Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Plant in the family Fabaceae}} [1] => [[File:Various legumes.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|A selection of dried pulses and fresh legumes]] [2] => [[File:Pulses for Sale in Market - Darjeeling - West Bengal - India (12431603075).jpg|thumb|Pulses for sale in market]] [3] => [4] => '''Legumes''' ({{IPAc-en|ˈ|l|ɛ|ɡ|j|uː|m|,_|l|ə|ˈ|ɡ|j|uː|m}}) are plants in the family [[Fabaceae]] (or Leguminosae), or the fruit or seeds of such plants. When used as a dry grain for human consumption, the seeds are also called '''pulses'''. Legumes are grown agriculturally, primarily for human consumption; for livestock forage and [[silage]]; and as soil-enhancing [[green manure]]. Well-known legumes include beans, soybeans, chickpeas, peanuts, lentils, lupins, [[Lathyrus sativus |grass peas]], [[mesquite]], carob, tamarind, alfalfa, and clover. Legumes produce a botanically unique type of fruit – a [[Fruit#Simple fruits|simple dry fruit]] that develops from a simple [[carpel]] and usually [[Dehiscence (botany)|dehisces]] (opens along a seam) on two sides. [5] => [6] => Legumes are notable in that most of them have [[Symbiosis|symbiotic]] [[nitrogen fixation|nitrogen-fixing]] bacteria in structures called [[root nodule]]s. For that reason, they play a key role in [[crop rotation]]. [7] => [8] => ==Terminology== [9] => {{See also|Bean#Terminology}} [10] => The term ''pulse'', as used by the United Nations' [[Food and Agriculture Organization]] (FAO), is reserved for legume crops harvested solely for the dry seed.{{cite web|title=What is a Pulse?|url=https://pulsecanada.com/pulse/what-is-a-pulse|website=Pulse Canada|access-date=3 March 2022|ref=pulsecanada|archive-date=3 March 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220303174844/https://pulsecanada.com/pulse/what-is-a-pulse|url-status=live}} This excludes [[green bean]]s and [[Pea|green peas]], which are considered [[vegetable]] crops. Also excluded are seeds that are mainly grown for oil extraction ([[oilseed]]s like [[soybean]]s and [[peanut]]s),{{Cite web |title=Oilseed Crops - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/oilseed-crops |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}} and seeds which are used exclusively for sowing [[forage]] ([[clover]]s, [[alfalfa]]).{{Cite web |title=Forage Crops - an overview {{!}} ScienceDirect Topics |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/agricultural-and-biological-sciences/forage-crops |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=www.sciencedirect.com}} However, in common usage, these distinctions are not always clearly made, and many of the varieties used for dried pulses are also used for green vegetables, with their beans in pods while young.{{Cite web |last1=Boston |first1=677 Huntington Avenue |last2=Ma 02115 +1495‑1000 |date=2019-10-28 |title=Legumes and Pulses |url=https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/legumes-pulses/ |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=The Nutrition Source |language=en-us |archive-date=2022-04-21 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220421110226/https://www.hsph.harvard.edu/nutritionsource/legumes-pulses/ |url-status=live }} [11] => [12] => Some Fabaceae, such as [[Cytisus scoparius|Scotch broom]] and other [[Genisteae]], are leguminous but are usually not called legumes by farmers, who tend to restrict that term to food crops.{{Cite web |title=Leguminous Plant Puns {{!}} A list of puns related to "Leguminous Plant" |url=https://punstoppable.com/leguminous-plant-puns |access-date=2022-04-07 |website=punstoppable.com}} [13] => [14] => == History == [15] => [[Neanderthal]]s used pulses when cooking meals 70,000 years ago.{{cite news |last1=Hunt |first1=Katie |title=Neanderthals cooked meals with pulses 70,000 years ago |url=https://www.cnn.com/2022/11/22/world/prehistoric-diets-plants-neanderthals-scn/index.html |work=cnn.com |date=2022-11-22 }} [16] => Archaeologists have discovered traces of pulse production around [[Ravi River]] ([[Punjab (region)|Punjab]]), the seat of the [[Indus Valley civilisation]], dating to c. 3300 BC. Meanwhile, evidence of lentil cultivation has also been found in Egyptian [[Pyramid|pyramids]] and [[cuneiform]] [[recipe]]s.