Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Legume grown for its edible bean}} [1] => {{Redirect|Soy}} [2] => {{pp|small=yes}} [3] => {{Use mdy dates|date=March 2020}} [4] => {{Speciesbox [5] => | image = Soybean.USDA.jpg [6] => | genus = Glycine [7] => | species = max [8] => | authority = ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Elmer Drew Merrill|Merr.]] [9] => | synonyms = [10] => * ''Dolichos soja'' L. [11] => * ''Glycine angustifolia'' [[Friedrich Anton Wilhelm Miquel|Miq.]] [12] => * ''Glycine gracilis'' [[Boris Vassilievich Skvortsov|Skvortsov]] [13] => * ''Glycine hispida'' ([[Conrad Moench|Moench]]) [[Carl Maximowicz|Maxim.]] [14] => * ''Glycine soja'' sensu [[auctorum|auct.]] [15] => * ''Phaseolus max'' L. [16] => * ''Soja angustifolia'' Miq. [17] => * ''Soja hispida'' Moench [18] => * ''Soja japonica'' [[Gaetano Savi|Savi]] [19] => * ''Soja max'' ([[Carl Linnaeus|L.]]) [[Charles Vancouver Piper|Piper]] [20] => * ''Soja soja'' [[Gustav Karl Wilhelm Hermann Karsten|H. Karst.]] [21] => * ''Soja viridis'' Savi [22] => | synonyms_ref = {{cite web |url=http://eol.org/pages/641527/overview |title=''Glycine max''|publisher=[[Encyclopedia of Life]] (EoL)|access-date=16 February 2012}} [23] => }} [24] => {{Infobox Chinese [25] => |c=大豆 [26] => |l="large bean" [27] => |p=dàdòu [28] => |mi={{IPAc-cmn|d|a|4|.|d|ou|4}} [29] => |altname=Southern Chinese name [30] => |s2=黄豆 [31] => |t2=黃豆 [32] => |l2="yellow bean" [33] => |p2=huángdòu [34] => |j2=wong4-dau6 [35] => |y2=wòhng-dauh [36] => |ci2={{IPAc-yue|w|ong|4|-|d|au|6}} [37] => |h2=vòng-theu [38] => |poj2=n̂g-tāu [39] => |kanji=大豆Generally written in ''katakana'', not ''kanji''. [40] => |kana=ダイズ [41] => |romaji=daizu [42] => |hanja=大豆 [43] => |hangul=대두 (or 메주콩) [44] => |rr=daedu (or mejukong) [45] => |qn=đậu tương (or đỗ tương)
đậu nành [46] => |chuhan=豆漿 [47] => |chunom=豆𥢃 [48] => }} [49] => [[File:Soybeans 01.jpg|thumb|alt=Beans in a supermarket in China|Beans for sale at a [[supermarket]] in [[China]]]] [50] => [51] => The '''soybean''', '''soy bean''', or '''soya bean''' ('''''Glycine max'''''){{cite web |url=http://www.plantnames.unimelb.edu.au/Sorting/Glycine.html#max |title=''Glycine max'' |publisher=[[Multilingual Multiscript Plant Name Database]] |access-date=16 February 2012}} is a species of [[legume]] native to [[East Asia]], widely grown for its edible [[bean]], which has numerous uses. [52] => [53] => Traditional unfermented food uses of soybeans include [[soy milk]], from which [[tofu]] and [[tofu skin]] are made. Fermented soy foods include [[soy sauce]], [[fermented bean paste]], [[nattō]], and [[tempeh]]. Fat-free (defatted) soybean meal is a significant and cheap source of protein for animal feeds and many [[TV dinner|packaged meals]]. For example, soybean products, such as [[textured vegetable protein]] (TVP), are ingredients in many meat and [[dairy]] substitutes.{{cite book |last=Riaz |first=Mian N. |title=Soy Applications in Food |publisher=CRC Press |location=Boca Raton, FL |year=2006 |isbn=978-0-8493-2981-4 }} [54] => [55] => Soybeans contain significant amounts of [[phytic acid]], [[dietary minerals]] and [[B vitamins]]. [[Soybean oil|Soy vegetable oil]], used in food and industrial applications, is another product of processing the soybean crop. Soybean is the most important protein source for feed farm animals (that in turn yields animal protein for human consumption).{{cite web |url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/674 |title=Soybean meal |access-date= 16 April 2019}} [56] => [57] => ==Etymology== [58] => The word "soy" originated as a corruption of the [[Cantonese]] or Japanese names for [[soy sauce]] ({{zh|c=豉油|cy=sihyàuh|j=si6jau4}}) {{Nihongo||醤油||lead=yes|''shōyu''}}.{{Cite journal |last1=Hymowitz |first1=T. |last2=Newell |first2=C.A. |date=1981-07-01 |title=Taxonomy of the genus ''Glycine'', domestication and uses of soybeans |journal=[[Economic Botany]] |language=en |volume=35 |issue=3 |pages=272–88 |doi=10.1007/BF02859119 |s2cid=21509807 }} [59] => [60] => The name of the genus, ''Glycine'', comes from [[Carl Linnaeus|Linnaeus]]. When naming the genus, Linnaeus observed that one of the species within the genus had a sweet root. Based on the sweetness, the Greek word for sweet, ''glykós'', was Latinized. The genus name is not related to the amino acid [[glycine]].{{Citation needed|date=July 2021}} [61] => [62] => ==Classification== [63] => [[File:Soybeanvarieties.jpg|frameless|right|upright|alt=Varieties used for many purposes]] [64] => The genus ''Glycine'' may be divided into two subgenera, ''[[Glycine (subgenus)|Glycine]]'' and ''[[Soja (subgenus)|Soja]]''. The subgenus ''Soja'' includes the cultivated soybean, ''G. max'', and the wild soybean, treated either as a separate species ''[[Glycine soja|G. soja]]'', or as the subspecies ''G. max'' subsp. ''soja''.{{cite web |title=''Glycine max subsp. soja'' (Siebold & Zucc.) H.Ohashi |work=Plants of the World Online |publisher=Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew |url=https://powo.science.kew.org/taxon/urn:lsid:ipni.org:names:920989-1 |access-date=2023-01-28 }} The cultivated and wild soybeans are [[Annual plant|annuals]]. The wild soybean is native to [[China]], [[Japan]], [[Korea]] and [[Russia]].{{cite book |first1=Ram J. |last1=Singh |first2=Randall L. |last2=Nelson |first3=Gyuhwa |last3=Chung |title=Genetic Resources, Chromosome Engineering, and Crop Improvement: Oilseed Crops, Volume 4 |publisher=Taylor & Francis|location=[[London]] |date= November 2, 2006 |page=15 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lQ9bcjETlrIC&pg=PA15 |isbn=978-0-8493-3639-3}} The subgenus ''Glycine'' consists of at least 25 wild [[perennial]] species: for example, ''[[Glycine canescens|G. canescens]]'' and ''[[Glycine tomentella|G. tomentella]]'', both found in [[Australia]] and [[Papua New Guinea]].{{cite conference |first=Theodore |last=Hymowitz |editor-first=J.B. |editor-last=Sinclair |editor2-first=G.L. |editor2-last=Hartman |title=Evaluation of Wild Perennial ''Glycine'' Species and Crosses For Resistance to Phakopsora |book-title=Proceedings of the Soybean Rust Workshop |pages=33–37 |publisher=National Soybean Research Laboratory |date=August 9, 1995 |location=[[Urbana, IL]], US}}{{cite journal |doi=10.2307/2443241 |first1=C.A. |last1=Newell |first2=T. |last2=Hymowitz |title=Hybridization in the Genus ''Glycine'' Subgenus ''Glycine'' Willd. (Leguminosae, Papilionoideae) |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=70 |issue=3 |pages=334–48 |date=March 1983 |jstor=2443241}} Perennial soybean (''[[Neonotonia wightii]]'') belongs to a different genus. It originated in Africa and is now a widespread pasture crop in the tropics.Heuzé V., Tran G., Giger-Reverdin S., Lebas F., 2015. Perennial soybean (''Neonotonia wightii''). Feedipedia, a programme by [[Institut national de la recherche agronomique|INRA]], [[CIRAD]], Association Française de Zootechnie and [[FAO]]. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/293 Last updated on September 30, 2015, 15:09{{Cite web |url=https://plants.jstor.org/compilation/Neonotonia.wightii |title=''Neonotonia wightii'' in Global Plants on JSTOR |website=Global Plants on JSTOR}}{{cite web |url=http://www.tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Neonotonia_wightii.htm |title=Factsheet – ''Neonotonia wightii'' |work=tropicalforages.info |access-date=January 19, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170601233037/http://tropicalforages.info/key/Forages/Media/Html/Neonotonia_wightii.htm |archive-date=June 1, 2017 }} [65] => [66] => Like some other crops of long domestication, the relationship of the modern soybean to wild-growing species can no longer be traced with any degree of certainty.{{cite book |author1=Shekhar, Hossain |author2=Uddin, Howlader |author3=Zakir Hossain |author4=Kabir, Yearul |title=Exploring the Nutrition and Health Benefits of Functional Foods |date=July 22, 2016 |publisher=IGI Global |page=223 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=H2m_DAAAQBAJ&q=the+relationship+of+the+modern+soybean+to+wild-growing+species+can+no+longer+be+traced+with+any+degree+of+certainty&pg=PA223 |access-date=22 November 2017 |isbn=978-1-5225-0592-1}} It is a [[cultigen]] with a very large number of [[cultivar]]s.{{cite journal |author1=Ghulam Raza |author2=Mohan B. Singh |author3=Prem L. Bhalla |editor1-last=Atanassov |editor1-first=Atanas |title=In Vitro Plant Regeneration from Commercial Cultivars of Soybean |journal=[[BioMed Research International]] |date=June 11, 2017 |pmc=5485301 |pmid=28691031 |doi=10.1155/2017/7379693 |volume=2017 |page=7379693 |doi-access=free}} [67] => [68] => ==Description== [69] => {{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}} [70] => Like most plants, soybeans grow in distinct [[Plant morphology|morphological]] stages as they develop from seeds into fully mature plant. [71] => [72] => ===Germination=== [73] => The first stage of growth is [[germination]], a method which first becomes apparent as a seed's [[radicle]] emerges.{{cite book |last1=Purcell |first1=Larry C. |last2=Salmeron |first2=Montserrat |last3=Ashlock |first3=Lanny |title=Arkansas Soybean Production Handbook – MP197 |date=2014 |chapter=Chapter 2 |chapter-url=http://www.uaex.edu/publications/pdf/mp197/chapter2.pdf |publisher=University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service|location=Little Rock|pages=1–8 |url=http://www.uaex.edu/publications/mp-197.aspx |access-date=21 February 2016 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304011452/http://www.uaex.edu/publications/mp-197.aspx }} This is the first stage of root growth and occurs within the first 48 hours under ideal growing conditions. The first [[photosynthesis|photosynthetic]] structures, the [[cotyledon]]s, develop from the [[hypocotyl]], the first plant structure to emerge from the soil. These cotyledons both act as leaves and as a source of nutrients for the immature plant, providing the seedling nutrition for its first 7 to 10 days. [74] => [75] => [[File:Glycine max 003.JPG|upright=0.9|frameless|right|alt=Fruits/pods]] [76] => [[File:Bhatmaas.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|[[Bhatmaas]] – [[Nepal]]i fried soybeans]] [77] => [78] => ===Maturation=== [79] => The first true leaves develop as a pair of [[Leaf#Divisions of the blade|single blades]]. Subsequent to this first pair, mature [[Plant stem|nodes]] form compound leaves with three blades. Mature [[trifoliolate]] leaves, having three to four [[leaflet (botany)|leaflets]] per leaf, are often between {{convert|6|and|15|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} long and {{convert|2|and|7|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} broad. Under ideal conditions, stem growth continues, producing new nodes every four days. Before flowering, roots can grow {{convert|2|cm|in|frac=8|abbr=on}} per day. If [[rhizobia]] are present, [[root nodule|root nodulation]] begins by the time the third node appears. Nodulation typically continues for 8 weeks before the [[Rhizobia#Infection and signal exchange|symbiotic infection]] process stabilizes. The final characteristics of a soybean plant are variable, with factors such as genetics, [[soil quality]], and climate affecting its form; however, fully mature soybean plants are generally between {{convert|50|and|125|cm|in|-1|abbr=on}} in height{{cite book |last1=Purcell |first1=Larry C. |last2=Salmeron |first2=Montserrat |last3=Ashlock |first3=Lanny |title=Arkansas Soybean Production Handbook – MP197 |date=2000 |chapter=Chapter 19: Soybean Facts |chapter-url=http://www.uaex.edu/publications/pdf/mp197/chapter19.pdf |publisher=University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service |location=Little Rock, AR |page=1 |url=http://www.uaex.edu/publications/mp-197.aspx |access-date=5 September 2016 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304011452/http://www.uaex.edu/publications/mp-197.aspx }} and have rooting depths between {{convert|75|and|150|cm|in|-1|abbr=on}}.{{cite book |last1=Bennett |first1=J. Michael |last2=Rhetoric |first2=Emeritus |last3=Hicks |first3=Dale R. |last4=Naeve |first4=Seth L. |last5=Bennett |first5=Nancy Bush |title=The Minnesota Soybean Field Book |date=2014 |publisher=[[University of Minnesota Extension]]|location=St Paul, MN |page=33 |url=http://www.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/soybean/docs/minnesota-soybean-field-book.pdf |access-date=16 September 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130930151502/http://www1.extension.umn.edu/agriculture/soybean/docs/minnesota-soybean-field-book.pdf |archive-date=September 30, 2013 }} [80] => [81] => ===Flowering=== [82] => Flowering is [[Photoperiodism|triggered by day length]], often beginning once days become shorter than 12.8 hours. This trait is highly variable however, with different [[Variety (botany)|varieties]] reacting differently to changing day length.{{cite book |last1=Shurtleff |first1=William |author-link=William Shurtleff |last2=Aoyagi |first2=Akiko |author-link2=Akiko Aoyagi |title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Sweden, Norway, Denmark and Finland (1735–2015): Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook |date=2015 |publisher=Soyinfo Center|location=Lafayette|isbn=978-1-928914-80-8 |page=490 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0gtpCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA490}} Soybeans form inconspicuous, self-fertile flowers which are borne in the [[axil]] of the leaf and are white, pink or purple. Though they do not require pollination, they are attractive to bees, because they produce nectar that is high in sugar content.