Array ( [0] => {{short description|Clade of archaeplastids including green algae and the land plants}} [1] => {{For|an explanation of very similar terms|plant|green algae}} [2] => {{Automatic taxobox [3] => | color_as = Plantae [4] => | fossil_range ={{long fossil range|1000|0|earliest=1200|[[Stenian]]{{cite journal |last1=Tang |first1=Qing |title=A one-billion-year-old multicellular chlorophyte |journal=Nature Ecology and Evolution |date=24 February 2020 |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=543-549 |doi=10.1038/s41559-020-1122-9 |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-020-1122-9|doi-access=free |pmc=8668152 }} – [[Holocene|Present]]}} [5] => | image = Taiwan 2009 East Coast ShihTiPing Giant Stone Steps Algae FRD 6581.jpg [6] => | image_caption = An assortment of [[thallophyte]] Viridiplantae in a [[Tide pool|rock pool]], [[Taiwan]] [7] => | display_parents = 3 [8] => | taxon = Viridiplantae [9] => | authority = [[Cavalier-Smith]], 1981 [10] => | synonyms = *[[Plant|Plantae]], [[Herbert Copeland|Copeland]], 1938, 1956{{cite journal | vauthors = Copeland HF | year = 1938 | title = The kingdoms of organisms | journal = The Quarterly Review of Biology | volume = 13 | issue = 4| pages = 383–420 | doi = 10.1086/394568 | s2cid = 84634277 }}{{cite book | vauthors = Copeland HF | year = 1956 | title = The Classification of Lower Organisms | location = Palo Alto | publisher = Pacific Books | page = 6 | url = https://archive.org/details/classificationof00cope }} [11] => *Euchlorophyta Whittaker, 1969{{cite journal | vauthors = Whittaker RH | title = New concepts of kingdoms or organisms. Evolutionary relations are better represented by new classifications than by the traditional two kingdoms | journal = Science | volume = 163 | issue = 3863 | pages = 150–60 | date = January 1969 | pmid = 5762760 | doi = 10.1126/science.163.3863.150 | url = http://www.ib.usp.br/inter/0410113/downloads/Whittaker_1969.pdf | citeseerx = 10.1.1.403.5430 | access-date = 2015-01-31 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171117160137/http://www.ib.usp.br/inter/0410113/downloads/Whittaker_1969.pdf | archive-date = 2017-11-17 | url-status = dead }} [12] => *Chlorophyta ''sensu'' van den Hoek & Jahns, 1978{{cite book | vauthors = van den Hoek C, Jahns HM | year = 1978 | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=tfkmAAAAMAAJ | title = Einführung in die Phykologie | language = de | publisher = Georg Thieme Verlag | location = Stuttgart | isbn = 9783135511016 }} [13] => *Chlorobionta Jeffrey 1982, emend. Bremer 1985, emend. Lewis and McCourt 2004 [14] => *Chlorobiota Kendrick and Crane 1997 [15] => *Chloroplastida Adl et al., 2005 [16] => * Viridiplantae Cavalier-Smith 1981{{cite journal | vauthors = Cavalier-Smith T | title = Eukaryote kingdoms: seven or nine? | journal = Bio Systems | volume = 14 | issue = 3–4 | pages = 461–81 | date = 1981 | pmid = 7337818 | doi = 10.1016/0303-2647(81)90050-2 }} [17] => * Phyta Barkley 1939 emed. Holt & Uidica 2007 [18] => * Cormophyta Endlicher, 1836 [19] => * Cormobionta Rothmaler, 1948 [20] => * Euplanta Barkley, 1949 [21] => * Telomobionta Takhtajan, 1964 [22] => * Embryobionta Cronquist et al., 1966 [23] => * Metaphyta Whittaker, 1969 [24] => | subdivision_ranks = Subgroups [25] => | subdivision = *[[Prasinodermophyta]] [26] => *[[Chlorophyta]] [27] => *[[Streptophyta]] [28] => ** [[Mesostigmatophyceae]] [29] => ** [[Chlorokybophyceae]] [30] => ** [[Klebsormidiophyceae]] [31] => ** [[Charophyceae]] [32] => ** [[Coleochaetophyceae]] [33] => ** [[Zygnematophyceae]] [34] => ** [[Embryophyta]] [35] => }} [36] => [37] => '''Viridiplantae''' (literally "green plants") constitute a [[clade]] of [[eukaryote|eukaryotic]] organisms that comprises approximately 450,000–500,000 species that play important roles in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.{{cite journal|author4-link=Michael Deyholos| vauthors = Leebens-Mack JH, Barker MS, Carpenter EJ, Deyholos MK, Gitzendanner MA, Graham SW, etal | collaboration = One Thousand Plant Transcriptomes Initiative | title = One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants | journal = Nature | volume = 574 | issue = 7780 | pages = 679–685 | date = October 2019 | pmid = 31645766 | pmc = 6872490 | doi = 10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2 }} They include the [[green algae]], which are primarily aquatic, and the land plants ([[embryophyte]]s), which emerged from within them.{{cite journal | vauthors = Cocquyt E, Verbruggen H, Leliaert F, Zechman FW, Sabbe K, De Clerck O | title = Gain and loss of elongation factor genes in green algae | journal = BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume = 9 | pages = 39 | date = February 2009 | pmid = 19216746 | pmc = 2652445 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2148-9-39 | doi-access = free }}{{cite book | vauthors = Becker B | title = Function and evolution of the vacuolar compartment in green algae and land plants (Viridiplantae) | volume = 264 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/internationalrev0000unse_w6f2/page/1 1–24] | year = 2007 | pmid = 17964920 | doi = 10.1016/S0074-7696(07)64001-7 | isbn = 9780123742636 | series = International Review of Cytology | url-access = registration | url = https://archive.org/details/internationalrev0000unse_w6f2/page/1 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Kim E, Graham LE | title = EEF2 analysis challenges the monophyly of Archaeplastida and Chromalveolata | journal = PLOS ONE | volume = 3 | issue = 7 | pages = e2621 | date = July 2008 | pmid = 18612431 | pmc = 2440802 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0002621 | bibcode = 2008PLoSO...3.2621K | editor1-last = Redfield | editor1-first = Rosemary Jeanne | name-list-style = vanc | doi-access = free }} Green algae traditionally excludes the land plants, rendering them a [[paraphyly|paraphyletic]] group. However it is accurate to think of land plants as a kind of alga. Since the realization that the embryophytes emerged from within the green algae, some authors are starting to include them.{{cite journal | vauthors = Delwiche CF, Timme RE | title = Plants | journal = Current Biology | volume = 21 | issue = 11 | pages = R417–22 | date = June 2011 | pmid = 21640897 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2011.04.021 | doi-access = free }}{{Cite web|url=http://www.life.umd.edu/labs/delwiche/Charophyte.html|title=Charophycean Green Algae Home Page|website=www.life.umd.edu|access-date=2018-02-24}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Ruhfel BR, Gitzendanner MA, Soltis PS, Soltis DE, Burleigh JG | title = From algae to angiosperms-inferring the phylogeny of green plants (Viridiplantae) from 360 plastid genomes | journal = BMC Evolutionary Biology | volume = 14 | pages = 23 | date = February 2014 | pmid = 24533922 | pmc = 3933183 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2148-14-23 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Delwiche CF, Cooper ED | title = The Evolutionary Origin of a Terrestrial Flora | journal = Current Biology | volume = 25 | issue = 19 | pages = R899–910 | date = October 2015 | pmid = 26439353 | doi = 10.1016/j.cub.2015.08.029 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Parfrey LW, Lahr DJ, Knoll AH, Katz LA | title = Estimating the timing of early eukaryotic diversification with multigene molecular clocks | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 108 | issue = 33 | pages = 13624–9 | date = August 2011 | pmid = 21810989 | pmc = 3158185 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1110633108 | bibcode = 2011PNAS..10813624P | doi-access = free }} They have cells with [[cellulose]] in their cell walls, and primary chloroplasts derived from [[endosymbiosis]] with [[cyanobacteria]] that contain [[chlorophyll a|chlorophylls a]] and [[chlorophyll b|b]] and lack [[phycobilin]]s. Corroborating this, a basal [[phagotroph]] archaeplastida group has been found in the [[Rhodelphidia|Rhodelphydia]].{{Cite journal |last1=Bowles |first1=Alexander M. C. |last2=Williamson |first2=Christopher J. |last3=Williams |first3=Tom A. |last4=Lenton |first4=Timothy M. |last5=Donoghue |first5=Philip C. J. |date=2022-10-31 |title=The origin and early evolution of plants |url=https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/abstract/S1360-1385(22)00271-0 |journal=Trends in Plant Science |volume=28 |issue=3 |pages=312–329 |language=English |doi=10.1016/j.tplants.2022.09.009 |issn=1360-1385 |pmid=36328872|hdl=10871/131900 |s2cid=253303816 |hdl-access=free }} [38] => [39] => In some classification systems, the group has been treated as a [[kingdom (biology)|kingdom]],{{cite web |url=https://www.uniprot.org/taxonomy/33090 |title=Viridiplantae |access-date=2009-03-08}} under various names, e.g. Viridiplantae, '''Chlorobionta''', or simply [[Plant]]ae, the latter expanding the traditional [[Plant|plant kingdom]] to include the [[green algae]]. Adl'' et al.'', who produced a classification for all [[eukaryote]]s in 2005, introduced the name '''Chloroplastida''' for this group, reflecting the group having primary [[chloroplast]]s with green [[chlorophyll]]. They rejected the name Viridiplantae on the grounds that some of the species are not plants, as understood traditionally.{{cite journal | vauthors = Adl SM, Simpson AG, Farmer MA, Andersen RA, Anderson OR, Barta JR, Bowser SS, Brugerolle G, Fensome RA, Fredericq S, James TY, Karpov S, Kugrens P, Krug J, Lane CE, Lewis LA, Lodge J, Lynn DH, Mann DG, McCourt RM, Mendoza L, Moestrup O, Mozley-Standridge SE, Nerad TA, Shearer CA, Smirnov AV, Spiegel FW, Taylor MF | display-authors = 6 | title = The new higher level classification of eukaryotes with emphasis on the taxonomy of protists | journal = The Journal of Eukaryotic Microbiology | volume = 52 | issue = 5 | pages = 399–451 | year = 2005 | pmid = 16248873 | doi = 10.1111/j.1550-7408.2005.00053.x | s2cid = 8060916 | doi-access = free }} The Viridiplantae are made up of two clades: [[Chlorophyta]] and [[Streptophyta]] as well as the basal [[Mesostigmatophyceae]] and [[Chlorokybophyceae]].{{cite journal | vauthors = Simon A, Glöckner G, Felder M, Melkonian M, Becker B | title = EST analysis of the scaly green flagellate Mesostigma viride (Streptophyta): implications for the evolution of green plants (Viridiplantae) | journal = BMC Plant Biology | volume = 6 | pages = 2 | date = February 2006 | pmid = 16476162 | pmc = 1413533 | doi = 10.1186/1471-2229-6-2 | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Sánchez-Baracaldo P, Raven JA, Pisani D, Knoll AH | title = Early photosynthetic eukaryotes inhabited low-salinity habitats | journal = Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America | volume = 114 | issue = 37 | pages = E7737–E7745 | date = September 2017 | pmid = 28808007 | pmc = 5603991 | doi = 10.1073/pnas.1620089114 | bibcode = 2017PNAS..114E7737S | doi-access = free }} Together with [[red algae|Rhodophyta]] and [[glaucophyte]]s, Viridiplantae are thought to belong to a larger clade called [[Archaeplastida]] or Primoplantae. [40] => [41] => ==Phylogeny and classification== [42] => Simplified phylogeny of the Viridiplantae, according to Leliaert ''et al''. 2012.{{cite journal | vauthors = Leliaert F, Smith DR, Moreau H, Herron MD, Verbruggen H, Delwiche CF, De Clerck O |year=2012 |title=Phylogeny and molecular evolution of the green algae |doi=10.1080/07352689.2011.615705 |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |volume=31 |issue=1 |pages=1–46 |bibcode=2012CRvPS..31....1L |s2cid=17603352 |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01590252/file/article.pdf }} [43] => * Viridiplantae [44] => **[[Chlorophyta]] [45] => ***core chlorophytes [46] => ****[[Ulvophyceae]] [47] => *****[[Cladophorales]] [48] => *****[[Dasycladales]] [49] => *****[[Bryopsidales]] [50] => *****[[Trentepohliales]] [51] => *****[[Ulvales]]-[[Ulotrichales]] [52] => *****[[Oltmannsiellopsidales]] [53] => ****[[Chlorophyceae]] [54] => *****[[Oedogoniales]] [55] => *****[[Chaetophorales]] [56] => *****[[Chaetopeltidales]] [57] => *****[[Chlamydomonadales]] [58] => *****[[Sphaeropleales]] [59] => ****[[Trebouxiophyceae]] [60] => *****[[Chlorellales]] [61] => *****[[Oocystaceae]] [62] => *****[[Microthamniales]] [63] => *****[[Trebouxiales]] [64] => *****''[[Prasiola]]'' clade [65] => ****[[Chlorodendrophyceae]] [66] => *****[[Chlorodendrales]] [67] => ****[[Pedinophyceae]]{{cite journal | vauthors = Marin B | title = Nested in the Chlorellales or independent class? Phylogeny and classification of the Pedinophyceae (Viridiplantae) revealed by molecular phylogenetic analyses of complete nuclear and plastid-encoded rRNA operons | journal = Protist | volume = 163 | issue = 5 | pages = 778–805 | date = September 2012 | pmid = 22192529 | doi = 10.1016/j.protis.2011.11.004 }} [68] => ***[[prasinophytes]] (paraphyletic) [69] => ****[[Pyramimonadales]] [70] => ****[[Mamiellophyceae]] [71] => ****[[Pycnococcaceae]] [72] => ****[[Nephroselmidophyceae]] [73] => ****[[Prasinococcales]] [74] => ****[[Palmophyllales]] [75] => *[[Streptophyta]] [76] => **[[Charophyta|Charophytes]] [77] => ***[[Mesostigmatophyceae]] [78] => ****[[Mesostigma|Mesostigmatales]] [79] => ****[[Chlorokybus|Chlorokybales]] [80] => ***[[Klebsormidiophyceae]] [81] => ***[[Phragmoplastophyta]] [82] => ****[[Charophyceae]] [83] => ****[[Coleochaetophyceae]] [84] => ****[[Zygnematophyceae]] [85] => ****[[Embryophyta]] (land plants) [86] => [87] => ===Cladogram=== [88] => [89] => In 2019, a phylogeny based on genomes and transcriptomes from 1,153 plant species was proposed.{{cite journal |last1=Leebens-Mack |first1=M. |last2=Barker |first2=M. |last3=Carpenter |first3=E. |author4-link=Michael Deyholos |last4=Deyholos |first4=M. K. |last5=Gitzendammer |first5=M. A. |last6=Graham |first6=S.W. |last7=Grosse |first7=I. |last8=Li |first8=Zheng |display-authors=3 |title=One thousand plant transcriptomes and the phylogenomics of green plants |journal=Nature |volume=574 |issue=7780 |year=2019 |pages=679–685 |doi=10.1038/s41586-019-1693-2 |pmid=31645766 |pmc=6872490 |doi-access=free }} The placing of algal groups is supported by phylogenies based on genomes from the Mesostigmatophyceae and Chlorokybophyceae that have since been sequenced. Both the "chlorophyte algae" and the "streptophyte algae" are treated as paraphyletic (vertical bars beside phylogenetic tree diagram) in this analysis.{{cite journal |last1=Liang |first1=Zhe |display-authors=etal |title=Mesostigma viride Genome and Transcriptome Provide Insights into the Origin and Evolution of Streptophyta |journal=Advanced Science |volume=7 |issue=1 |year=2019 |pages=1901850 |doi=10.1002/advs.201901850 |pmid=31921561 |pmc=6947507 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Sibo |display-authors=etal |title=Genomes of early-diverging streptophyte algae shed light on plant terrestrialization |journal=Nature Plants |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2020 |pages=95–106 |doi=10.1038/s41477-019-0560-3 |pmid=31844283 |pmc=7027972 |doi-access=free }} The classification of [[Bryophyte|Bryophyta]] is supported both by Puttick ''et al.'' 2018,{{cite journal |last1=Puttick |first1=Mark |display-authors=etal |title=The Interrelationships of Land Plants and the Nature of the Ancestral Embryophyte |journal=Current Biology |volume=28 |issue=5 |year=2018 |pages=733–745 |doi=10.1016/j.cub.2018.01.063 |pmid=29456145|doi-access=free |hdl=10400.1/11601 |hdl-access=free }} and by phylogenies involving the hornwort genomes that have also since been sequenced.{{cite journal |last1=Zhang |first1=Jian |display-authors=etal |title=The hornwort genome and early land plant evolution |journal=Nature Plants |volume=6 |issue=2 |year=2020 |pages=107–118 |doi=10.1038/s41477-019-0588-4|pmid=32042158 |pmc=7027989 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Fay Wei |display-authors=etal |title=Anthoceros genomes illuminate the origin of land plants and the unique biology of hornworts |journal=Nature Plants |volume=6 |issue=3 |year=2020 |pages=259–272 |doi=10.1038/s41477-020-0618-2|pmid=32170292 |pmc=8075897 |doi-access=free }} [90] => [91] => {{clade|style=font-size:90%;line-height:80%; [92] => |grouplabel1={{clade labels |label1="chlorophyte algae"|top1=15% [93] => |label2="streptophyte algae"|top2=40%}} [94] => |label1=[[Archaeplastida]] [95] => |1={{clade [96] => |1=[[Red algae|Rhodophyta]] [[File:Chondrus crispus - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-034 (single).jpg|50px]] [97] => |2={{clade [98] => |1=[[Glaucophyte|Glaucophyta]] [[File:Glaucocystis nostochinearum.jpg|50px]] [99] => |label2='''Viridiplantae''' [100] => |sublabel2= (green plants) [101] => |2={{clade [102] => |1=[[Prasinodermophyta]]|bar1=darkorange [103] => |2={{clade [104] => |1=[[Chlorophyta]] [[File:Volvox sp.png|50px]]|bar1=darkgreen [105] => |2=  |state2=none |style2=font-size:50%;line-height:50%; [106] => |3={{clade [107] => |1= {{clade [108] => |1=[[Mesostigmatophyceae]]|bar1=blue [109] => |2={{clade [110] => |1=[[Chlorokybophyceae]]|bar1=blue [111] => |2=''[[Spirotaenia]]'' [[File:Spirotaenia condensata.jpg|30px]] |bar2=blue [112] => }} [113] => }} [114] => |2={{clade [115] => |1=[[Klebsormidiophyceae|Klebsormidiales]] [[File:Klebsormidium bilatum Belgium (14759117646).jpg|50px]] |bar1=blue [116] => |2={{clade [117] => |1=''[[Chara (alga)|Chara]]'' [[File:CharaGlobularis.jpg|40px]] |bar1=blue [118] => |2={{clade [119] => |1=[[Coleochaetophyceae|Coleochaetales]]|bar1=blue [120] => |2={{clade [121] => |1=[[Zygnematophyceae]] [[File:The freshwater alga Spirogyra.jpg|50px]] |bar1=blue [122] => |label2=[[Embryophyte]]s [123] => |sublabel2= (land plants) [124] => |2={{clade [125] => |1={{clade [126] => |label1=[[Bryophytes]] [127] => |1={{clade [128] => |1=[[Hornwort]]s [[File:Phaeoceros laevis 48205337 (white background).jpg|40px]] [129] => |2={{clade [130] => |1=[[Marchantiophyta|Liverworts]] [[File:Conocephalum conicum (e, 144739-474742) 1022.jpg|50px]] [131] => |2=[[Moss]]es [[File:WWB-0265-127-Polytrichum formosum.png|20px]] [132] => }} [133] => }} [134] => }} [135] => |2={{clade [136] => |1=[[Lycophyte]]s [[File:Lycopodium clavatum - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-219.jpg|50px]] [137] => |2={{clade [138] => |1=[[Fern]]s [[File:California Arena Point fern.jpg|50px]] [139] => |label2=[[Spermatophyte]]s [140] => |sublabel2= (seed plants) [141] => |2={{clade [142] => |1=[[Gymnosperm]]s [[File:PIH 1830 Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris) graft clone collection in Röykkä Finland.jpg|40px]] [143] => |2=[[Flowering plant|Angiosperms]] [[File:160 Ranunculus repens.jpg|50px]] [144] => }} [145] => }} [146] => }} [147] => }} [148] => }} [149] => }} [150] => }} [151] => }} [152] => }} [153] => }} [154] => }} [155] => }} [156] => }} [157] => }} [158] => [159] => Ancestrally, the green algae were flagellates. [160] => [161] => [162] => == References == [163] => {{Reflist}} [164] => {{Wikispecies}} [165] => [166] => {{Eukaryota}} [167] => {{Plant classification}} [168] => [169] => {{Taxonbar|from=Q11973077}} [170] => [171] => [[Category:Biological classification]] [172] => [[Category:Subkingdoms]] [173] => [[Category:Taxa named by Thomas Cavalier-Smith]] [] => )
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Viridiplantae

Viridiplantae (literally "green plants") constitute a clade of eukaryotic organisms that comprises approximately 450,000-500,000 species that play important roles in both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. They include the green algae, which are primarily aquatic, and the land plants (embryophytes), which emerged from within them.

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Chlorophyll

Chlorophyll is a green pigment found in plants, algae, and some types of bacteria.

Chloroplast

A chloroplast is a specialized organelle found in plant cells and some algae.

Embryophyta

Embryophyte

The embryophytes are a clade of plants, also known as Embryophyta or land plants.

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