{{cite book| last = Albala| first = Ken| name-list-style = vanc | author-link = Ken Albala| year = 2007| title = Beans: A History| publisher = [[Berg Publishers]]| location = New York| chapter = Lentils: Fertile Crescent| page = 18| isbn = 978-0-85785-078-2| chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=hTBv607RId8C&pg=PT18| quote = The earliest culinary texts to have survived are in the form of three cuneiform tablets dated to about 1600 BCE. [...] [T]ucked away among a series of porridges there is one recipe for husked lentils [...]. [I]n any case it is the very oldest explicit legume recipe on earth. [...] The Egyptians also used lentils as funerary offerings and in meals to feed the dead in the underworld. Large stores were found beneath Zoser's pyramid [...].}} Dry pea seeds have been discovered in a Swiss village that are believed to date back to the [[Stone Age]]. Archaeological evidence suggests that these peas must have been grown in the eastern Mediterranean and [[Mesopotamia]]n regions at least 5,000 years ago and in Britain as early as the 11th century.{{cite book | first = Mat | last = Chaudhry | name-list-style = vanc | title = Green Gold: Value-added pulses | publisher = Quantum Media | isbn = 1-61364-696-8 }} The soybean was first domesticated around 5,000 years ago in China from a descendant of the wild vine ''Glycine soja.''{{cite journal | vauthors = Jeong SC, Moon JK, Park SK, etal | title = Genetic diversity patterns and domestication origin of soybean | journal = Theor Appl Genet | volume = 132 | pages = 1179–93 | date = 26 December 2018 | issue = 4 | doi = 10.1007/s00122-018-3271-7 | pmid = 30588539 | pmc = 6449312 | doi-access = free }} [17] => [18] => In the United States, the domesticated soybean was introduced in 1770 by [[Benjamin Franklin]] after he sent seeds to Philadelphia from France. [[Henry Ford]], a vegetarian, was the first person to use soybeans for large-scale industrial purposes. Concentrating on his company, from 1932 to 1933 he invested over 1 million dollars in research on soybeans. Prior to [[World War II]], 40% of cooking oil was imported into the US. When the war came, supply routes were disrupted, which encouraged the soybean culture in the US. Due to the years of research funded by [[Henry Ford]], the domestic soybean oil industry was born.{{Cite book|title=The Organic Grain Grower|last=Lazor|first=Jack|publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing|year=2013|isbn=978-1-60358-365-7|location=White River Junction,Vermont|pages=299}} Between 1970 and 1976, soybean production increased approximately 30%. Oil yield from bulk soybeans averages about 18%. Its modern-day usage ranges from margarine, salad oils, shortening and the previously mentioned cooking oil.{{Cite book|title=Soybean physiology, agronomy, and utilization|last=Norman|first=Arthur|publisher=New York : Academic Press|year=1978|isbn=0-12-521160-0|location=London|pages=[https://archive.org/details/soybeanphysiolog0000unse/page/13 13]|url=https://archive.org/details/soybeanphysiolog0000unse/page/13}} [19] => [20] => ==Uses== [21] => [[File:Pulse in Nanglo.jpg|thumb|right|Pulse in Nanglo]] [22] => Cultivated legumes encompass a diverse range of [[Agriculture|agricultural]] classifications, spanning [[forage]], [[grain]], flowering, pharmaceutical/industrial, fallow/green manure, and timber categories. A notable characteristic of many commercially cultivated legume species is their versatility, often assuming multiple roles concurrently. The extent of these roles is contingent upon the stage of maturity at which they are harvested. [23] => [24] => ===Human consumption=== [25] => [[File:Peanut 9417.jpg|thumb|Freshly dug [[peanut]]s (''Arachis hypogaea''), [[indehiscent]] legume fruits]] [26] => [27] => Grain legumes{{cite web |title=List of Grain Legumes or Pulses |url=https://www.cropsreview.com/grain-legumes.html |website=CropsReview.Com |date=25 August 2021 |access-date=19 February 2019 |archive-date=16 July 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190716073414/https://www.cropsreview.com/grain-legumes.html |url-status=live }} are cultivated for their seeds, which are used for human and animal consumption or for the production of oils for industrial uses. Grain legumes include [[bean]]s, [[lentil]]s, [[lupin]]s, [[pea]]s, and [[peanut]]s.