{{Cite web |last=Reisig |first=Dominic |title=Soybean flowering, pollination, and bees |url=http://www.ncagr.gov/pollinators/documents/DominicReisig-NCPollinatorProtectionSoybeans.pdf |website=[[North Carolina Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services]] |access-date=July 15, 2021 |archive-date=June 28, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210628160525/http://www.ncagr.gov/pollinators/documents/DominicReisig-NCPollinatorProtectionSoybeans.pdf |url-status=dead }} Depending on the soybean variety, node growth may cease once flowering begins. Strains that continue nodal development after flowering are termed "[[Indeterminate growth|indeterminates]]" and are best suited to climates with longer growing seasons. Often soybeans drop their leaves before the seeds are fully mature. [83] => [84] => [[File:Soybean flowers.png|frameless|right|alt=Small, purple flowers]] [85] => [86] => The fruit is a hairy pod that grows in clusters of three to five, each pod is {{convert|3|–|8|cm|in|frac=2|abbr=on}} long and usually contains two to four (rarely more) [[seed]]s 5–11 mm in diameter. Soybean seeds come in a wide variety of sizes and [[husk|hull]] colors such as black, brown, yellow, and green. Variegated and bicolored seed coats are also common. [87] => [88] => ===Seed resilience=== [89] => The hull of the mature bean is hard, water-resistant, and protects the [[cotyledon]] and [[hypocotyl]] (or "germ") from damage. If the seed coat is cracked, the seed will not [[germinate]]. The scar, visible on the seed coat, is called the [[Hilum (biology)|hilum]] (colors include black, brown, buff, gray and yellow) and at one end of the hilum is the [[Micropyle (botany)|micropyle]], or small opening in the seed coat which can allow the absorption of water for sprouting. [90] => [91] => Some seeds such as soybeans containing very high levels of [[soy protein|protein]] can undergo [[desiccation]], yet survive and revive after water absorption. [[A. Carl Leopold]] began studying this capability at the [[Boyce Thompson Institute for Plant Research]] at [[Cornell University]] in the mid-1980s. He found soybeans and corn to have a range of soluble [[carbohydrate]]s protecting the seed's cell viability.{{cite journal |pages=225–30 |doi=10.1104/pp.100.1.225 |title=Maturation Proteins and Sugars in Desiccation Tolerance of Developing Soybean Seeds |year=1992 |last1=Blackman |first1=S.A. |last2=Obendorf |first2=R.L. |last3=Leopold |first3=A.C. |journal=[[Plant Physiology (journal)|Plant Physiology]] |volume=100 |pmid=16652951 |issue=1 |pmc=1075542}} Patents were awarded to him in the early 1990s on techniques for protecting biological membranes and proteins in the dry state. [92] => [93] => ===Nitrogen-fixing ability=== [94] => Like many legumes, soybeans can [[nitrogen fixation|fix atmospheric nitrogen]], due to the presence of [[symbiosis|symbiotic]] bacteria from the [[Rhizobia]] group.{{cite web |title=The Nitrogen cycle and Nitrogen fixation |author=Jim Deacon |date=April 5, 2023 |publisher=Institute of Cell and Molecular Biology, The University of Edinburgh |url=http://www.biology.ed.ac.uk/archive/jdeacon/microbes/nitrogen.htm}} [95] => [96] => ==Chemical composition== [97] => {{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}} [98] => Together, [[protein]] and [[soybean oil]] content account for 56% of dry soybeans by weight (36% protein and 20% [[fat]], table). The remainder consists of 30% [[carbohydrate]]s, 9% water and 5% [[Ash (analytical chemistry)|ash]] (table). Soybeans comprise approximately 8% seed coat or hull, 90% [[cotyledon]]s and 2% [[hypocotyl]] axis or germ.{{Cite book |title=Encyclopedia of Grain Science |last=Corke, Walker and Wrigley |publisher=[[Academic Press]] |year=2004 |isbn=978-0-12-765490-4}}{{Page needed|date=November 2015}} [99] => [100] => ===Nutrition=== [101] => {{further|Soy protein}} [102] => {{nutritionalvalue [103] => | name=Soybean, mature seeds, raw [104] => | water=8.54 g [105] => | cholesterol=0 mg [106] => | kJ=1866 [107] => | protein=36.49 g [108] => | fat=19.94 g [109] => | satfat=2.884 g [110] => | monofat = 4.404 g [111] => | polyfat = 11.255 g [112] => | omega3fat=1.330 g [113] => | omega6fat=9.925 g [114] => | carbs=30.16 g [115] => | fiber=9.3 g [116] => | sugars=7.33 g [117] => | calcium_mg=277 [118] => | copper_mg = 1.658 [119] => | iron_mg=15.7 [120] => | magnesium_mg=280 [121] => | phosphorus_mg=704 [122] => | potassium_mg=1797 [123] => | sodium_mg=2 [124] => | manganese_mg=2.517 [125] => | zinc_mg=4.89 [126] => | vitC_mg=6.0 [127] => | thiamin_mg=0.874 [128] => | riboflavin_mg=0.87 [129] => | niacin_mg=1.623 [130] => | pantothenic_mg=0.793 [131] => | vitB6_mg=0.377 [132] => | folate_ug=375 [133] => | choline_mg=115.9 [134] => | vitA_ug=1 [135] => | vitE_mg=0.85 [136] => | vitK_ug=47 [137] => [138] => | tryptophan=0.591 g [139] => | threonine=1.766 g [140] => | isoleucine=1.971 g [141] => | leucine=3.309 g [142] => | lysine=2.706 g [143] => | methionine=0.547 g [144] => | cystine=0.655 g [145] => | phenylalanine=2.122 g [146] => | tyrosine=1.539 g [147] => | valine=2.029 g [148] => | arginine=3.153 g [149] => | histidine=1.097 g [150] => | alanine=1.915 g [151] => | aspartic acid=5.112 g [152] => | glutamic acid=7.874 g [153] => | glycine=1.880 g [154] => | proline=2.379 g [155] => | serine=2.357 g [156] => | note=[https://fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/174270/nutrients Link to USDA FoodData Central Entry] [157] => }} [158] => [159] => A 100-gram reference quantity of raw soybeans supplies {{convert|1866|kJ|kcal|abbr=off}} of [[food energy]] and are 9% water, 30% [[carbohydrate]]s, 20% total [[fat]] and 36% [[protein]] (table). [160] => [161] => Soybeans are a rich source of [[essential nutrient]]s, providing in a 100-gram serving (raw, for reference) high contents of the [[Daily Value]] (DV) especially for protein (36% DV), [[dietary fiber]] (37%), [[iron]] (121%), [[manganese]] (120%), [[phosphorus]] (101%) and several [[B vitamins]], including [[folate]] (94%) (table). High contents also exist for [[vitamin K]], [[magnesium]], [[zinc]] and [[potassium]] (table). [162] => [163] => For human consumption, soybeans must be processed prior to consumption–either by cooking, roasting, or fermenting–to destroy the [[trypsin inhibitor]]s ([[serine protease inhibitor]]s).{{Cite journal |title=Enzymatic Reduction of Anti-nutritional Factors in Fermenting Soybeans by Lactobacillus plantarum Isolates from Fermenting Cereals |journal=Nigerian Food Journal |last1=Adeyemo |first1=S.M. |issue=2 |volume=31 |pages=84–90 |last2=Onilude |first2=A.A. |publisher=[[Elsevier]] |year=2013|doi=10.1016/S0189-7241(15)30080-1 |doi-access=free }} Raw soybeans, including the immature green form, are toxic to all [[monogastric]] animals.{{cite book |author1=Circle, Sidney Joseph |author2=Smith, Allan H. |title=Soybeans: Chemistry and Technology |publisher=Avi Publishing |location=Westport, CT |year=1972 |pages=104, 163 |isbn=978-0-87055-111-6}} [164] => [165] => ====Protein==== [166] => {{further|Complete protein|Protein quality|Soy protein}} [167] => Most soy protein is a relatively heat-stable storage protein. This heat stability enables soy food products requiring high temperature cooking, such as [[tofu]], [[soy milk]] and [[textured vegetable protein]] (soy flour) to be made. [[Soy protein]] is essentially identical to the protein of other [[legume]] seeds and [[pulse (legume)|pulse]]s.