66M |s2cid=140636544 }} [283] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20091222015740/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/pdf/Sundarbans%20%5Bboth%5D.pdf Sundarbans on United Nations Environment Programme] [284] => * {{cite journal |last=Brammer |first=H. |date=July 1990 |title=Floods in Bangladesh: II. Flood Mitigation and Environmental Aspects |journal=The Geographical Journal |volume=156 |issue=2 |pages=158–165 |doi=10.2307/635323|jstor=635323 |bibcode=1990GeogJ.156..158B }} [285] => * [http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/mar252003/757.pdf Environmental classification of mangrove wetlands of India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070701040202/http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/mar252003/757.pdf |date=1 July 2007 }}. V. Selvam. ''Current Science'', Vol. 84, No. 6, 25 March 2003. [286] => {{Refend}} [287] => * {{cite book|author1=Green, M.J.B. |author2=Centre, W.C.M. |author3=Parks, I.C.o.N. |author4=Areas, P. |year=1990|title=Iucn Directory of South Asian Protected Areas|publisher=IUCN-The World Conservation Union|isbn=978-2-8317-0030-4|url=https://archive.org/details/iucndirectoryofs90gree}} [288] => [289] => ==External links== [290] => {{Commons category|Sundarbans}} [291] => * {{Wikivoyage-inline}} [292] => * [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/798 UNESCO World Heritage Centre: The Sundarbans] [293] => * [http://www.unesco.org/mabdb/br/brdir/directory/biores.asp?code=IND+03&mode=all UNESCO: Sundarban Biosphere Reserve Information] [294] => * [https://www.worldheritagesite.org/list/The+Sundarbans World Heritage Site: The Sundarbans] [295] => * [https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080510070643/http://www.unep-wcmc.org/sites/wh/sundarb.html United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre Protected Areas Programme: The Sundarbans] [296] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20110714132030/http://srmilan.multiply.com/journal/item/15/15 The Sundarban of Bangladesh: A Rich Biodiversity of the World's Largest Mangrove Ecosystem] [297] => * [http://www.greenpeace.org/international/en/multimedia/multimedia-archive/Photo-Essays1/sinking-sundarbans-climate-v/ Greenpeace: Sinking Sundarbans – Climate voices] [298] => * [http://www.wild-team.org Tiger Conservation Project in the Bangladeshi Sundarbans] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201006142656/http://wild-team.org/ |date=6 October 2020 }} [299] => * [http://www.waterlog.info/pdf/sunderbans.pdf Research on water management and control in the Sunderbans, West Bengal, India] [300] => * [http://en.bdfish.org/2011/10/finfishes-of-the-sundarbans/ Finfishes of Sundarbans] [301] => * Nasa images: [https://web.archive.org/web/20130502032619/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Search/index.php?hq=site%3Aearthobservatory.nasa.gov%2FIOTD%2F&q=Sundarbans set 01] and [https://web.archive.org/web/20130502072250/http://earthobservatory.nasa.gov/Search/index.php?q=sunderbans set 2] [302] => [303] => {{World Heritage Sites in Bangladesh}} [304] => {{World Heritage Sites in India}} [305] => {{National Parks of India}} [306] => {{Protected Forests of Bangladesh}} [307] => {{Ramsar sites in India}} [308] => {{Bangladesh topics}} [309] => {{India topics}} [310] => {{GeoSouthAsia}} [311] => {{Authority control}} [312] => [313] => {{West Bengal}} [314] => [315] => [[Category:Sundarbans| ]] [316] => [[Category:Geography of South 24 Parganas district]] [317] => [[Category:Bay of Bengal]] [318] => [[Category:Protected areas of Bangladesh]] [319] => [[Category:Protected areas of West Bengal]] [320] => [[Category:Indomalayan ecoregions]] [321] => [[Category:Mangrove ecoregions]] [322] => [[Category:Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests]] [323] => [[Category:Ecoregions of Bangladesh]] [324] => [[Category:Ecoregions of India]] [325] => [[Category:Natural regions of Asia]] [326] => [[Category:Environment of West Bengal]] [327] => [[Category:Forests of Bangladesh]] [328] => [[Category:Forests of India]] [329] => [[Category:Forests of West Bengal]] [330] => [[Category:Ramsar sites in Bangladesh]] [331] => [[Category:Wetlands of India]] [332] => [[Category:Ramsar sites in India]] [333] => [[Category:Tourist attractions in Bangladesh]] [334] => [[Category:Tourist attractions in West Bengal]] [335] => [[Category:World Heritage Sites in Bangladesh]] [336] => [[Category:World Heritage Sites in India]] [337] => [[Category:Regions of West Bengal]] [338] => [[Category:Regions of India]] [] => )
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Sundarbans

The Sundarbans is a large mangrove forest located in the delta region of the Bay of Bengal, covering parts of Bangladesh and India. It is the largest mangrove forest in the world and has been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site.

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It is the largest mangrove forest in the world and has been recognized as a UNESCO World Heritage site. The Sundarbans is known for its unique and diverse ecosystem, with numerous species of plants, animals, and birds. It is home to the Bengal tiger and supports a variety of other wildlife such as crocodiles, dolphins, and birds. The region is also crucial for the livelihoods of the local communities, who rely on its resources for fishing, honey collection, and timber. However, the Sundarbans face various threats, including climate change, deforestation, and industrial development, which pose significant challenges to its conservation. Efforts are being made by local and international organizations to protect and preserve the Sundarbans and ensure its long-term sustainability.

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