{{cite book | veditors = Kurlovich BS, Repyev SI | title = The Gene Bank and Breeding of Grain Legumes (lupine, vetch, soya and bean). | series = Theoretical basis of plant breeding | date = 1995 | location = St. Petersburg | publisher = N. I. Vavilov Institute of Plant Industry | pages = 438 | volume = 111 }} [28] => [29] => Legumes are used as a key ingredient in vegan meat and dairy [[Meat_analogue|substitutes]]. They are growing in use as a plant-based protein source in the world marketplace.{{Cite web |last=Nicholas |first=Lorna |date=2020-05-18 |title=Wide Open Agriculture enters multi-billion-dollar plant-based protein market |url=https://smallcaps.com.au/wide-open-agriculture-enters-multi-billion-dollar-plant-based-protein-market/ |access-date=2021-02-27 |website=Small Caps}}{{Cite web |date=2017-04-06 |title=Full of beans: Pulses come with flavor challenge |url=https://www.fooddive.com/news/full-of-beans-pulses-come-with-flavor-challenge/439604/ |access-date=2021-03-08 |website=Food Dive}} Products containing legumes grew by 39% in Europe between 2013 and 2017.{{Cite web |last=Smith |first=George |date=2018-02-13 |title=Pulse raising: Grain legume market grows by 37 per cent in Europe - Meat substitutes have helped drive soaring market interest in pulses, or grain legumes, across Europe, a recent study has found. |url=https://www.newfoodmagazine.com/news/64600/legume-market-grows-37-per-cent/ |access-date=2021-03-08 |website=New Food Magazine}} [30] => [31] => ====Nutritional value==== [32] => Legumes are a significant source of [[Protein (nutrient)|protein]], [[dietary fiber]], [[carbohydrate]]s and [[dietary minerals]]; for example, a 100 gram serving of cooked [[chickpea]]s contains 18 percent of the [[Daily Value]] (DV) for protein, 30 percent DV for dietary fiber, 43 percent DV for [[folate]] and 52 percent DV for [[manganese]].{{cite web|url=http://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/legumes-and-legume-products/4326/2|title=Nutrition facts for Chickpeas (garbanzo beans, bengal gram), mature seeds, cooked, boiled, without salt, 100 g, USDA Nutrient Database, version SR-21|publisher=Conde Nast|date=2014|access-date=15 January 2015|archive-date=5 December 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181205034610/https://nutritiondata.self.com/facts/legumes-and-legume-products/4326/2|url-status=live}} [33] => [34] => Legumes are also an excellent source of [[resistant starch]] which is broken down by [[gut flora|bacteria]] in the [[large intestine]] to produce [[short-chain fatty acid]]s (such as [[butyrate]]) used by intestinal cells for [[food energy]].{{cite journal | vauthors = Birt DF, Boylston T, Hendrich S, Jane JL, Hollis J, Li L, McClelland J, Moore S, Phillips GJ, Rowling M, Schalinske K, Scott MP, Whitley EM | display-authors = 6 | title = Resistant starch: promise for improving human health | journal = Advances in Nutrition | volume = 4 | issue = 6 | pages = 587–601 | date = November 2013 | pmid = 24228189 | pmc = 3823506 | doi = 10.3945/an.113.004325 }} [35] => [36] => {{EngvarB|date=October 2020}} [37] => [38] => ===Forage=== [39] => [[File:TrifoliumRepensFlowers.jpg|thumb|White [[clover]], a forage crop]] [40] => [41] => Forage legumes are of two broad types. Some, like [[alfalfa]], [[clover]], vetch (''[[Vicia]]''), stylo (''[[Stylosanthes]]''), or ''[[Arachis]]'', are sown in [[pasture]] and grazed by livestock. Other forage legumes such as ''[[Leucaena]]'' or ''[[Albizia]]'' are woody shrub or tree species that are either broken down by livestock or regularly cut by humans to provide livestock feed. Legume-based feeds improve animal performance compared to a diet of perennial grasses. Factors to which this is attributed are larger consumption, faster digestion and higher [[feed conversion rate]].{{Cite book|title=Biological N Function in Forage livestock systems|publisher=American Society of Agronomy|year=1976|isbn=089118046X|page=42}} [42] => [43] => The type of crop(s) grown or animal rearing will be dependent on the farming system, either vegetables, [[Tuber|tubers]], grains, cattle etc. In cattle rearing, legume trees such as ''[[Gliricidia sepium]]'' can be planted along edges of field to provide shade for cattle, the leaves and bark are often eaten by cattle. Green manure can also be grown between periods when crops of economic importance are harvested prior to the next crops to be planted.