{{cite journal |last1=Derbyshire |first1=E. |last2=Wright |first2=D.J. |last3=Boulter |first3=D. |title=Legumin and Vicilin, Storage Proteins of Legume Seeds |journal=[[Phytochemistry (journal)|Phytochemistry]] |volume=15 |issue=1 |pages=3–24 |year=1976 |doi=10.1016/S0031-9422(00)89046-9|bibcode=1976PChem..15....3D }}{{cite journal |pmid=16748534 |pmc=1274878 |year=1949 |last1=Danielsson |first1=C.E. |title=Seed Globulins of the Gramineae and Leguminosae |volume=44 |issue=4 |pages=387–400 |journal=The Biochemical Journal |doi=10.1042/bj0440387 }} [168] => [169] => Soy is a good source of protein for vegetarians and [[Veganism|vegans]] or for people who want to reduce the amount of meat they eat, according to the [[Food and Drug Administration (United States)|US Food and Drug Administration]]:{{Cite web |url=https://www.gpo.gov/fdsys/pkg/FR-1999-10-26/pdf/99-27693.pdf |title=Food Labeling: Health Claims; Soy Protein and Coronary Heart Disease; Docket No. 98P–0683 |publisher=US Food and Drug Administration; Federal Register, Vol. 64, No. 206 |location=Washington, DC |date=26 October 1999}} [170] => [171] => {{Blockquote|Soy protein products can be good substitutes for animal products because, unlike some other beans, soy offers a 'complete' protein profile. ... Soy protein products can replace animal-based foods—which also have complete proteins but tend to contain more fat, especially saturated fat—without requiring major adjustments elsewhere in the diet.}} [172] => [173] => Although soybeans have high protein content, soybeans also contain high levels of [[Protease inhibitor (biology)|protease inhibitors]], which can prevent digestion.{{cite journal |vauthors=Gilani GS, Cockell KA, Sepehr E |title=Effects of antinutritional factors on protein digestibility and amino acid availability in foods |journal=[[Journal of AOAC International]] |volume=88 |issue=3 |pages=967–987 |year=2005 |doi=10.1093/jaoac/88.3.967 |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/7742226 |pmid=16001874 |doi-access=free }} Protease inhibitors are reduced by cooking soybeans, and are present in low levels in soy products such as [[tofu]] and [[soy milk]]. [174] => [175] => The [[PDCAAS|Protein Digestibility Corrected Amino Acid Score]] (PDCAAS) of soy protein is the nutritional equivalent of meat, eggs, and [[casein]] for human growth and health. Soybean protein isolate has a [[biological value]] of 74, whole soybeans 96, soybean milk 91, and eggs 97.{{cite book|title=Protein Quality Evaluation: Report of the Joint FAO/WHO Expert Consultation|publisher=Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (Food and Nutrition Paper No. 51)|location=Bethesda, MD |year=1989|isbn=978-92-5-103097-4}} [176] => [177] => [[File:Graded Seed.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|Graded seed]] [178] => All [[spermatophytes]], except for the family of grasses and cereals ([[Poaceae]]), contain 7S (vicilin) and 11S (legumin) soy protein-like globulin storage proteins; or only one of these [[globulin]] proteins. S denotes [[Svedberg]], sedimentation coefficients. Oats and rice are anomalous in that they also contain a majority of soybean-like protein.Seed Proteins; Peter R. Shewery and Rod Casey (Eds) 1999. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht, The Netherlands Cocoa, for example, contains the 7S globulin, which contributes to cocoa/chocolate taste and aroma,{{cite web |url=http://openagricola.nal.usda.gov/Record/IND44131228 |title=Subunit structure of the vicilin-like globular storage... |work=usda.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707233616/http://openagricola.nal.usda.gov/Record/IND44131228 |archive-date=July 7, 2015 }}{{cite web |url=http://openagricola.nal.usda.gov/Record/IND20412524 |title=Cocoa-specific aroma precursors are generated by proteolytic... |work=usda.gov |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150707234934/http://openagricola.nal.usda.gov/Record/IND20412524 |archive-date=July 7, 2015 }}{{Cite web |url=http://library.osu.edu/assets/Uploads/ScienceCafe/Barringer020310.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=August 24, 2013 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120324131437/http://library.osu.edu/assets/Uploads/ScienceCafe/Barringer020310.pdf |archive-date=March 24, 2012 }} whereas coffee beans (coffee grounds) contain the 11S globulin responsible for coffee's aroma and flavor.{{cite journal |title=Comparative Proteomical Analysis of Zygotic Embryo and Endosperm from ''Coffea arabica'' Seeds |first1=Lívia L. |last1=Koshino |first2=Clarissa P. |last2=Gomes |first3=Luciano P. |last3=Silva |first4=Mirian T.S. |last4=Eira |first5=Carlos |last5=Bloch Jr. |first6=Octávio L. |last6=Franco |first7=Ângela |last7=Mehta |date=November 26, 2008 |journal=[[J. Agric. Food Chem.]] |volume=56 |issue=22 |pages=10922–26 |doi=10.1021/jf801734m |pmid=18959416 |url=http://www.alice.cnptia.embrapa.br/alice/handle/doc/190361}}{{cite web |url=http://www.alice.cnptia.embrapa.br/bitstream/doc/880533/1/Comparativeproteomical.pdf |title=Archived copy |access-date=2013-08-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20131203144038/http://www.alice.cnptia.embrapa.br/bitstream/doc/880533/1/Comparativeproteomical.pdf |archive-date=December 3, 2013 }} [179] => [180] => Vicilin and legumin proteins belong to the [[cupin superfamily]], a large family of functionally diverse proteins that have a common origin and whose evolution can be followed from bacteria to eukaryotes including animals and higher plants.{{cite journal |title=Evolution of seed storage globulins and cupin superfamily |doi=10.1134/S0026893311030162 |volume=45 |issue=4 |journal=[[Molecular Biology (journal)|Molecular Biology]] |pages=529–35 |year=2011 |last1=Shutov |first1=A.D. |pmid=21954589 |s2cid=26111362 }} [181] => [182] => 2S [[albumins]] form a major group of homologous storage proteins in many [[dicot]] species and in some [[monocots]] but not in grasses (cereals).{{cite journal |last1=Youle |first1=RJ |last2=Huang |first2=AHC |year=1981 |title=Occurrence of low molecular weight and high cysteine containing albumin storage proteins in oilseed of diverse species |journal=[[American Journal of Botany]] |volume=68 |issue=1 |pages=44–48 |doi=10.2307/2442990 |jstor=2442990 }} Soybeans contain a small but significant 2S storage protein.{{cite journal |pmc=2570561 |pmid=18949071 |doi= 10.2174/1874091X00802010016 |doi-access=free|volume=2 |title=2S Albumin Storage Proteins: What Makes them Food Allergens? |year=2008 |journal=[[Open Biochemistry Journal]] |pages=16–28 |last1=Moreno |first1=FJ |last2=Clemente |first2=A}}{{cite journal |pmc=3326064 |pmid=22514740 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0035409 |volume=7 |issue=4 |title=Scalable purification and characterization of the anticancer lunasin peptide from soybean |year=2012 |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |pages=e35409 |last1=Seber |first1=LE |last2=Barnett |first2=BW |last3=McConnell |first3=EJ |display-authors=etal |bibcode=2012PLoSO...735409S |doi-access=free }}{{Cite web |url=https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2009/12/091202153946.htm |title=Soy peptide lunasin has anti-cancer, anti-inflammatory properties |website=ScienceDaily}} 2S albumin are grouped in the [[prolamin]] superfamily.{{cite web |url=http://www.meduniwien.ac.at/allergens/allfam/factsheet.php?allfam_id=AF050 |title=AllFam – AllFam Allergen Family Factsheet |work=meduniwien.ac.at |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304045912/http://www.meduniwien.ac.at/allergens/allfam/factsheet.php?allfam_id=AF050 |archive-date=March 4, 2016 }} Other allergenic proteins included in this 'superfamily' are the non-specific [[plant lipid transfer proteins]], [[alpha amylase inhibitor]], [[trypsin inhibitors]], and prolamin storage proteins of cereals and grasses. [183] => [184] => [[Peanut]]s, for instance, contain 20% 2S albumin but only 6% 7S globulin and 74% 11S. It is the high 2S albumin and low 7S globulin that is responsible for the relatively low lysine content of peanut protein compared to soy protein. [185] => [186] => ====Carbohydrates==== [187] => The principal soluble [[carbohydrate]]s of mature soybeans are the disaccharide [[sucrose]] (range 2.5–8.2%), the trisaccharide [[raffinose]] (0.1–1.0%) composed of one sucrose molecule connected to one molecule of [[galactose]], and the tetrasaccharide [[stachyose]] (1.4 to 4.1%) composed of one sucrose connected to two molecules of galactose.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019|reason=removed citation associated with a predatory publisher}} While the [[oligosaccharide]]s raffinose and stachyose protect the viability of the soybean seed from desiccation (see above section on physical characteristics) they are not digestible sugars, so contribute to [[flatulence]] and abdominal discomfort in humans and other [[monogastric]] animals, comparable to the disaccharide [[trehalose]]. Undigested oligosaccharides are broken down in the intestine by native microbes, producing gases such as [[carbon dioxide]], [[hydrogen]], and [[methane]]. [188] => [189] => Since soluble soy carbohydrates are found in the [[whey]] and are broken down during fermentation, soy concentrate, soy protein isolates, tofu, soy sauce, and sprouted soybeans are without flatus activity. On the other hand, there may be some beneficial effects to ingesting oligosaccharides such as raffinose and stachyose, namely, encouraging indigenous [[Bifidobacterium|bifidobacteria]] in the colon against putrefactive bacteria. [190] => [191] => The insoluble carbohydrates in soybeans consist of the complex polysaccharides [[cellulose]], [[hemicellulose]], and [[pectin]]. The majority of soybean carbohydrates can be classed as belonging to [[dietary fiber]]. [192] => [193] => ====Fats==== [194] => Raw soybeans are 20% fat, including [[saturated fat]] (3%), [[monounsaturated fat]] (4%) and polyunsaturated fat, mainly as [[linoleic acid]] (table). [195] => [196] => Within [[soybean oil]] or the [[lipid]] portion of the seed is contained four [[phytosterol]]s: [[stigmasterol]], [[sitosterol]], [[campesterol]], and [[brassicasterol]] accounting for about 2.5% of the lipid fraction; and which can be converted into [[steroid hormone]]s.{{Citation needed|date=December 2019|reason=removed citation associated with a predatory publisher}} Additionally soybeans are a rich source of [[sphingolipid]]s.{{cite journal |title=Sphingolipids in Food and the Emerging Importance of Sphingolipids to Nutrition |first1=Hubert |last1=Vesper |first2=Eva-Maria |last2=Schmelz |first3=Mariana N. |last3=Nikolova-Karakashian |first4=Dirck L. |last4=Dillehay |first5=Daniel V. |last5=Lynch |first6=Alfred H. |last6=Merrill |date=July 1, 1999 |journal=[[Journal of Nutrition]] |volume=129 |issue=7 |pages=1239–50 |pmid=10395583 |doi=10.1093/jn/129.7.1239 |doi-access=free}} [197] => [198] => ====Other constituents==== [199] => Soy contains [[isoflavone]]s—[[polyphenol]]ic compounds, produced by legumes including peanuts and [[chickpea]]s. Isoflavones are closely related to [[flavonoid]]s found in other plants, vegetables and flowers. [200] => [201] => Soy contains the [[phytoestrogen]] [[coumestans]], also are found in beans and split-peas, with the best sources being alfalfa, clover, and soybean sprouts. [[Coumestrol]], an isoflavone [[coumarin]] derivative, is the only coumestan in foods.{{cite journal |pmid=11823590 |date=February 2002 |last1=De Kleijn |first1=M.J. |last2=Van Der Schouw |first2=Y.T. |last3=Wilson |first3=P.W. |last4=Grobbee |first4=D.E. |last5=Jacques |first5=P.F. |title=Dietary Intake of Phytoestrogens is Associated With a Favorable Metabolic Cardiovascular Risk Profile in Postmenopausal U.S. Women: The Framingham Study |volume=132 |issue=2 |pages=276–82 | journal=The Journal of Nutrition |doi=10.1093/jn/132.2.276 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |pages=S31–S38 |doi=10.1079/BJN2002794 |pmid=12725654 |title=Phyto-oestrogen Database of Foods and Average Intake in Finland |date=June 2003 |last1=Valsta |first1=L.M. |last2=Kilkkinen |first2=A. |last3=Mazur |first3=W. |last4=Nurmi |first4=T. |last5=Lampi |first5=A-M. |last6=Ovaskainen |first6=M-L. |last7=Korhonen |first7=T. |last8=Adlercreutz |first8=H. |last9=Pietinen |first9=P. |display-authors=8 |journal=[[British Journal of Nutrition]] |volume=89 |issue=5 |s2cid=14175754 |doi-access=free }} [202] => [203] => [[Saponins]], a class of natural [[surfactants]] (soaps), are sterols that are present in small amounts in various [[whole food|plant foods]], including soybeans, other [[legume]]s, and cereals, such as oats.{{cite journal |last1=Hu |first1=Chengshen |last2=Wong |first2=Wing-Tak |last3=Wu |first3=Runyu |last4=Lai |first4=Wing-Fu |title=Biochemistry and use of soybean isoflavones in functional food development |journal=[[Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition]] |date=5 July 2019 |volume=60 |issue=12 |doi=10.1080/10408398.2019.1630598 |pages=2098–2112 |pmid=31272191 |s2cid=195806006 |hdl=10397/101521 |hdl-access=free }}{{cite journal |pmid=25286183 |pmc=4266039 |year=2014 |last1=Moses |first1=T |title=Metabolic and functional diversity of saponins, biosynthetic intermediates and semi-synthetic derivatives |journal=[[Critical Reviews in Biochemistry and Molecular Biology]] |volume=49 |issue=6 |pages=439–62 |last2=Papadopoulou |first2=K.K. |last3=Osbourn |first3=A |author-link3=Anne Osbourn |doi=10.3109/10409238.2014.953628}} [204] => [205] => ===Comparison to other major staple foods=== [206] => The following table shows the nutrient content of green soybean and other major staple foods, each in respective raw form on a [[Dry matter#Dry matter basis|dry weight basis]] to account for their different water contents. Raw soybeans, however, are not edible and cannot be digested. These must be sprouted, or prepared and cooked for human consumption. In sprouted and cooked form, the relative nutritional and anti-nutritional contents of each of these grains is remarkably different from that of raw form of these grains reported in this table. The nutritional value of soybean and each cooked staple depends on the processing and the method of cooking: boiling, frying, roasting, baking, etc. [207] => {{Comparison of major staple foods}} [208] => [209] => ==Cultivation== [210] => [[File:AreialSeedingPlane.jpg|thumb|upright|right|[[United States]]|alt=[[Biplane]], US field, [[cropduster|cropdusting]]]] [211] => {{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}} [212] => [213] => ===Uses=== [214] => During World War II, soybeans became important in both North America and Europe chiefly as substitutes for other protein foods and as a source of edible oil. During the war, the soybean was discovered as [[fertilizer]] due to [[nitrogen fixation]] by the [[United States Department of Agriculture]]. [215] => [216] => ===Conditions=== [217] => [[File:Sembrado de soja en argentina.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|left|[[Argentina]]|alt=Fields in [[Argentina]]]] [218] => Cultivation is successful in climates with hot summers, with optimum growing conditions in mean temperatures of {{convert|20|to|30|C|F|round=5}}; temperatures of below {{convert|20|C|F|round=5}} and over {{convert|40|C|F|round=5}} stunt growth significantly. They can grow in a wide range of soils, with optimum growth in moist [[Alluvium|alluvial soil]]s with good organic content. Soybeans, like most legumes, perform [[nitrogen fixation]] by establishing a [[symbiotic]] relationship with the bacterium ''[[Bradyrhizobium japonicum]]'' ([[synonym (taxonomy)|syn.]] ''Rhizobium japonicum''; Jordan 1982). This ability to fix nitrogen allows farmers to reduce nitrogen [[fertilizer]] use and increase yields when growing other crops in [[Crop rotation|rotation]] with soy.{{Cite web |title=The Corn and Soybean Rotation Effect - Wisconsin Corn Agronomy |url=http://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/AA/A014.aspx |website=corn.agronomy.wisc.edu |access-date=2020-05-17 |archive-date=August 7, 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200807071753/http://corn.agronomy.wisc.edu/AA/A014.aspx |url-status=dead }} There may be some trade-offs, however, in the long-term abundance of [[Soil organic matter|organic material in soils]] where soy and other crops (for example, [[Maize|corn]]) are grown in rotation.{{Cite web |title=Corn and soybean rotation could pose long-term tradeoffs for soil health |url=https://phys.org/news/2019-10-corn-soybean-rotation-pose-long-term.html |website=phys.org |language=en |access-date=2020-05-17}} For best results, though, an inoculum of the correct strain of bacteria should be mixed with the soybean (or any legume) seed before planting. Modern crop [[cultivar]]s generally reach a height of around {{convert|1|m|ft|0|abbr=on}}, and take 80–120 days from sowing to harvesting. [219] => [220] => ===Soils=== [221] => Soil scientists [[Edson Lobato]] (Brazil), [[Andrew McClung]] (U.S.), and [[Alysson Paolinelli]] (Brazil) were awarded the 2006 [[World Food Prize]] for transforming the ecologically biodiverse savannah of the [[Cerrado]] region of Brazil into highly productive cropland that could grow profitable soybeans.{{Cite web|url=https://www.worldfoodprize.org/en/laureates/20002009_laureates/2006_lobato_mcclung_paolinelli/|title=2006: Lobato, McClung, Paolinelli - The World Food Prize - Improving the Quality, Quantity and Availability of Food in the World|first=Global Reach Internet Productions, LLC-Ames, IA-|last=globalreach.com|website=www.worldfoodprize.org}}{{cite news |first = Susan|last = Lang|title = Cornell Alumnus Andrew Colin McClung Reaps 2006 World Food Prize|url = http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/June06/World.Food.prize.ssl.html|work =Chronicle Online |publisher = Cornell University|date = June 21, 2006|access-date =February 18, 2012}}{{cite web|url=http://e360.yale.edu/feature/the_cerrado_brazils_other_biodiversity_hotspot_loses_ground/2393/ |title=The Cerrado: Brazil's Other Biodiverse Region Loses Ground|date=April 14, 2011|last=Pearce|first=Fred|publisher=Yale University|access-date=February 18, 2012}}{{Cite journal | doi=10.1023/A:1024191913296|title = The success of BNF in soybean in Brazil| journal=[[Plant and Soil]]| volume=252| pages=1–9|year = 2003|last1 = Alves|first1 = Bruno J.R.| last2=Boddey| first2=Robert M.| last3=Urquiaga| first3=Segundo|s2cid = 10143668}} [222] => [[File:Soybean rust.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|[[Soybean rust]]]] [223] => [224] => ===Contamination concerns=== [225] => Human [[sewage sludge]] can be used as fertilizer to grow soybeans. Soybeans grown in sewage sludge likely contain elevated concentrations of metals.{{cite journal|title=Molybdenum Uptake by Forage Crops Grown on Sewage Sludge-Amended Soils in the Field and Greenhouse|url=http://soilandwater.bee.cornell.edu/publications/McBrideJEQ00.pdf|journal=[[Journal of Environmental Quality]]|date=May–June 2000|volume=29|issue=3|last1=McBride|first1=M.B.|last2=Richards|first2=B.K.|last3=Steenhuis|first3=T.|last4=Spiers|first4=G.|pages=848–54|doi=10.2134/jeq2000.00472425002900030021x}}{{cite journal|title=Residual Effects of Sewage Sludge on Soybean: II. Accumulation of Soil and Symbiotically Fixed Nitrogen|journal=[[Journal of Environmental Quality]]|date=December 9, 1985|volume=16|issue=2|last1=Heckman|first1=J.R.|last2=Angle|first2=J.S.|last3=Chaney|first3=R.L.|pages=118–24|doi=10.2134/jeq1987.00472425001600020005x}} [226] => [227] => ===Pests=== [228] => {{Further|List of soybean diseases}} [229] => Soybean plants are vulnerable to a wide range of [[bacterial crop disease|bacterial diseases]], [[fungal crop disease|fungal diseases]], [[viral crop disease|viral diseases]], and parasites. [230] => [231] => ====Bacteria==== [232] => The primary bacterial diseases include [[bacterial blight]], [[bacterial pustule]] and [[downy mildew]] affecting the soybean plant.{{Cite web|url=https://gardenandme.com/soybean/|title=Soybean plant - How to grow, care, pest control and uses of soybeans|date=June 5, 2020|website=Garden And Me}} [233] => [234] => ====Animals==== [235] => The [[Japanese beetle]] ('''''Popillia japonica''''') poses a significant threat to agricultural crops, including soybeans, due to its voracious feeding habits. Found commonly in both urban and suburban areas, these beetles are frequently observed in agricultural landscapes where they can cause considerable damage to crops like corn, soybeans, and various fruits. {{Cite web |title=Japanese beetle - Popillia japonica |url=https://entnemdept.ufl.edu/creatures/orn/beetles/japanese_beetle.htm |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=entnemdept.ufl.edu}}{{Cite web |title=EENY350/IN630: Japanese Beetle, Popillia japonica Newman (Insecta: Coleoptera: Scarabaeidae) |url=https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/IN630 |access-date=2024-04-25 |website=Ask IFAS - Powered by EDIS |language=en-US}} [236] => [237] => =====Nematodes===== [238] => [[Soybean cyst nematode]] (SCN) is the worst pest of soybean in the US. Losses of 30% or 40%"You can literally have 40% yield loss with no symptoms," says Greg Tylka, [[Iowa State University Extension|Iowa State University (ISU) Extension]] nematologist. are common even without symptoms. [239] => [240] => =====Arthropods===== [241] => ======Insects====== [242] => The [[Helicoverpa zea|corn earworm moth and bollworm]] (Helicoverpa zea) is a common and destructive pest of soybean growth in Virginia.Herbert, Ames, Cathy Hull, and Eric Day. "Corn Earworm Biology and Management in Soybeans." [[Virginia Cooperative Extension]], [[Virginia State University]] (2009). [243] => [244] => =====Vertebrates===== [245] => ======Mammals====== [246] => Soybeans are consumed by [[whitetail deer]] which may damage soybean plants through feeding, trampling and bedding, reducing [[crop yield]]s by as much as 15%.{{cite web|url=https://www.morningagclips.com/controlling-white-tailed-deer-in-soybeans|title=Controlling white-tailed deer in soybeans|date=16 January 2018|publisher=Morning AgClips – Michigan|access-date=9 May 2019}} [[Groundhog]]s are also a common pest in soybean fields, living in burrows underground and feeding nearby. One den of groundhogs can consume a tenth to a quarter of an acre of soybeans.{{cite web|url=https://www.lancasterfarming.com/news/columnists/soybean-farmers-warranted-in-waging-war-on-groundhogs/article_f6e6a210-2995-521f-8655-aa19efe373c3.html|title=Soybean Farmers Warranted in Waging War on Groundhogs|date=9 September 2016|publisher=[[Lancaster Farming]]|author=Brant, Jesse D|access-date=9 May 2019}} [[animal repellent|Chemical repellents]] or [[firearm]]s are effective for controlling pests in soybean fields. [247] => [248] => {{anchor|Fungus|Funguses}} [249] => [250] => ====Fungi==== [251] => Soybeans suffer from ''[[Pythium spinosum]]'' in [[Arkansas]] and [[Indiana]] (United States), and China.{{cite web [252] => | title=U.S. National Fungus Collections Database results [253] => | website=Fungal Databases, [[U.S. National Fungus Collections]] [254] => | date=2020-12-08 [255] => | url=http://nt.ars-grin.gov/fungaldatabases/new_allViewGenBank.cfm?thisName=Pythium%20spinosum&organismtype=Fungus [256] => | access-date=2020-12-08 [257] => }}{{Dead link|date=November 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [258] => [259] => ===Cultivars=== [260] => ====Disease resistant cultivars==== [261] => [[plant disease resistance|Resistant varieties]] are available. In Indian cultivars, Nataraj ''et al.'' 2020 find that anthracnose caused by ''[[Colletotrichum truncatum]]'' is resisted by a combination of 2 [[major gene]]s. [262] => :{{Cite journal|issue=4|pages=393–409|year=2021|volume=22|last1=Boufleur|first1=Thais R.|last2=Ciampi-Guillardi|first2=Maisa|last3=Tikami|first3=Ísis|last4=Rogério|first4=Flávia|last5=Thon|first5=Michael R.|last6=Sukno|first6=Serenella A.|last7=Massola Júnior|first7=Nelson S.|last8=Baroncelli|first8=Riccardo|journal=[[Molecular Plant Pathology]]|s2cid=231969160|pmid=33609073|pmc=7938629|doi=10.1111/mpp.13036|title=Soybean anthracnose caused by ''Colletotrichum'' species: Current status and future prospects}} [263] => : [264] => :This review cites this research. [265] => : [266] => :{{Cite journal|issue=6|volume=67|year=2020|last1=Nataraj|first1=Vennampally|last2=Maranna|first2=Shivakumar|last3=Kumawat|first3=Giriraj|last4=Gupta|first4=Sanjay|last5=Rajput|first5=Laxman Singh|last6=Kumar|first6=Sanjeev|last7=Sharma|first7=Amar Nath|last8=Bhatia|first8=Virender Singh|journal=Genetic Resources and Crop Evolution|s2cid=211730576|doi=10.1007/s10722-020-00917-4|pages=1449–1456|title=Genetic inheritance and identification of germplasm sources for anthracnose resistance in soybean [''Glycine max'' (L.) Merr.]}} [267] => [268] => [269] => =====PI 88788===== [270] => The vast majority of cultivars in the US have [[soybean cyst nematode resistance]] (SCN resistance), but rely on [[soybean cyst nematode#PI 88788|only one breeding line (PI 88788)]] as their sole source of resistance.Reliance on the main genetic source of SCN resistance (PI 88788)may be helping SCN to overcome SCN-resistant varieties. Out of 807 resistant varieties listed by ISU this year, just 18 had a genetic background outside of PI 88788. "We have lots of varieties to pick from, but the genetic background is not as diverse as we would like it to be," says Tylka. (The resistance genes provided by PI 88788, {{Visible anchor|Peking}}, and {{Visible anchor|PI 90763}} were [[genome mapping|characterized]] in 1997.){{cite journal|issue=1|last1=Concibido|first1=Vergel C.|last2=Lange|first2=Douglas A.|last3=Denny|first3=Roxanne L.|last4=Orf|first4=James H.|last5=Young|first5=Nevin D.|title=Genome Mapping of Soybean Cyst Nematode Resistance Genes in 'Peking', PI 90763, and PI 88788 Using DNA Markers|journal=[[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]]|volume=37|year=1997|doi=10.2135/cropsci1997.0011183x003700010046x|pages=258–264}} As a result, for example, in 2012 only 18 cultivars out of 807 recommended by the [[Iowa State University Extension]] had any ancestry outside of PI 88788. By 2020 the situation was still about the same: Of 849 there were 810 with some ancestry from PI 88788,{{cite web | title=Soybean varieties with SCN resistance other than PI 88788 | website=Integrated Crop Management | publisher=[[Iowa State University#Birth of cooperative extension|Iowa State University Extension]] | url=http://crops.extension.iastate.edu/cropnews/2020/12/soybean-varieties-scn-resistance-other-pi-88788 | access-date=2021-03-12}}{{cite web | title=SCN-resistant Soybean Varieties for Iowa - By the Numbers | website=Integrated Crop Management | publisher=[[Iowa State University#Birth of cooperative extension|Iowa State University Extension]] | url=http://crops.extension.iastate.edu/cropnews/2020/11/scn-resistant-soybean-varieties-iowa-numbers | access-date=2021-03-12}} 35 from Peking, and only 2 from PI 89772. (On the question of exclusively PI 88788 ancestry, that number was not available for 2020.) That was speculated to be in 2012There have been cases where SCN has clipped yields of SCN-resistant varieties. Reliance on the main genetic source of SCN resistance (PI 88788)may be helping SCN to overcome SCN-resistant varieties.—and was clearly by 2020—producing SCN populations that are virulent on PI 88788. [271] => [272] => ==Production== [273] => {{main|List of countries by soybean production}} [274] => {| class="wikitable" style="float:right; clear:left; width:18em; text-align:center;" [275] => ! colspan=2|Soybean production – 2020 [276] => |- [277] => ! style="background:#ddf; width:75%;"| Country [278] => ! style="background:#ddf; width:25%;"| Production (millions of [[tonne]]s) [279] => |- [280] => | {{BRA}} ||122 [281] => |- [282] => | {{USA}} ||113 [283] => |- [284] => | {{ARG}} ||49 [285] => |- [286] => | {{CHN}} ||20 [287] => |- [288] => | {{IND}} ||11 [289] => |- [290] => | {{PAR}} ||11 [291] => |- [292] => | '''World'''||'''353''' [293] => |- [294] => | colspan="2" style="text-align: center;" | Source: [[Food and Agriculture Organization Corporate Statistical Database|FAOSTAT]]{{cite web|publisher=United Nations, Food and Agriculture Organization, Statistics Division, FAOSTAT|title=Soybean production in 2019, Crops/World regions/Production quantity (from pick lists)|url=http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data/QC/|access-date=8 February 2021|date=2019}} [295] => |} [296] => [[File:PRODUCTION OF SOYBEANS (2018).svg|thumb||alt=Production of soybeans (2018){{Cite book|title=World Food and Agriculture – Statistical Yearbook 2020|publisher=[[FAO]]|year=2020|isbn=978-92-5-133394-5|location=[[Rome]]|doi=10.4060/cb1329en|s2cid=242794287}}]] [297] => In 2020, world production of soybeans was over 353 million tonnes, led by Brazil and the United States combined with 66% of the total (table). Production has dramatically increased across the globe since the 1960s, but particularly in South America after a cultivar that grew well in low latitudes was developed in the 1980s.{{Cite journal|last1=Cattelan|first1=Alexandre José|last2=Dall'Agnol|first2=Amélio|date=2018-01-01|title=The rapid soybean growth in Brazil|url=https://www.ocl-journal.org/articles/ocl/abs/2018/01/ocl170039/ocl170039.html|journal=[[OCL (journal)|OCL]]|language=en|volume=25|issue=1|pages=D102|doi=10.1051/ocl/2017058|doi-access=free}} The rapid growth of the industry has been primarily fueled by large increases in [[Western pattern diet|worldwide demand for meat]] products, particularly in developing countries like China, which alone accounts for more than 60% of imports.{{Cite web|title=OEC - Soybeans (HS92: 1201) Product Trade, Exporters and Importers|url=https://oec.world/en/profile/hs92/1201/|website=oec.world|language=en|access-date=2020-05-17|archive-date=April 4, 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200404122328/https://oec.world/en/profile/hs92/1201/|url-status=dead}} [298] => [299] => ===Environmental issues=== [300] => In spite of the Amazon "Soy Moratorium", soy production continues to play a significant role in [[deforestation]] when its indirect impacts are taken into account, as land used to grow soy continues to increase. This land either comes from [[pasture]] land (which increasingly supplants forested areas), or areas outside the Amazon not covered by the moratorium, such as the [[Cerrado]] region. Roughly one-fifth of deforestation can be attributed to expanding land use to produce oilseeds, primarily for soy and [[palm oil]], whereas the expansion of [[beef]] production accounts for 41%. The main driver of deforestation is the global demand for meat, which in turn requires huge tracts of land to grow feed crops for livestock.{{cite journal |url=https://ourworldindata.org/drivers-of-deforestation |title=Drivers of Deforestation |last=Ritchie |first=Hannah |date= February 9, 2021|journal=[[Our World in Data]] |access-date=March 20, 2021 }} Around 80% of the global soybean crop is used to feed livestock.{{cite news |last= Liotta|first= Edoardo|date=August 23, 2019 |title=Feeling Sad About the Amazon Fires? Stop Eating Meat|url=https://www.vice.com/en_in/article/bjwzk4/feeling-sad-about-the-amazon-fires-stop-eating-meat |work=[[Vice Media|Vice]] |access-date=August 25, 2019|quote=Soy is the most important protein in animal feed, with 80 percent of the world's soybean crop fed to livestock.}} [301] => [302] => ==History== [303] => {{More citations needed section|date=July 2021}} [304] => Soybeans were a crucial crop in East Asia long before written records began.Shurtleff, William; Aoyagi, Akiko. 2013. History of Whole Dry Soybeans, Used as Beans, or Ground, Mashed or Flaked (240 BCE to 2013). Lafayette, California. 950 pp. The origin of soy bean cultivation remains scientifically debated. The closest living relative of the soybean is ''[[Glycine soja]]'' (previously called ''G. ussuriensis''), a legume native to central China.{{cite encyclopedia |url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/557184/soybean |title=Soybean |encyclopedia=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]] Online |access-date=February 18, 2012}} There is evidence for soybean domestication between 7000 and 6600 BC in China, between 5000 and 3000 BC in Japan and 1000 BC in Korea.{{cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Gyoung-Ah |last2=Crawford |first2=Gary W. |last3=Liu |first3=Li |last4=Sasaki |first4=Yuka |last5=Chen |first5=Xuexiang |title=Archaeological Soybean (''Glycine max'') in East Asia: Does Size Matter? |journal=[[PLOS ONE]] |date=November 4, 2011 |volume=6 |issue=11 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0026720 |pages=e26720 |pmid=22073186 |pmc=3208558|bibcode=2011PLoSO...626720L |doi-access=free }} [305] => [306] => The first unambiguously domesticated, [[cultigen]]-sized soybean was discovered in Korea at the [[Mumun pottery period|Mumun]]-period Daundong site.{{cite book|last1=Stark|first1=Miriam T.|title=Archaeology of Asia|publisher=John Wiley & Sons|isbn=978-1-4051-5303-4|page=81|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=z4_bT2SJ-HUC&pg=PA81|access-date=18 April 2017|language=en|date=15 April 2008}} Prior to [[Fermentation (food)|fermented]] products such as fermented black soybeans (''[[douchi]]''), ''jiang'' (Chinese miso), [[soy sauce]], [[tempeh]], [[nattō]], and [[miso]], soy was considered sacred for its beneficial effects in [[crop rotation]], and it was eaten by itself, and as [[bean curd]] and [[soy milk]]. [307] => [308] => Soybeans were introduced to [[Java]] in [[Malay Archipelago]] circa 13th century or probably earlier. By the 17th century through their trade with Far East, soybeans and its products were traded by European traders (Portuguese, Spanish, and Dutch) in Asia, and reached Indian Subcontinent by this period.{{citation needed|date=July 2022}} By the 18th century, soybeans were introduced to the Americas and Europe from China. Soy was introduced to Africa from China in the late 19th century, and is now widespread across the continent. [309] => [310] => ===East Asia=== [311] => [[File:Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 18, page 023 - 穭豆 - Glycine max (L.) Merr., 1804.jpg|thumb|''[[Seikei Zusetsu]]'' (1804)|alt=[[Botanical illustration]], ''[[Seikei Zusetsu]]'' (1804)]] [312] => [313] => The cultivation of soybeans began in the eastern half of northern China by 2000 BC, but is almost certainly much older.{{cite book |title=People, Plants and Genes: The Story of Crops and Humanity |url=https://archive.org/details/peopleplantsgene00murp_652 |url-access=limited |location=New York |publisher=Oxford University Press |pages=[https://archive.org/details/peopleplantsgene00murp_652/page/n146 122]–123 |year=2007 |last= Murphy |first= Denis J.}} The earliest documented evidence for the use of ''Glycine'' of any kind comes from charred plant remains of wild soybean recovered from Jiahu in [[Henan province]] China, a [[Neolithic]] site occupied between 9000 and 7800 calendar years ago (cal bp). An abundance of archeological charred soybean specimens have been found centered around this region.Zhao Z. 2004. "Floatation: a paleobotanic method in field archaeology". [[Archaeology (journal)|Archaeology]] 3: 80–87. [314] => [315] => According to the ancient Chinese myth, in 2853 BC, the legendary [[Shennong|Emperor Shennong]] of China proclaimed that five plants were sacred: soybeans, rice, wheat, barley, and [[millet]].{{cite web|url=http://www.soya.be/history-of-soybeans.php|title=History of Soybeans|publisher=Soya – Information about Soy and Soya Products|access-date=February 18, 2012}} Early Chinese records mention that soybeans were a gift from the region of [[Yangtze River delta]] and Southeast China.The History of Agriculture By Britannica Educational Publishing, p. 48 The ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'' claims soybean cultivation originated in China about 5000 years ago.''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'', ed. A. M. Prokhorov (New York: Macmillan, London: Collier Macmillan, 1974–1983) 31 volumes, three volumes of indexes. Translation of third Russian edition of ''Bol'shaya Sovetskaya Entsiklopediya'' Some scholars suggest that soybean originated in China and was domesticated about 3500 BC.{{cite book |last=Siddiqi |first=Mohammad Rafiq |year=2001 |title=Tylenchida: Parasites of Plants and Insects |location=New York |publisher=CABI Pub.}} Recent research, however, indicates that seeding of wild forms started early (before 5000 BC) in multiple locations throughout East Asia. [316] => [317] => Soybeans became an important crop by the Zhou dynasty (c. 1046–256 BC) in China. However, the details of where, when, and under what circumstances soybean developed a close relationship with people are poorly understood. