Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Human between birth and puberty}} [1] => {{Redirect2|Children|Childhood||Child (disambiguation)|and|Children (disambiguation)|and|Childhood (disambiguation)}} [2] => {{pp-protected|reason=vandalism/disruptive editing|expiry=indefinite|small=yes|vandalism}} [3] => {{Use dmy dates|date=May 2016}} [4] => [5] => [[File:International children dressed in their native costumes participate in the 100th anniversary of the Statue of Liberty - DPLA - 4461efafd5c4ba7fde8eedb1f13f439e.jpeg|thumb|International children in traditional clothing at [[Liberty Weekend]]]] [6] => [7] => {{Human growth and development}} [8] => A '''child''' ({{plural form|'''children'''}}) is a [[human]] being between the stages of [[childbirth|birth]] and [[puberty]],{{cite web|title=Child |publisher=[[TheFreeDictionary.com]]|access-date=5 January 2013|url=http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Child}}{{cite Q|Q19573070| book| last= O'Toole | first= MT |title=Mosby's Dictionary of Medicine, Nursing & Health Professions |location = St. Louis MO | oclc = 800721165|isbn = 978-0-323-07403-2 | url = https://archive.org/details/mosbysdictionary09edunse/page/344/mode/2up?q=345 |publisher=[[Elsevier Health Sciences]]|year=2013|page=345}} or between the [[Development of the human body|developmental period]] of [[infancy]] and puberty.{{cite book|vauthors = Rathus SA|title =Childhood and Adolescence: Voyages in Development|isbn =978-1-285-67759-0|publisher=[[Cengage Learning]]|year=2013|page=48|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OfIWAAAAQBAJ&pg=PT48}} It may also refer to an unborn human being.{{cite web|title=Child |publisher=[[OED.com]]|access-date=11 April 2023|url=https://www.oed.com/viewdictionaryentry/Entry/31619}}{{cite web|title=Child |publisher=[[Merriam-Webster.com]]|access-date=11 April 2023|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/child}} The legal definition of ''child'' generally refers to a [[minor (law)|minor]], otherwise known as a person younger than the [[age of majority]]. Children generally have fewer [[Children's rights|rights]] and responsibilities than [[adult]]s. They are generally classed as unable to make serious decisions. [9] => [10] => ''Child'' may also describe a relationship with a [[parent]] (such as [[son]]s and [[daughter]]s of any age){{cite web|url=http://www.ssa.gov/dibplan/dacpage.shtml|title=For example, the US Social Security department specifically defines an adult child as being over 18|publisher=Ssa.gov|access-date=9 October 2013|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131001072300/http://www.ssa.gov/dibplan/dacpage.shtml|archive-date=1 October 2013|df=dmy-all}} or, [[Metaphor|metaphorically]], an [[authority figure]], or signify group membership in a clan, tribe, or religion; it can also signify being strongly affected by a specific time, place, or circumstance, as in "a child of nature" or "a child of the Sixties."{{cite web|title=American Heritage Dictionary |url=http://www.bartleby.com/61/13/C0291300.html |date=7 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071229155809/http://www.bartleby.com/61/13/C0291300.html |archive-date=29 December 2007 }} [11] => [12] => == Biological, legal and social definitions == [13] => [[File:Children games Louvre Ma99 n2.jpg|thumb|Children playing ball games, Roman artwork, 2nd century AD]] [14] => In the biological sciences, a child is usually defined as a person between birth and puberty, or between the developmental period of infancy and puberty. Legally, the term ''child'' may refer to anyone below the age of majority or some other age limit. [15] => [16] => The [[United Nations]] [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] defines ''child'' as, "A human being below the age of 18 years unless under the [[law]] applicable to the child, [[Age of majority|majority]] is attained earlier."{{cite web|url=http://www.hakani.org/en/convention/Convention_Rights_Child.pdf |title=Convention on the Rights of the Child|department = General Assembly Resolution 44/25 of 20 November 1989 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101031104336/http://www.hakani.org/en/convention/Convention_Rights_Child.pdf |archive-date=31 October 2010 |publisher=The Policy Press, Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights}} This is ratified by 192 of 194 member countries. The term ''child'' may also refer to someone below another legally defined age limit unconnected to the age of majority. In [[Singapore]], for example, a ''child'' is legally defined as someone under the age of 14 under the "Children and Young Persons Act" whereas the age of majority is 21.{{cite web|title=Children and Young Persons Act|url=http://statutes.agc.gov.sg/aol/search/display/view.w3p;page=0;query=DocId%3A911aba78-1d05-4341-96b7-ee334d4a06f0%20%20Status%3Ainforce%20Depth%3A0;rec=0|website=Singapore Statutes Online|access-date=20 October 2017|archive-date=3 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180203075312/http://statutes.agc.gov.sg/aol/search/display/view.w3p;page=0;query=DocId:911aba78-1d05-4341-96b7-ee334d4a06f0%20%20Status:inforce%20Depth:0;rec=0|url-status=dead}}{{cite web |title=Proposal to lower the Age of Contractual Capacity from 21 years to 18 years, and the Civil Law (Amendment) Bill |publisher=[[Ministry of Law (Singapore)|Ministry of Law]] |location=Singapore |url=http://www.mlaw.gov.sg/content/minlaw/en/news/public-consultations/proposal-to-lower-the-age-of-contractual-capacity-from-21-years-to-18-years-and-the-civil-law.html |access-date=21 October 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180626054418/https://www.mlaw.gov.sg/content/minlaw/en/news/public-consultations/proposal-to-lower-the-age-of-contractual-capacity-from-21-years-to-18-years-and-the-civil-law.html |archive-date=26 June 2018 |url-status=dead }} In U.S. Immigration Law, a child refers to anyone who is under the age of 21.{{cite web|url=https://www.law.cornell.edu/uscode/text/8/1101|title=8 U.S. Code § 1101 - Definitions|website=LII / Legal Information Institute}} [17] => [18] => Some English definitions of the word ''child'' include the [[fetus]] (sometimes termed ''the unborn'').See Shorter ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'' 397 (6th ed. 2007), which's first definition is "A fetus; an infant;...". See also ‘The Compact Edition of the ''[[Oxford English Dictionary]]'': Complete Text Reproduced Micrographically’, Vol. I (''Oxford University Press'', Oxford 1971): 396, which defines it as: ‘The unborn or newly born human being; foetus, infant’. In many cultures, a child is considered an adult after undergoing a [[rite of passage]], which may or may not correspond to the time of puberty. [19] => [20] => Children generally have fewer rights than adults and are classed as unable to make serious decisions, and legally must always be under the care of a responsible adult or [[child custody]], whether their parents divorce or not. [21] => [22] => == Developmental stages of childhood == [23] => {{Further|Child development stages|Child development}} [24] => [25] => === Early childhood === [26] => [[File:Children Playing Violin Suzuki Institute 2011.JPG|thumb|Children playing the [[violin]] in a group recital, Ithaca, New York, 2011]] [27] => [[File:Malagasy girls Madagascar Merina.jpg|thumb|Children in [[Madagascar]], 2011]] [28] => [[File:Child playing piano - 1984-11-01.jpg|thumb|Child playing piano, 1984]] [29] => [30] => [[Early childhood]] follows the [[infant|infancy]] stage and begins with [[toddler]]hood when the child begins speaking or taking steps independently.{{cite book |last1=Alam |first1=Gajanafar |title=Population and Society |date=2014 |publisher=K.K. Publications |isbn=978-8178441986}}{{cite web | vauthors = Purdy ER | date = 18 January 2019 |title=Infant and toddler development|url=https://www.britannica.com/science/infant-and-toddler-development|website=Encyclopedia Britannica|language=en|access-date=2020-05-27}} While toddlerhood ends around age 3 when the child becomes less dependent on parental assistance for basic needs, early childhood continues approximately until the age of 6 or 7. However, according to the [[National Association for the Education of Young Children]], early childhood also includes infancy. At this stage children are learning through observing, experimenting and communicating with others. Adults supervise and support the development process of the child, which then will lead to the child's autonomy. Also during this stage, a strong emotional bond is created between the child and the care providers. The children also start preschool and kindergarten at this age: and hence their social lives. [31] => [32] => === Middle childhood === [33] => Middle childhood begins at around age 6, approximating [[primary school]] age. It ends at around age 9 or 10.{{cite web | url=https://dictionary.apa.org/childhood | title=APA Dictionary of Psychology }} Together, early and middle childhood are called formative years. In this middle period, children develop socially and mentally. They are at a stage where they make new friends and gain new skills, which will enable them to become more independent and enhance their individuality. [34] => During middle childhood, children enter the school years, where they are presented with a different setting than they are used to. This new setting creates new challenges and faces for children.{{cite book | vauthors = Collins WA | collaboration = National Research Council (US) Panel to Review the Status of Basic Research on School-Age Children | title = Development during Middle Childhood | year = 1984 | location = Washington D.C. | publisher = National Academies Press (US) | pmid = 25032422 | doi = 10.17226/56 | url = https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK216778/ | isbn = 978-0-309-03478-4 }} Upon the entrance of school, mental disorders that would normally not be noticed come to light. Many of these disorders include: [[autism]], [[dyslexia]], [[dyscalculia]], and [[ADHD]].{{cite book | vauthors = Berger K |title=The Developing Person through the Lifespan |date=2017 |publisher=Worth Publishers |isbn=978-1-319-01587-9 }}{{rp|303–309}} [[Special education]], [[least restrictive environment]], [[response to intervention]] and [[individualized education plan]]s are all specialized plans to help children with disabilities.{{rp|310–311}} [35] => [36] => Middle childhood is the time when children begin to understand responsibility and are beginning to be shaped by their peers and parents. Chores and more responsible decisions come at this time, as do social comparison and social play.{{rp|338}} During social play, children learn from and teach each other, often through observation.{{cite book | vauthors = Konner M |title=The Evolution of Childhood |date=2010 |publisher=The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press |location=Cambridge, Massachusetts |isbn=978-0-674-04566-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674045668/page/512 512–513] |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780674045668/page/512 }} [37] => [38] => === Late childhood === [39] => {{Main|Preadolescence}} [40] => Preadolescence is a stage of human development following early childhood and preceding [[adolescence]]. Preadolescence is commonly defined as ages 9–12, ending with the major onset of puberty, with markers such as [[menarche]], [[spermarche]], and the peak of height velocity occurring. These changes usually occur between ages 11-14. It may also be defined as the 2-year period before the major onset of puberty. Preadolescence can bring its own challenges and anxieties. Preadolescent children have a different view of the world from younger children in many significant ways. Typically, theirs is a more realistic view of life than the intense, fantasy-oriented world of earliest childhood. Preadolescents have more mature, sensible, realistic thoughts and actions: 'the most "sensible" stage of development...the child is a much ''less emotional being'' now.'Mavis Klein, ''Okay Parenting'' (1991) p. 13 and p. 78 Preadolescents may well view human [[Interpersonal relationship|relationship]]s differently (e.g. they may notice the flawed, human side of [[authority]] figures). Alongside that, they may begin to develop a sense of [[self (psychology)|self]]-[[Identity (social science)|identity]], and to have increased feelings of [[independence]]: 'may feel an individual, no longer "just one of the family."'E. Fenwick/T. Smith, ''Adolescence'' (London 1993) p. 29 [41] => [42] => == Developmental stages post-childhood == [43] => === Adolescence === [44] => [[File:Paolo Monti - Serie fotografica - BEIC 6341393.jpg|thumb|An adolescent girl, photographed by [[Paolo Monti]]]] [45] => [46] => [[Adolescence]] is usually determined to be between the onset of puberty and legal adulthood: mostly corresponding to the teenage years (13–19). However, [[puberty]] usually begins before the teenage years. Although biologically a child is a human being between the stages of [[childbirth|birth]] and [[puberty]], adolescents are legally considered children, as they tend to lack adult rights and are still required to attend compulsory schooling in many cultures, though this varies. The onset of adolescence brings about various physical, [[psychological]] and behavioral changes. The end of adolescence and the beginning of adulthood varies by country and by function, and even within a single nation-state or culture there may be different ages at which an individual is considered to be mature enough to be entrusted by society with certain tasks. [47] => [48] => == History == [49] => {{main|History of childhood}} [50] => [[File:Su Han Ch'en 001.jpg|upright|thumb|''Playing Children'', by [[Song Dynasty]] [[Chinese art]]ist Su Hanchen, c. 1150 AD.]] [51] => During the European [[Renaissance]], artistic depictions of children increased dramatically, which did not have much effect on the social attitude toward children, however.{{cite book| vauthors = Pollock LA |title=Forgotten children : parent-child relations from 1500 to 1900|date=2000|publisher=Cambridge University Press|isbn=978-0-521-25009-2 |oclc=255923951}} [52] => [53] => The French historian [[Philippe Ariès]] argued that during the 1600s, the concept of childhood began to emerge in Europe,{{cite book | title = Centuries of Childhood | vauthors = Ariès P | date = 1960| title-link = Centuries of Childhood | author-link = Philippe Ariès }} however other historians like [[Nicholas Orme]] have challenged this view and argued that childhood has been seen as a separate stage since at least the medieval period.{{cite book | title = Medieval Children |last1=Orme |first1=Nicholas |date=2001 |publisher=Yale University Press |isbn=0-300-08541-9}} Adults saw children as separate beings, innocent and in need of protection and training by the adults around them. The English philosopher [[John Locke]] was particularly influential in defining this new attitude towards children, especially with regard to his theory of the [[tabula rasa]], which considered the mind at birth to be a "blank slate". A corollary of this doctrine was that the mind of the child was born blank, and that it was the duty of the parents to imbue the child with correct notions. During the early period of [[capitalism]], the rise of a large, commercial middle class, mainly in the [[Protestantism|Protestant]] countries of the [[Dutch Republic]] and [[England]], brought about a new family ideology centred around the upbringing of children. [[Puritanism]] stressed the importance of individual salvation and concern for the spiritual welfare of children.{{cite journal | vauthors = Fox VC | title = Poor Children's Rights in Early Modern England. | journal = The Journal of Psychohistory | date = April 1996 | volume = 23 | issue = 3 | pages = 286–306 | url = https://www.proquest.com/openview/20f04350242eb7f2342f8b8bb8326d76/1?pq-origsite=gscholar&cbl=1816657 }} [54] => [55] => [[File:Fig 1 Sir Joshua Reynolds The Age of Innocence. Painted circa 1788. Frame contemporary with picture. From Houghton, 2005, 24.jpg|thumb|left|upright|''[[The Age of Innocence (painting)|The Age of Innocence]]'' {{Circa|1785}}/8. Reynolds emphasized the natural grace of children in his paintings.]] [56] => [57] => The modern notion of childhood with its own autonomy and goals began to emerge during the 18th-century [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment]] and the [[Romanticism|Romantic period]] that followed it. [[Jean Jacques Rousseau]] formulated the romantic attitude towards children in his famous 1762 novel ''[[Emile: or, On Education]]''. Building on the ideas of [[John Locke]] and other 17th-century thinkers, Jean-Jaques Rousseau described childhood as a brief period of sanctuary before people encounter the perils and hardships of adulthood.{{cite book | vauthors = Cohen D |title= The development of play |date=1993 |publisher=Routledge |location=London |isbn=978-1-134-86782-0 |edition=2nd | page = 20 }} Sir [[Joshua Reynolds]]' extensive children portraiture demonstrated the new enlightened attitudes toward young children. His 1788 painting ''[[The Age of Innocence (painting)|The Age of Innocence]]'' emphasizes the innocence and natural grace of the posing child and soon became a public favourite.[[Martin Postle|Postle, Martin]]. (2005) "''The Age of Innocence''" Child Portraiture in Georgian Art and Society", in ''Pictures of Innocence: Portraits of Children from Hogarth to Lawrence''. Bath: [[Holburne Museum of Art]], pp. 7–8. {{ISBN|0903679094}} [58] => [59] => [[File:Princesses leopoldina isabel and friend (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Brazilian princesses [[Princess Leopoldina of Brazil|Leopoldina]] (left) and [[Isabel, Princess Imperial of Brazil|Isabel]] (center) with an unidentified friend, c. 1860.]] [60] => [61] => The idea of childhood as a locus of divinity, purity, and innocence is further expounded upon in [[William Wordsworth]]'s "Ode: Intimations of Immortality from Recollections of Early Childhood", the imagery of which he "fashioned from a complex mix of pastoral aesthetics, pantheistic views of divinity, and an idea of spiritual purity based on an Edenic notion of pastoral innocence infused with Neoplatonic notions of reincarnation".{{cite book | vauthors = Reeves M |chapter='A Prospect of Flowers', Concepts of Childhood and Female Youth in Seventeenth-Century British Culture | veditors = Cohen ES, Reeves M |title=The Youth of Early Modern Women |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |year=2018 |doi=10.2307/j.ctv8pzd5z |jstor=j.ctv8pzd5z |access-date=11 February 2018 |chapter-url=http://www.oapen.org/viewer/web/viewer.html?file=http://www.oapen.org/document/1004126 |page=40 |isbn=978-90-485-3498-2 |s2cid=189343394 }} This Romantic conception of childhood, historian Margaret Reeves suggests, has a longer history than generally recognized, with its roots traceable to similarly imaginative constructions of childhood circulating, for example, in the neo-platonic poetry of seventeenth-century metaphysical poet [[Henry Vaughan]] (e.g., "The Retreate", 1650; "Childe-hood", 1655). Such views contrasted with the stridently didactic, Calvinist views of infant depravity.{{sfnp|Reeves|2018|pp=41–42}} [62] => [63] => [[File:Vazken Andréassian HoMenEtMen-Sgaoudagan doghantsk Konstantinobolis 1918.jpg|thumb|upright|Armenian scouts in 1918]] [64] => [65] => With the onset of [[Industrial Revolution|industrialisation]] in England in 1760, the divergence between high-minded romantic ideals of childhood and the reality of the growing magnitude of child exploitation in the workplace, became increasingly apparent. By the late 18th century, British children were specially employed in factories and mines and as [[chimney sweep]]s,{{cite book | vauthors = Del Col L | chapter = The Life of the Industrial Worker in Ninteenth-Century [sic] England — Evidence Given Before the Sadler Committee (1831–1832) | veditors = Scott JF, Baltzly A | title = Readings in European History | date = September 1930 | publisher = Appleton-Century-Crofts | url = http://www.victorianweb.org/history/workers1.html }} often working long hours in dangerous jobs for low pay.{{cite web | vauthors = Daniels B | url = http://www.hiddenlives.org.uk/articles/poverty.html | title = Poverty and Families in the Victorian Era | work = hiddenlives.org }} As the century wore on, the contradiction between the conditions on the ground for poor children and the middle-class notion of childhood as a time of simplicity and innocence led to the first campaigns for the imposition of legal protection for children. [66] => [67] => British reformers attacked [[child labor]] from the 1830s onward, bolstered by the horrific descriptions of London street life by [[Charles Dickens]].{{cite book | vauthors = Malkovich A |title=Charles Dickens and the Victorian child : romanticizing and socializing the imperfect child |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |location=New York |isbn=978-1-135-07425-8}} The campaign eventually led to the [[Factory Acts]], which mitigated the exploitation of children at the workplace{{cite journal | vauthors = | title = The Factory and Workshop Act, 1901 | journal = British Medical Journal | volume = 2 | issue = 2139 | pages = 1871–1872 | date = December 1901 | pmid = 20759953 | pmc = 2507680 | doi = 10.1136/bmj.2.2139.1871 }} [68] => [69] => === Modern concepts of childhood === [70] => [[File:Fountain Fun.jpg|thumb|Children play in a fountain in a summer evening, [[Davis, California]].]] [71] => [[File:A moment in the garden.jpg|thumb|An old man and his granddaughter in [[Turkey]].]] [72] => [[File:Nepalese-children-with-cats.jpg|thumb|[[People of Nepal|Nepalese]] children playing with [[cat]]s.]] [73] => [[File:Harari Girls, Ethiopia (8261348010).jpg|thumb|upright|[[Harari people|Harari]] girls in Ethiopia.]] [74] => [75] => The modern attitude to children emerged by the late 19th century; the Victorian middle and upper classes emphasized the role of the family and the sanctity of the child – an attitude that has remained dominant in Western societies ever since.{{cite book | vauthors = Jordan TE |title=Victorian child savers and their culture : a thematic evaluation |date=1998 |publisher=[[Edwin Mellen Press]] |location=[[Lewiston, New York]] | oclc = 39465039 |isbn=978-0-7734-8289-0}} The genre of [[children's literature]] took off, with a proliferation of humorous, child-oriented books attuned to the child's imagination. [[Lewis Carroll]]'s fantasy ''[[Alice's Adventures in Wonderland]]'', published in 1865 in England, was a landmark in the genre; regarded as the first "English masterpiece written for children", its publication opened the "First Golden Age" of children's literature. [76] => [77] => The latter half of the 19th century saw the introduction of compulsory state schooling of children across Europe, which decisively removed children from the workplace into schools.Sagarra, Eda. (1977). ''A Social History of Germany 1648–1914'', pp. 275–84Weber, Eugen. (1976). ''Peasants into Frenchmen: The Modernization of Rural France, 1870–1914'', pp. 303–38 [78] => [79] => The market economy of the 19th century enabled the concept of childhood as a time of fun, happiness, and imagination. Factory-made dolls and doll houses delighted the girls and organized sports and activities were played by the boys.{{cite book | vauthors = Chudacoff HP |title=Children at Play: An American History |date=2007 |publisher=New York University Press |isbn=978-0-8147-1665-6}} [80] => The [[Boy Scout]]s was founded by Sir [[Robert Baden-Powell]] in 1908,{{cite book| vauthors = Woolgar B, La Riviere S | year = 2002| title = Why Brownsea? The Beginnings of Scouting | publisher = Brownsea Island Scout and Guide Management Committee }}{{cite book |last1=Hillcourt |first1=William |title=Baden-Powell; the two lives of a hero |date=1964 |publisher=Putnam |location=New York |isbn=978-0839535942 |url=https://archive.org/details/badenpowelltwoli0000unse/mode/2up?q=brownsea |oclc =1338723}} which provided young boys with outdoor activities aiming at developing character, citizenship, and personal fitness qualities.{{cite book | vauthors = Boehmer E | title=Notes to 2004 edition of Scouting for Boys|year=2004|publisher=Oxford University Press|location=[[Oxford]]}} [81] => [82] => In the 20th century, [[Philippe Ariès]], a French historian specializing in [[medieval history]], suggested that childhood was not a natural phenomenon, but a creation of society in his 1960 book ''[[Centuries of Childhood]]''. In 1961 he published a study of paintings, gravestones, furniture, and school records, finding that before the 17th century, children were represented as mini-adults. [83] => [84] => In 1966, the American philosopher [[George Boas]] published the book ''The Cult of Childhood''. Since then, historians have increasingly researched childhood in past times.{{cite journal| vauthors = Ulbricht J |date=November 2005|title=J.C. Holz Revisited: From Modernism to Visual Culture|journal=Art Education|volume=58|issue=6|pages=12–17|doi=10.1080/00043125.2005.11651564|s2cid=190482412|issn=0004-3125}} [85] => [86] => In 2006, [[Hugh Cunningham (historian)|Hugh Cunningham]] published the book ''Invention of Childhood'', looking at British childhood from the year 1000, the [[Middle Ages]], to what he refers to as the Post War Period of the 1950s, 1960s and 1970s.{{cite book | vauthors = Cunningham H | date = July 2016 |chapter=The Growth of Leisure in the Early Industrial Revolution, c. 1780–c. 1840 | title = Leisure in the Industrial Revolution |pages=15–56 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781315637679-2 |isbn=978-1-315-63767-9 }} [87] => [88] => Childhood evolves and changes as lifestyles change and adult expectations alter. In the modern era, many adults believe that children should not have any worries or work, as life should be happy and trouble-free. Childhood is seen as a mixture of simplicity, innocence, happiness, fun, imagination, and wonder. It is thought of as a time of playing, learning, socializing, exploring, and worrying in a world without much adult interference. [89] => [90] => A "loss of innocence" is a common concept, and is often seen as an integral part of [[coming of age]]. It is usually thought of as an experience or period in a child's life that widens their awareness of evil, pain or the world around them. This theme is demonstrated in the novels ''[[To Kill a Mockingbird]]'' and ''[[Lord of the Flies]]''. The fictional character [[Peter Pan]] was the embodiment of a childhood that never ends.{{cite news |last1=Bloom |first1=Harold |title=Major themes in Lord of the Flies |url=https://1.cdn.edl.io/DCZIfXm4z8XvzcRiCqTQbpSIBE3zLa6rhs0IuJCTkigqTLD9.pdf |archive-date=11 December 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191211194237/https://1.cdn.edl.io/DCZIfXm4z8XvzcRiCqTQbpSIBE3zLa6rhs0IuJCTkigqTLD9.pdf |url-status=live}}Barrie, J. M. ''Peter Pan''. Hodder & Stoughton, 1928, Act V, Scene 2. [91] => [92] => == Healthy childhoods == [93] => === Role of parents === [94] => {{Main|Parenting}} [95] => [96] => === Children's health === [97] => {{Further|Childhood obesity|Childhood immunizations|List of childhood diseases}} [98] => Children's health includes the physical, mental and social well-being of children. Maintaining children's health implies offering them healthy foods, insuring they get enough sleep and exercise, and protecting their safety.{{cite web|url=https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/childrenshealth.html|title=Children's Health | work = MedlinePlus | publisher = U.S. National Library of Medicine, National Institutes of Health, U.S. Department of Health and Human Services }} Children in certain parts of the world often suffer from [[malnutrition]], which is often associated with other conditions, such diarrhea, pneumonia and malaria.{{cite journal | vauthors = Caulfield LE, de Onis M, Blössner M, Black RE | title = Undernutrition as an underlying cause of child deaths associated with diarrhea, pneumonia, malaria, and measles | journal = The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition | volume = 80 | issue = 1 | pages = 193–198 | date = July 2004 | pmid = 15213048 | doi = 10.1093/ajcn/80.1.193 | doi-access = free }} [99] => [100] => === Child protection === [101] => {{Further|Child labor|Child labor laws|Risk aversion|Child abuse|Protection of Children Act}} [102] => Child protection, according to UNICEF, refers to "preventing and responding to violence, exploitation and abuse against children – including [[commercial sexual exploitation]], [[child trafficking|trafficking]], [[child labour]] and harmful traditional practices, such as [[female genital mutilation]]/cutting and [[child marriage]]".{{cite web | title = What is child Protection? | url = http://www.unicef.org/chinese/protection/files/What_is_Child_Protection.pdf | publisher = The United Nations Children’s Fund (UniCeF) | date = May 2006 | access-date = 7 January 2021 | archive-date = 17 April 2021 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210417093417/https://www.unicef.org/chinese/protection/files/What_is_Child_Protection.pdf | url-status = dead }} The [103] => [[Convention on the Rights of the Child]] protects the fundamental rights of children. [104] => [105] => === Play === [106] => {{Further|Play (activity)|Playground|Imaginary friend|Childhood secret club}} [107] => [[File:MOPC 60.png|Dancing at Mother of Peace AIDs orphanage, [[Zimbabwe]]|thumb|upright]] [108] => Play is essential to the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional well-being of children.{{cite journal | vauthors = Ginsburg KR | title = The importance of play in promoting healthy child development and maintaining strong parent-child bonds | journal = Pediatrics | volume = 119 | issue = 1 | pages = 182–191 | date = January 2007 | pmid = 17200287 | doi = 10.1542/peds.2006-2697 | s2cid = 54617427 | doi-access = free }} It offers children opportunities for physical (running, jumping, climbing, etc.), intellectual (social skills, community norms, ethics and general knowledge) and emotional development (empathy, compassion, and friendships). Unstructured play encourages creativity and imagination. Playing and interacting with other children, as well as some adults, provides opportunities for friendships, social interactions, conflicts and resolutions. However, adults tend to (often mistakenly) assume that virtually all children's social activities can be understood as "play" and, furthermore, that children's play activities do not involve much skill or effort.{{cite journal | vauthors = Björk-Willén P, Cromdal J |year=2009 |title=When education seeps into 'free play': How preschool children accomplish multilingual education |journal= Journal of Pragmatics |volume=41 |pages=1493–1518 |issue=8 |doi=10.1016/j.pragma.2007.06.006}}{{cite journal | vauthors = Cromdal J |year=2001 |title=Can I be with?: Negotiating play entry in a bilingual school |journal= Journal of Pragmatics |volume=33 |pages=515–543 |issue= 4|doi=10.1016/S0378-2166(99)00131-9}}{{cite book | vauthors = Butler CW |title=Talk and social interaction in the playground |year=2008 |publisher=Ashgate Publishing, Ltd. |location=Aldershot | isbn = 978-0-7546-7416-0 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Cromdal J |year=2009 |title=Childhood and social interaction in everyday life: Introduction to the special issue |journal= Journal of Pragmatics |volume=41 |pages=1473–76 |issue=8 |doi=10.1016/j.pragma.2007.03.008}} [109] => [110] => It is through play that children at a very early age engage and interact in the world around them. Play allows children to create and explore a world they can master, conquering their fears while practicing adult roles, sometimes in conjunction with other children or adult caregivers. Undirected play allows children to learn how to work in groups, to share, to negotiate, to resolve conflicts, and to learn self-advocacy skills. However, when play is controlled by adults, children acquiesce to adult rules and concerns and lose some of the benefits play offers them. This is especially true in developing creativity, leadership, and group skills. [111] => [112] => [[File:Ralph Hedley The tournament 1898.jpg|thumb|[[Ralph Hedley]], ''The Tournament,'' 1898. It depicts poorer boys playing outdoors in a rural part of the [[North East England|Northeast of England]].]] [113] => [114] => Play is considered to be very important to optimal child development that it has been recognized by the [[United Nations Commission on Human Rights]] as a right of every child. Children who are being raised in a hurried and pressured style may limit the protective benefits they would gain from child-driven play. [115] => [116] => The initiation of play in a classroom setting allows teachers and students to interact through playfulness associated with a learning experience. Therefore, playfulness aids the interactions between adults and children in a learning environment. “Playful Structure” means to combine informal learning with formal learning to produce an effective learning experience for children at a young age.{{cite journal | vauthors = Walsh G, Sproule L, McGuinness C, Trew K | title = Playful structure: a novel image of early years pedagogy for primary school classrooms. | journal = Early Years | date = July 2011 | volume = 31 | issue = 2 | pages = 107–119 | doi = 10.1080/09575146.2011.579070 | s2cid = 154926596 }} [117] => [118] => Even though play is considered to be the most important to optimal child development, the environment affects their play and therefore their development. Poor children confront widespread environmental inequities as they experience less social support, and their parents are less responsive and more authoritarian. Children from low income families are less likely to have access to books and computers which would enhance their development.{{cite journal | vauthors = Evans GW | title = The environment of childhood poverty | journal = The American Psychologist | volume = 59 | issue = 2 | pages = 77–92 | date = 2004 | pmid = 14992634 | doi = 10.1037/0003-066X.59.2.77 }} [119] => [120] => === Street culture === [121] => {{Main|Children's street culture|Children's street games}} [122] => [[File:Boys in front of the movie theatre on Dundas Street.jpg|thumb|Children in front of a movie theatre, Toronto, 1920s.]] [123] => [124] => Children's street culture refers to the cumulative [[culture]] created by young children and is sometimes referred to as their ''secret world''. It is most common in children between the ages of seven and twelve. It is strongest in urban [[working class]] [[industrial district]]s where children are traditionally free to play out in the streets for long periods without supervision. It is invented and largely sustained by children themselves with little adult interference. [125] => [126] => Young children's street culture usually takes place on quiet backstreets and pavements, and along routes that venture out into local [[park]]s, [[playground]]s, scrub and wasteland, and to local shops. It often imposes imaginative status on certain sections of the urban realm (local buildings, kerbs, street objects, etc.). Children designate specific areas that serve as informal meeting and relaxation places (see: Sobel, 2001). An urban area that looks faceless or neglected to an adult may have deep '[[spirit of place]]' meanings in to children. Since the advent of indoor distractions such as [[video games]], and [[television]], concerns have been expressed about the vitality – or even the survival – of children's street culture. [127] => [128] => == Geographies of childhood == [129] => The geographies of childhood involves how (adult) society perceives the idea of childhood, the many ways adult attitudes and behaviors affect children's lives, including the environment which surrounds children and its implications.{{Cite book |last=Disney |first=Tom |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/OBO/9780199874002-0193 |title=Geographies of Children and Childhood |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2018 |doi=10.1093/OBO/9780199874002-0193}} [130] => [131] => The geographies of childhood is similar in some respects to [[children's geographies]] which examines the places and spaces in which children live.{{cite book| vauthors = Holloway SL | veditors = Holloway SL, Valentine G |year=2004|title=Children's Geographies|doi=10.4324/9780203017524|isbn=978-0-203-01752-4 }} [132] => [133] => === Nature deficit disorder === [134] => {{Main| Nature deficit disorder}} [135] => Nature Deficit Disorder, a term coined by [[Richard Louv]] in his 2005 book ''[[Last Child in the Woods]],'' refers to the trend in the United States and Canada towards less time for outdoor play,{{cite web | url = http://www.csmonitor.com/2006/0629/p13s02-lifp.html | title = For more children, less time for outdoor play: Busy schedules, less open space, more safety fears, and lure of the Web keep kids inside | vauthors = Gardner M | work = The Christian Science Monitor | date = June 29, 2006 }}{{cite web | url = http://www.umich.edu/~urecord/0405/Dec06_04/20.shtml | title = U.S. children and teens spend more time on academics | vauthors = Swanbrow D | work = The University Record Online | publisher = The University of Michigan | access-date = 7 January 2021 | archive-date = 2 July 2007 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20070702135326/http://www.umich.edu/~urecord/0405/Dec06_04/20.shtml | url-status = dead }} resulting in a wide range of behavioral problems.{{cite web |url = http://www.canadianliving.com/canadianliving/client/en/Family/DetailNews.asp?idNews=238340&pg=2& |title = Are your kids really spending enough time outdoors? Getting up close with nature opens a child's eyes to the wonders of the world, with a bounty of health benefits. |vauthors = Burak T |work = Canadian Living |archive-url=https://archive.today/20120728104732/http://www.canadianliving.com/canadianliving/client/en/Family/DetailNews.asp?idNews=238340&pg=2& |archive-date=28 July 2012 |url-status=dead}} [136] => [137] => With increasing use of cellphones, computers, video games and television, children have more reasons to stay inside rather than outdoors exploring. “The average American child spends 44 hours a week with electronic media”.{{cite web | url = http://www.pittsburghcitypaper.ws/gyrobase/Content?oid=oid%3A53025 | title = Outside Agitators | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20110614215355/http://www.pittsburghcitypaper.ws/gyrobase/Content?oid=oid%3A53025 | archive-date = 14 June 2011 | vauthors = O'Driscoll B | work = Pittsburgh City Paper }} Research in 2007 has drawn a correlation between the declining number of [[List of areas in the United States National Park System|National Park]] visits in the U.S. and increasing consumption of electronic media by children.{{cite journal | vauthors = Pergams OR, Zaradic PA | title = Is love of nature in the US becoming love of electronic media? 16-year downtrend in national park visits explained by watching movies, playing video games, internet use, and oil prices | journal = Journal of Environmental Management | volume = 80 | issue = 4 | pages = 387–393 | date = September 2006 | pmid = 16580127 | doi = 10.1016/j.jenvman.2006.02.001 | url = https://www.conservationmagazine.org/2008/07/numbers-in-context/ }} The media has accelerated the trend for children's nature disconnection by deemphasizing views of nature, as in Disney films.{{cite journal | vauthors = Prévot-Julliard AC, Julliard R, Clayton S | title = Historical evidence for nature disconnection in a 70-year time series of Disney animated films | journal = Public Understanding of Science | volume = 24 | issue = 6 | pages = 672–680 | date = August 2015 | pmid = 24519887 | doi = 10.1177/0963662513519042 | s2cid = 43190714 }} [138] => [139] => ==Age of responsibility== [140] => {{Further|Age of consent|Age of majority|Age of criminal responsibility|Marriageable age}} [141] => The age at which children are considered responsible for their society-bound actions (e. g. marriage, voting, etc.) has also changed over time,{{cite news |last1=RJ |first1=Raawat |title=बच्चे चुनौतियों का जवाब दे सकते हैं – द समझ एन.जी.ओ. |url=https://readerblogs.navbharattimes.indiatimes.com/natures_warrior/children-can-respond-to-challenges-the-samajh-ngo/ |access-date=13 December 2021 |work=Navbharat Times Reader's Blog |date=9 December 2021 |language=hi}} and this is reflected in the way they are treated in courts of law. In Roman times, children were regarded as not culpable for crimes, a position later adopted by the Church. In the 19th century, children younger than seven years old were believed incapable of crime. Children from the age of seven forward were considered responsible for their actions. Therefore, they could face criminal charges, be sent to adult prison, and be punished like adults by whipping, branding or hanging. However, courts at the time would consider the offender's age when deliberating sentencing.{{cn|date=August 2022}} Minimum employment age and marriage age also vary. The age limit of voluntary/involuntary military service is also disputed at the international level.{{cite journal| vauthors = Yun S |title=BreakingImaginary Barriers: Obligations of Armed Non-State Actors Under General Human Rights Law – The Case of the Optional Protocol to the Convention on the Rights of the Child|journal=Journal of International Humanitarian Legal Studies|date=2014|volume=5|issue=1–2|pages=213–257|doi=10.1163/18781527-00501008|ssrn=2556825|s2cid=153558830 }} [142] => [143] => ==Education== [144] => [[Image:Kuito class.jpg|thumb|Children in an outdoor classroom in [[Bié (province)|Bié]], [[Angola]]]] [145] => [[Image:Torvisen kansakoulu 1924-26.jpg|thumb|Children seated in a Finnish classroom at the school of Torvinen in [[Sodankylä]], [[Finland]], in the 1920s]] [146] => {{Main article|Education}} [147] => Education, in the general sense, refers to the act or process of imparting or acquiring general knowledge, developing the powers of reasoning and judgment, and preparing intellectually for mature life.{{cite web|url=http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/education |title= Define Education | work = Dictionary.com |publisher=Dictionary.reference.com |access-date=3 August 2014}} Formal education most often takes place through [[schooling]]. A [[right to education]] has been recognized by some governments. At the global level, Article 13 of the [[United Nations]]' 1966 [[International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights]] (ICESCR} recognizes the right of everyone to an education.''ICESCR'', Article 13.1 [[compulsory education|Education is compulsory]] in most places up to a certain age, but attendance at [[school]] may not be, with alternative options such as [[home-schooling]] or [[e-learning]] being recognized as valid forms of education in certain jurisdictions. [148] => [149] => Children in some countries (especially in parts of Africa and Asia) are often kept out of school, or attend only for short periods. Data from [[UNICEF]] indicate that in 2011, 57 million children were out of school; and more than 20% of African children have never attended primary school or have left without completing primary education.{{cite web |url=http://www.unicef.org/education/bege_61659.html |title=Out-of-School Children Initiative | Basic education and gender equality |publisher=UNICEF |access-date=3 August 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140806051617/http://www.unicef.org/education/bege_61659.html |archive-date=6 August 2014 |url-status=dead |df=dmy-all }} According to a UN report, [[warfare]] is preventing 28 million children worldwide from receiving an education, due to the risk of sexual violence and attacks in schools.{{cite web|url=https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-12606912 |title=BBC News - Unesco: Conflict robs 28 million children of education |publisher=Bbc.co.uk |date=1 March 2011 |access-date=3 August 2014}} Other factors that keep children out of school include poverty, child labor, social attitudes, and long distances to school.{{cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/uk_news/education/4896302.stm |title=UK | Education | Barriers to getting an education |work=BBC News |date=10 April 2006 |access-date=3 August 2014}}{{cite web| vauthors = Melik J |url=https://www.bbc.com/news/business-19870729 |title= Africa gold rush lures children out of school |publisher=Bbc.com – BBC News |date=11 October 2012 |access-date=3 August 2014}} [150] => [151] => ==Attitudes toward children== [152] => [[File:Group of Breaker boys. Smallest is Sam Belloma.jpg|thumb|Group of [[breaker boy]]s in Pittston, Pennsylvania, 1911. [[Child labor]] was widespread until the early 20th century. In the 21st century, child labor rates are highest in [[Africa]].]] Social attitudes toward children differ around the world in various cultures and change over time. A 1988 study on European attitudes toward the centrality of children found that Italy was more child-centric and the Netherlands less child-centric, with other countries, such as Austria, Great Britain, Ireland and [[West Germany]] falling in between.{{cite journal | vauthors = Jones RK, Brayfield A | title = Life's greatest joy?: European attitudes toward the centrality of children. | journal = Social Forces | date = June 1997 | volume = 75 | issue = 4 | pages = 1239–1269 | doi = 10.1093/sf/75.4.1239 }} [153] => [154] => === Child marriage === [155] => In 2013, [[child marriage]] rates of female children under the age of 18 reached 75% in Niger, 68% in Central African Republic and Chad, 66% in Bangladesh, and 47% in [[India]].{{cite news|url=https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/03/08/child-brides-sold/1972905/ |title=Child brides around the world sold off like cattle|agency = Associated Press |newspaper=[[USA Today]] | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20130308200221/https://www.usatoday.com/story/news/world/2013/03/08/child-brides-sold/1972905/ | archive-date = 8 March 2013 |date= 8 March 2013}} According to a 2019 [[UNICEF]] report on child marriage, 37% of females were married before the age of 18 in sub-Saharan Africa, followed by South Asia at 30%. Lower levels were found in Latin America and Caribbean (25%), the Middle East and North Africa (18%), and Eastern Europe and Central Asia (11%), while rates in Western Europe and North America were minimal.{{cite web|url=https://data.unicef.org/topic/child-protection/child-marriage/|title=Child marriage|website=UNICEF DATA|language=en-US|access-date=2020-04-27}} Child marriage is more prevalent with girls, but also involves boys. A 2018 study in the journal Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies found that, worldwide, 4.5% of males are married before age 18, with the Central African Republic having the highest average rate at 27.9%.{{cite journal| vauthors = Gastón CM, Misunas C, Cappa C |date=2019-07-03|title=Child marriage among boys: a global overview of available data |journal=Vulnerable Children and Youth Studies |volume=14 |issue=3 |pages=219–228 |doi=10.1080/17450128.2019.1566584 |issn=1745-0128 |doi-access=free}} [156] => [157] => === Fertility and number of children per woman === [158] => Before [[Birth control|contraception]] became widely available in the 20th century, women had little choice other than [[abstinence]] or having often many children. In fact, current [[population growth]] concerns have only become possible with drastically reduced [[child mortality]] and sustained fertility. In 2017 the global [[total fertility rate]] was estimated to be 2.37 children per woman,{{cite journal | vauthors = Vollset SE, Goren E, Yuan CW, Cao J, Smith AE, Hsiao T, Bisignano C, Azhar GS, Castro E, Chalek J, Dolgert AJ, Frank T, Fukutaki K, Hay SI, Lozano R, Mokdad AH, Nandakumar V, Pierce M, Pletcher M, Robalik T, Steuben KM, Wunrow HY, Zlavog BS, Murray CJ | display-authors = 6 | title = Fertility, mortality, migration, and population scenarios for 195 countries and territories from 2017 to 2100: a forecasting analysis for the Global Burden of Disease Study | journal = Lancet | volume = 396 | issue = 10258 | pages = 1285–1306 | date = October 2020 | pmid = 32679112 | pmc = 7561721 | doi = 10.1016/s0140-6736(20)30677-2 }} adding about 80 million people to the world population per year. In order to measure the total number of children, scientists often prefer the completed cohort fertility at age 50 years (CCF50). Although the number of children is also influenced by [[Social norm|cultural norms]], [[religion]], [[peer pressure]] and other social factors, the CCF50 appears to be most heavily dependent on the educational level of women, ranging from 5–8 children in women without education to less than 2 in women with 12 or more years of education. [159] => [160] => == Issues == [161] => [162] => ===Emergencies and conflicts=== [163] => {{See also|Declaration on the Protection of Women and Children in Emergency and Armed Conflict|Children in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict|Save the Children|Inter-Agency Network for Education in Emergencies|Military use of children|Trafficking of children|International child abduction|Refugee children}} [164] => Emergencies and conflicts pose detrimental risks to the [[Child Health|health]], safety, and well-being of children. There are many different kinds of conflicts and emergencies, e.g. [[war]]s and [[natural disaster]]s. As of 2010 approximately 13 million children are displaced by [[armed conflicts]] and [[violence]] around the world.{{cite book | author = UNICEF | date = 2010 | title = The State of the World's Children Report, Special Edition | url = http://crianca.mppr.mp.br/arquivos/File/publi/unicef_sowc/sit_mund_inf_2010_ed_especial_tabelas.pdf | location = New York | publisher = UNICEF | isbn = 978-92-806-4445-6 }} Where violent conflicts are the norm, the lives of young children are significantly disrupted and their families have great difficulty in offering the sensitive and consistent care that young children need for their healthy development. Studies on the effect of emergencies and conflict on the [[Physical health|physical]] and [[mental health]] of children between birth and 8 years old show that where the disaster is natural, the rate of [[Posttraumatic stress disorder|PTSD]] occurs in anywhere from 3 to 87 percent of affected children.{{cite journal | vauthors = Shannon MP, Lonigan CJ, Finch AJ, Taylor CM | title = Children exposed to disaster: I. Epidemiology of post-traumatic symptoms and symptom profiles | journal = Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry | volume = 33 | issue = 1 | pages = 80–93 | date = January 1994 | pmid = 8138525 | doi = 10.1097/00004583-199401000-00012 }} However, rates of PTSD for children living in chronic conflict conditions varies from 15 to 50 percent.{{cite book | vauthors = De Jong JT | date = 2002 | title = Trauma, War, and Violence: Public Mental Health in Socio Cultural Context | location = New York | publisher = Kluwer | isbn = 978-0-306-47675-4 }}{{cite book |url= http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002335/233558E.pdf |title=Investing against Evidence: The Global State of Early Childhood Care and Education| vauthors = Marope PT, Kaga Y |publisher=Paris: UNESCO |year=2015 |isbn=978-92-3-100113-0 |pages=118–125}} [165] => [166] => === Child protection === [167] => {{Excerpt|Child protection}} [168] => [169] => === Child abuse and child labor === [170] => Protection of children from [[child abuse|abuse]] is considered an important contemporary goal. This includes protecting children from exploitation such as [[child labor]], [[child trafficking]] and [[child selling]], [[child sexual abuse]], including [[child prostitution]] and [[child pornography]], [[military use of children]], and [[child laundering]] in illegal [[adoption]]s. There exist several international instruments for these purposes, such as: [171] => * [[Worst Forms of Child Labour Convention]] [172] => * [[Minimum Age Convention, 1973]] [173] => * [[Optional Protocol on the Sale of Children, Child Prostitution and Child Pornography]] [174] => * [[Council of Europe Convention on the Protection of Children against Sexual Exploitation and Sexual Abuse]] [175] => * [[Optional Protocol on the Involvement of Children in Armed Conflict]] [176] => * [[Hague Adoption Convention]] [177] => [178] => === Climate change === [179] => {{Excerpt|Climate change and children}} [180] => [181] => == Health == [182] => [183] => ===Child mortality=== [184] => {{Main article|Child mortality|Infant mortality}} [185] => [[File:2012 Infant mortality rate per 1000 live births, under-5, world map.svg|thumb|360px|World infant mortality rates in 2012.{{cite web|date=2013|title=Infant Mortality Rates in 2012|url=http://www.childmortality.org/files_v16/download/UNICEF%202013%20IGME%20child%20mortality%20Report_Final.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140714153724/http://www.childmortality.org/files_v16/download/UNICEF%202013%20IGME%20child%20mortality%20Report_Final.pdf|archive-date=14 July 2014|publisher=[[UNICEF]]}}]] [186] => During the early 17th century in [[England]], about two-thirds of all children died before the age of four.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VL_6X5zWOokC&pg=PA47|title=America's promise: a concise history of the United States (Volume 1: To 1877)|vauthors=Rorabaugh WJ, Critchlow DT, Baker PC|date=2004|publisher=Rowman & Littlefield|isbn=978-0-7425-1189-7|page=47}}{{Dead link|date=February 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} During the [[Industrial Revolution]], the life expectancy of children increased dramatically.{{cite encyclopedia|date=29 October 2020|title=Modernization – Population Change|url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/387301/modernization/12022/Population-change|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|vauthors=Kumar K}} This has continued in England, and in the 21st century child mortality rates have fallen across the world. About 12.6 million under-five infants died worldwide in 1990, which declined to 6.6 million in 2012. The infant mortality rate dropped from 90 deaths per 1,000 live births in 1990, to 48 in 2012. The highest average infant mortality rates are in sub-Saharan Africa, at 98 deaths per 1,000 live births – over double the world's average. [187] => [188] => == See also == [189] => {{Spoken Wikipedia|Child.ogg|date=2008-06-24}} [190] => * [[Child actor]] [191] => * [[Child slavery]] [192] => * [[Childlessness]] [193] => * [[Depression in childhood and adolescence]] [194] => * [[One-child policy]] [195] => * [[Outline of children]] [196] => * [[Religion and children]] [197] => * [[Youth rights]] [198] => * [[Archaeology of childhood]] [199] => [200] => == Sources == [201] => * {{Free-content attribution| title = Investing against Evidence: The Global State of Early Childhood Care and Education| author = Marope PT, Kaga Y | publisher = UNESCO| page numbers = 118–125| source = UNESCO| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0023/002335/233558E.pdf| license statement URL = http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=233558&set=0058CBADEE_0_390&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0}} [202] => * {{Free-content attribution| title = Creating sustainable futures for all; Global education monitoring report, 2016; Gender review| author = UNESCO| publisher = UNESCO| page numbers = 20| source = UNESCO| documentURL = http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0024/002460/246045e.pdf| license statement URL = http://www.unesco.org/ulis/cgi-bin/ulis.pl?catno=246045&set=005915672A_2_228&gp=1&lin=1&ll=1| license = CC-BY-SA IGO 3.0| Editors =}} [203] => [204] => == References == [205] => {{Reflist}} [206] => [207] => ==Further reading== [208] => * Cook, Daniel Thomas. ''The moral project of childhood: Motherhood, material life, and early children's consumer culture'' (NYU Press, 2020). [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=vUWODwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP9&dq=children&ots=WYEOvS2wP7&sig=-cOPWLOPF9ns1Gh5zaVuwcGSqzg online book] see also [https://www.shcy.org/features/books/the-moral-project-of-childhood/ online review] [209] => * Fawcett, Barbara, Brid Featherstone, and Jim Goddard. ''Contemporary child care policy and practice'' (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=QSJIEAAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PR1&ots=Vlsd06yVZA&sig=zQjuoFuCRdkQoJCaGwJSnfe_wVo online] [210] => * Hutchison, Elizabeth D., and Leanne W. Charlesworth. "Securing the welfare of children: Policies past, present, and future." ''Families in Society'' 81.6 (2000): 576–585. [211] => * [[Paula S. Fass|Fass, Paula S.]] ''The end of American childhood: A history of parenting from life on the frontier to the managed child'' (Princeton University Press, 2016). [212] => * Fass, Paula S. ed. ''The Routledge History of Childhood in the Western World'' (2012) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=jxf_P2GOcUEC&oi=fnd&pg=PR3&dq=fass+%22Childhood%22&ots=SH2hMoZOdt&sig=HOLyE5H4SsEV8zYH9hBPCvWi2QM online] [213] => * Klass, Perri. ''The Best Medicine: How Science and Public Health Gave Children a Future'' (WW Norton & Company, 2020) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=fNjVDwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PT6&dq=children&ots=1xOeq8MnUa&sig=6xdwOu0nX6jxDPrLB7uibh1Fz4M online] [214] => * Michail, Samia. "Understanding school responses to students’ challenging behaviour: A review of literature." ''Improving schools'' 14.2 (2011): 156–171. [https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=6a6198a7d46523bddb15d23e024f442ac29e9f82 online] [215] => * Sorin, Reesa. ''Changing images of childhood: Reconceptualising early childhood practice'' (Faculty of Education, University of Melbourne, 2005) [https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/document?repid=rep1&type=pdf&doi=9594881ae4f396a654957f719b1bb4e3589d0819 online]. [216] => * Sorin, Reesa. "Childhood through the eyes of the child and parent." ''Journal of Australian Research in Early Childhood Education'' 14.1 (2007). [https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Reesa-Sorin/publication/266081356_Childhood_through_the_eyes_of_the_child_and_parent/links/5ed6138492851c9c5e725cd1/Childhood-through-the-eyes-of-the-child-and-parent.pdf online] [217] => * Vissing, Yvonne. "History of Children’s Human Rights in the USA." in ''Children's Human Rights in the USA: Challenges and Opportunities'' (Cham: Springer International Publishing, 2023) pp. 181–212. [218] => * Yuen, Francis K.O. ''Social work practice with children and families: a family health approach'' (Routledge, 2014) [https://books.google.com/books?hl=en&lr=&id=efbJAwAAQBAJ&oi=fnd&pg=PP1&ots=WJB67enwDB&sig=rx1v_LXbC3nA34PbVuFDt6EjX7I online]. [219] => [220] => {{S-start}} [221] => {{succession box|title=[[Human development (biology)|Stages of human development]]
Childhood|before=[[Toddlerhood]]|after=[[Preadolescence]]|years=}} [222] => {{S-end}} [223] => [224] => {{Commons category|Children}} [225] => {{EB1911 Poster|Child}} [226] => [227] => {{Family}} [228] => {{Humandevelopment}} [229] => {{Authority control}} [230] => [231] => [[Category:Childhood|*]] [232] => [[Category:Developmental psychology]] [233] => [[Category:Kinship and descent]] [] => )
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Child

The Wikipedia page on Child provides an overview of the term "child" and its various contexts and definitions. It explains that a child is typically understood as a young human being below the age of adulthood.

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It explains that a child is typically understood as a young human being below the age of adulthood. The page covers key aspects related to children, including their physical, cognitive, emotional, and social development. The article discusses the legal and cultural definitions of childhood, highlighting variations across different countries, cultures, and legal systems. It emphasizes the importance of recognizing the rights and protection of children, as well as the role of parents, guardians, and society in ensuring their well-being. Furthermore, the page explores the fields of child psychology, pediatrics, education, and child welfare. It delves into the stages of child development, such as infancy, toddlerhood, early childhood, middle childhood, and adolescence. Additionally, the page touches upon topics like child health and nutrition, education policies, child labor, child abuse, and child welfare services. The article provides historical, cultural, and religious perspectives on childhood, depicting how society's perceptions and treatment of children have evolved over time. It includes references to influential theories and research in child development, such as Piaget's cognitive development theory and Erikson's psychosocial theory. Overall, the Wikipedia page on Child offers a comprehensive and informative overview of the concept of childhood, covering various aspects related to children, their development, and their well-being.

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