{{Cite book|title=Methodologies for screening soil-improving legumes|last=Sarrantonio|first=Marianne|location=Kutztown, PA|publisher=Rodale Institute|year=1991|isbn=0-87857-989-3|pages=15}} [44] => [45] => ===Other uses=== [46] => [[File:Flower garden in Ushuaia (5542996965).jpg|thumb|right|[[Lupin]] flower garden]] [47] => Legume species grown for their flowers include [[lupin]]s, which are farmed commercially for their blooms as well as being popular in gardens worldwide. Industrially farmed legumes include ''[[Indigofera]]'' and ''[[Acacia]]'' species, which are cultivated for [[dye]] and [[natural gum]] production, respectively. [[Fallow]] or [[green manure]] legume species are cultivated to be tilled back into the soil in order to exploit the high levels of captured atmospheric nitrogen found in the roots of most legumes. Numerous legumes farmed for this purpose include ''[[Leucaena]]'', ''[[Cyamopsis]]'', and ''[[Sesbania]]'' species. Various legume species are farmed for timber production worldwide, including numerous ''[[Acacia]]'' species and ''[[Castanospermum australe]]''. [48] => [49] => Some legume trees, like the [[honey locust]] (''[[Gleditsia]]'') can be used in [[agroforestry]].{{Cite web |title=''Gleditsia triacanthos'' (honey locust)|url=https://www.cabi.org/isc/datasheet/25272 |access-date=10 September 2022 |publisher=CABI|date=10 December 2019}} Others, including the [[Robinia pseudoacacia|black locust]] (''[[Robinia pseudoacacia]]''),{{Cite web |title=Are black locust trees toxic? |url=https://www.poison.org/articles/are-black-locust-trees-toxic-221 |access-date=2022-09-10 |website=www.poison.org |language=en |archive-date=2022-09-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910173026/https://www.poison.org/articles/are-black-locust-trees-toxic-221 |url-status=live }} [[Kentucky coffeetree]] (''[[Kentucky coffeetree|Gymnocladus dioicus]]''),{{Cite web |title=Kentucky coffeetree {{!}} Department of Horticulture |url=https://www.uky.edu/hort/Kentucky-Coffeetree |access-date=2022-09-10 |website=www.uky.edu |archive-date=2022-10-01 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221001022031/https://www.uky.edu/hort/Kentucky-Coffeetree |url-status=live }} ''[[Laburnum]],''{{Cite web |title=Laburnum anagyroides (Common Laburnum, Golden Chain Tree, Golden Rain Tree) {{!}} North Carolina Extension Gardener Plant Toolbox |url=https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/laburnum-anagyroides/ |access-date=2022-09-10 |website=plants.ces.ncsu.edu |archive-date=2022-09-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220910173026/https://plants.ces.ncsu.edu/plants/laburnum-anagyroides/ |url-status=live }} and the woody climbing vine ''[[Wisteria]]'', have [[poison]]ous elements. [50] => [51] => ===Classification=== [52] => [[File:Phaseolus vulgaris seed.jpg|right|thumb|Depending on the variety, ''[[Phaseolus vulgaris]]'' (a pulse) may be called "common bean", "kidney bean", "haricot bean", "pinto bean", or "navy bean", among other names.]] [53] => [54] => [[FAO]] recognizes 11 primary pulses. The FAO notes that the term "pulses" is limited to legumes harvested solely for dry grain, thereby excluding legumes that are harvested green for food (green peas, green beans, etc.) which are classified as vegetable crops. Also excluded are those legumes used mainly for oil extraction (e.g., soybeans and groundnuts) or used exclusively for sowing purposes (e.g., seeds of clover and alfalfa).{{cite web|publisher=[[Food and Agriculture Organization]]|url=http://www.fao.org/es/faodef/fdef04e.htm|title=Pulses and Derived Products|work=Definition and Classification of Commodities|date=1994|access-date=2018-07-22|archive-date=2015-12-07|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151207071652/http://www.fao.org/es/faodef/fdef04e.htm|url-status=live}} [55] => [56] => # Dry beans (FAOSTAT code 0176, ''[[Phaseolus]]'' spp. including several species now in ''[[Vigna]]'') [57] => #* [[Kidney bean]], [[navy bean]], [[pinto bean]], [[black turtle bean]], haricot bean (''[[Phaseolus vulgaris]]'') [58] => #* [[Lima bean]], butter bean (''[[Phaseolus lunatus]]'') [59] => #* [[Adzuki bean]], azuki bean (''[[Vigna angularis]]'') [60] => #* [[Mung bean]], golden gram, green gram (''[[Vigna radiata]]'') [61] => #* [[Urad (bean)|Black gram]], urad (''[[Vigna mungo]]'') [62] => #* [[Scarlet runner bean]] (''Phaseolus coccineus'') [63] => #* [[Ricebean]] (''Vigna umbellata'') [64] => #* [[Moth bean]] (''Vigna aconitifolia'') [65] => #* [[Tepary bean]] (''Phaseolus acutifolius'') [66] => # Dry [[Vicia faba|broad beans]] (code 0181, ''Vicia faba'') [67] => #* Horse bean (''Vicia faba equina'') [68] => #* Broad bean (''Vicia faba'') [69] => #* Field bean (''Vicia faba'') [70] => # Dry peas (code 0187, ''Pisum'' spp.) [71] => #* [[Pea|Garden pea]] (''Pisum sativum'' var. ''sativum'') [72] => #* Protein pea (''Pisum sativum'' var. ''arvense'') [73] => # [[Chickpea]], garbanzo, Bengal gram (code 0191, ''Cicer arietinum'') [74] => # Dry [[cowpea]], [[black-eyed pea]], blackeye bean (code 0195, ''Vigna unguiculata'') [75] => # [[Pigeon pea]], Arhar/Toor, cajan pea, Congo bean, gandules (code 0197, ''Cajanus cajan'') [76] => # [[Lentil]] (code 0201, ''Lens culinaris'') [77] => # [[Bambara groundnut]], earth pea (code 0203, ''Vigna subterranea'') [78] => # [[Vetch]], common vetch (code 0205, ''Vicia sativa'') [79] => # [[Lupin]]s (code 0210, ''Lupinus'' spp.) [80] => # Pulses NES (code 0211), Minor pulses, including: [81] => #* Lablab, hyacinth bean (''[[Lablab purpureus]]'') [82] => #* Jack bean (''[[Canavalia ensiformis]]''), sword bean (''[[Canavalia gladiata]]'') [83] => #* Winged bean (''[[Psophocarpus tetragonolobus]]'') [84] => #* Velvet bean, cowitch (''[[Mucuna pruriens]] var. utilis'') [85] => #* Yam bean (''[[Pachyrhizus erosus]]'') [86] => [87] => == Pollination == [88] => Legumes can either be [[Self-pollination|self-pollinated]] or [[Cross pollinated|cross-pollinated]]. [89] => [90] => Some tropical legumes that are closely self-pollinated are: ''[[Macroptilium atropurpureum]]'' 'Siratro', ''[[Macroptilium lathyroides]]'', ''[[Centrosema pubescens]]'', ''[[Neonotonia wightii]]'', and ''[[Lotononis bainesii]]''. However, the [[autogamous]] annual ''[[Stylosanthes humilis]]'' proved otherwise by adapting in response to changing conditions during an experiment, and was found to be composed of several genotypes showing heterogeneity. [91] => [92] => Two legumes used for pasture with [[Pollination|cross-pollination]] are ''[[Desmodium intortum]]'' and ''[[Desmodium uncinatum]]''. When the flower is opened, this is the only time fertilization will take place. These two species' characteristics vary in [[Morphology (biology)|morphology]] and ruggedness.{{Cite book|title=Environmental adaptation of tropical pasture plants.|last=Humphreys|first=L.R|publisher=London : Macmillan|year=1981|isbn=0-333-26820-2|pages=32–34, 40}} [93] => [94] => ==Nitrogen fixation== [95] => {{main|Nitrogen fixation|Green manure|Fertilizer tree}} [96] => [[File:Soil fertility - nitrogen fixation by root nodules on Wistaria roots, with hazelnut to show size.JPG|thumb|Root nodules on a ''[[Wisteria]]'' plant (a [[hazelnut]] pictured for comparison)|189x189px]] [97] => [98] => Many legumes contain [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] bacteria called ''[[Rhizobia]]'' within [[root nodule]]s of their [[root|root systems]] (plants belonging to the genus ''[[Styphnolobium]]'' are one exception to this rule). These bacteria have the special ability of [[nitrogen fixation|fixing nitrogen]] from atmospheric, molecular nitrogen (N2) into [[ammonia]] (NH3).{{cite web|title=The Nitrogen cycle and Nitrogen fixation|first=Jim|last=Deacon|name-list-style=vanc|publisher=Institute of Cell and Molecular Biology, The University of Edinburgh|url=http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/microbes/nitrogen.htm|access-date=March 1, 2015|archive-date=March 16, 2015|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150316145133/http://archive.bio.ed.ac.uk/jdeacon/microbes/nitrogen.htm|url-status=live}} The chemical reaction is: [99] => :{{chem2|N2 + 8 H+ + 8 e- -> 2 NH3 + H2}} [100] => Ammonia is then converted to another form, [[ammonium]] ({{chem2|NH4+}}), usable by (some) plants by the following reaction: [101] => :{{chem2|NH3 + H+ -> NH4+}} [102] => This arrangement means that the root nodules are sources of nitrogen for legumes, making them relatively rich in [[plant proteins]]. All proteins contain nitrogenous [[amino acid]]s. Nitrogen is therefore a necessary [[ingredient]] in the production of proteins. Hence, legumes are among the best sources of plant protein. [103] => [104] => When a legume plant dies in the field, for example following the [[harvest]], all of its remaining nitrogen, incorporated into [[amino acid]]s inside the remaining plant parts, is released back into the soil. In the soil, the amino acids are converted to nitrate ({{chem2|NO3-}}), making the nitrogen available to other plants, thereby serving as fertilizer for future crops.{{cite book |last=Postgate |first=John | name-list-style = vanc |date=1998 |title=Nitrogen Fixation |edition=3rd |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-64853-0}}{{cite book |last=Smil |first=Vaclav | name-list-style = vanc |year=2000 |title=Cycles of Life |publisher=Scientific American Library}} [105] => [[File:Nitrogen Cycle.jpg|thumb|172x172px|Nitrogen cycle and its stages]] [106] => In many traditional and organic farming practices, [[crop rotation]] involving legumes is common. By alternating between legumes and non-legumes, sometimes planting non-legumes two times in a row and then a legume, the field usually receives a sufficient amount of nitrogenous compounds to produce a good result, even when the crop is non-leguminous. Legumes are sometimes referred to as "[[green manure]]". [107] => [108] => Sri Lanka developed the farming practice known as coconut-soybean [[intercropping]]. Grain legumes are grown in coconut (''Cocos nuficera'') groves in two ways: intercropping or as a cash crop. These are grown mainly for their protein, vegetable oil and ability to uphold soil fertility.{{Cite book|title=Soybean in tropical and subtropical cropping systems : proceedings of a symposium Tsukuba, Japan, 26 September – 1 October 1983|publisher=Shanhua, Taiwan : Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center|year=1986|isbn=92-9058-022-4|id=AVRDC No.86253|oclc=475699754|pages=57}} However, continuous cropping after 3–4 years decrease grain yields significantly.{{Cite book|title=Vegetable soybean : research needs for production and quality improvement ; proceedings of a workshop held at Kenting, Taiwan, 29 April – 2 May 1991|last=Shanmugasundaram|first=S|publisher=Taipei : The Center|year=1991|isbn=929058047X|pages=59}} [109] => [110] => ==Distribution and production== [111] => Legumes are widely distributed as the third-largest [[land plant]] family in terms of number of species, behind only the [[Orchidaceae]] and [[Asteraceae]], with about 751 [[genera]] and some 19,000 known species,{{cite journal | vauthors = Christenhusz MJ, Byng JW | year = 2016 | title = The number of known plants species in the world and its annual increase | journal = Phytotaxa | volume = 261 | issue = 3 | pages = 201–17 | doi = 10.11646/phytotaxa.261.3.1 | publisher = Magnolia Press | doi-access = free }}{{cite journal|url =http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/fabalesweb.htm#Fabaceae|title =Fabaceae|access-date =28 April 2008|vauthors =Stevens PF|journal =Angiosperm Phylogeny Website. Version 7 May 2006|archive-date =12 May 2002|archive-url =https://web.archive.org/web/20020512040017/http://www.mobot.org/MOBOT/Research/APweb/orders/fabalesweb.htm#Fabaceae|url-status =live}} constituting about seven percent of flowering plant species.{{cite book | vauthors = Judd WS, Campbell CS, Kellogg EA, Stevens PF, Donoghue MJ | year = 2002 | title = Plant systematics: a phylogenetic approach | publisher = Sinauer Associate | pages = [https://archive.org/details/plantsystematics0002unse/page/287 287–92] | isbn = 978-0-87893-403-4 | url = https://archive.org/details/plantsystematics0002unse/page/287 }}{{cite journal | vauthors = Magallón S, Sanderson MJ | title = Absolute diversification rates in angiosperm clades | journal = Evolution; International Journal of Organic Evolution | volume = 55 | issue = 9 | pages = 1762–80 | date = September 2001 | pmid = 11681732 | doi = 10.1111/j.0014-3820.2001.tb00826.x | s2cid = 38691512 | doi-access = free }} [112] => [113] => === Storage === [114] => Seed viability decreases with longer storage time. Studies done on [[vetch]], [[broad bean]]s, and peas show that they last about 5 years in storage. Environmental factors that are important in influencing germination are relative humidity and temperature. Two rules apply to moisture content between 5 and 14 percent: the life of the seed will last longer if the storage temperature is reduced by 5 degree Celsius. Secondly, the storage moisture content will decrease if temperature is reduced by 1 degree Celsius.{{clarify|reason=longer by how much / decrease by how much? The temperature intervals are very specific, so the cannot be as vague like that.|date=April 2022}}{{Cite book|title=Cereal and grain-legume seed processing : technical guidelines.|publisher=Rome : Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations|year=1981|isbn=92-5-100980-5|location=Rome|pages=43}} [115] => [116] => == Pests and diseases == [117] => A common pest of grain legumes that is noticed in the tropical and subtropical Asia, Africa, Australia and Oceania are minuscule flies that belong to the family ''[[Agromyzidae]]'', dubbed "bean flies". They are considered to be the most destructive. The host range of these flies is very wide amongst cultivated legumes. Infestation of plants starts from germination through to harvest, and they can destroy an entire crop in early stage.{{Cite book|title=Agromyzid flies of some native legume crops in Java|last=Goot|first=P.van der|publisher=Shanhua, Taiwan : Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center|year=1984|isbn=92-9058-006-2}} [[Black bean aphid]]s are a serious pest to broad beans and other beans. Common hosts for this pest are fathen, thistle and dock. [[Pea weevil]] and [[bean weevil]] damage leaf margins leaving characteristics semi-circular notches. [[Stem nematode]]s are very widespread but will be found more frequently in areas where host plants are grown.{{Cite book|title=Pest and disease control on legumes, onions, leeks, outdoor salad crops and minor vegetables.|publisher=Alnwick : Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food ADAS|year=1984|location=Great Britain|pages=11–13}} [118] => [119] => Common legume diseases include [[anthracnose]], caused by ''[[Colletotrichum trifolii]]''; [[common leaf spot]] caused by ''[[Pseudomonas syringae]] pv. syringae''; [[crown wart]] caused by ''[[Physoderma alfalfae]]''; [[downy mildew]] caused by ''[[Peronospora trifoliorum]]''; [[fusarium root rot]] caused by ''[[Fusarium]]'' spp.; rust caused by ''[[Uromyces striatus]]''; [[sclerotina crown]] and stem rot caused by ''[[Sclerotinia trifoliorum]]''; [[Southern blight]] caused by ''[[Sclerotium rolfsii]]''; pythium (browning) [[root rot]] caused by ''[[Pythium]]'' spp.; [[fusarium wilt]] caused by ''[[Fusarium oxysporum]]''; [[root knot]] caused by ''[[Meloidogyne hapla]]''. These are all classified as biotic problems.{{Cite book|title=Field crop diseases handbook|last=Nyvall|first=Robert F|publisher=Series: AVI sourcebook and handbook series|year=1979|isbn=0-87055-336-4|pages=[https://archive.org/details/fieldcropdisease0000nyva/page/9 9–22]|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/fieldcropdisease0000nyva/page/9}} [120] => [121] => Abiotic problems include nutrient deficiencies, (nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, copper, magnesium, manganese, boron, zinc), pollutants (air, water, soil, pesticide injury, fertilizer burn), toxic concentration of minerals, and unfavorable growth conditions.{{Cite book|title=Vegetable diseases and their control|last1=Sherf|first1=Arden F.|last2=Macnab|first2=Alan A.|publisher=New York : J. Wiley|year=1986|isbn=0-471-05860-2|edition=Second|pages=79–82}} [122] => [123] => == International Year of Pulses == [124] => {{main|International Year of Pulses}} [125] => [126] => The International Year of Pulses 2016 (IYP 2016) was declared by the [[Sixty-eighth session of the United Nations General Assembly]].{{cite web|last=United Nations|first=David|name-list-style=vanc|title=The International Year of Pulses|url=https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A%2FRES%2F68%2F231&referer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fevents%2Fobservances%2Fyears.shtml&Lang=E|publisher=United Nations|access-date=14 December 2015|archive-date=28 January 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200128184349/https://www.un.org/en/ga/search/view_doc.asp?symbol=A%2FRES%2F68%2F231&referer=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.un.org%2Fen%2Fevents%2Fobservances%2Fyears.shtml&Lang=E|url-status=live}} The [[Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations]] was nominated to facilitate the implementation of IYP 2016 in collaboration with governments, relevant organizations, non-governmental organizations and other relevant stakeholders. Its aim was to heighten public awareness of the nutritional benefits of pulses as part of [[sustainable food systems|sustainable food]] production aimed towards [[food security]] and [[nutrition]]. IYP 2016 created an opportunity to encourage connections throughout the food chain that would better use pulse-based proteins, further global production of pulses, better use [[Crop rotation|crop rotations]] and address challenges in the global trade of pulses.{{cite web|title=International Year of Pulses 2016 – IYP2016|url=http://www.fao.org/pulses-2016/en/|access-date=14 December 2015|archive-date=6 December 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171206083417/http://www.fao.org/pulses-2016/en/|url-status=live}} [127] => [128] => == See also == [129] => * [[Beans]] [130] => * [[Legume lectin]] [131] => * [[List of dried foods]] [132] => * [[List of legume dishes]] [133] => * [[Peanut allergy]] [134] => [135] => == References == [136] => {{Reflist}} [137] => [138] => == Further reading == [139] => {{refbegin}} [140] => * {{cite web |publisher=[[NHS Choices]] |title=Pulses |access-date=January 9, 2017 |url=http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/Goodfood/Pages/pulses.aspx |date=April 30, 2013 |archive-date=January 26, 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170126223158/http://www.nhs.uk/Livewell/Goodfood/Pages/pulses.aspx |url-status=live }} [141] => * {{cite journal | vauthors = Varshney RK, Kudapa H | title = Legume biology: the basis for crop improvement. | journal = Functional Plant Biology | date = December 2013 | volume = 40 | issue = 12 | pages = v–iii |publisher=CSIRO Publishing |doi=10.1071/FPv40n12_FO | pmid = 32481187 | doi-access = free }} [142] => {{refend}} [143] => [144] => == External links == [145] => * {{wiktionary inline}} [146] => * {{Commons category-inline|Legumes}} [147] => [148] => {{fruits}} [149] => {{Vegetarianism}} [150] => {{Plant-based diets}} [151] => {{Authority control}} [152] => [153] => [[Category:Legumes| ]] [154] => [[Category:Fruit morphology]] [155] => [[Category:Staple foods]] [156] => [[Category:Vegetables]] [157] => [[Category:Vegetarian cuisine]] [] => )
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Legume

A legume is a type of plant that belongs to the family Fabaceae (formerly Leguminosae). Legumes are primarily known for their fruit, which is a pod containing multiple seeds called pulses.

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Legumes are primarily known for their fruit, which is a pod containing multiple seeds called pulses. Some popular examples of legumes include peas, beans, lentils, chickpeas, and peanuts. Legumes are an essential part of diets worldwide due to their high protein content, dietary fiber, and other essential nutrients. They are also prized for their ability to fix nitrogen in the soil, improving its fertility and reducing the need for chemical fertilizers. Cultivated legumes have a long history of domestication, with their origins dating back thousands of years. They have been cultivated for food, feed, and other industrial purposes. In many cultures, legumes have been a staple food source, providing a cheap and nutritious option for millions of people. The nutritional value and health benefits of legumes have been extensively studied and recognized. They are low in fat and cholesterol and high in fiber, vitamins, minerals, and antioxidants. Regular consumption of legumes has been associated with reduced risks of heart disease, certain types of cancer, and other chronic diseases. Legumes are not only important for human nutrition but also play a crucial role in sustainable agriculture and environmental conservation. By fixing nitrogen in the soil, they contribute to building and maintaining soil fertility. Additionally, legumes have a lower carbon footprint compared to other protein sources like meat and dairy. The Wikipedia page on legumes provides a comprehensive overview of the different types of legumes, their cultivation, nutritional composition, and health benefits. It also covers the historical and cultural significance of legumes, their role in agriculture and sustainability, as well as their utilization in various cuisines around the world.

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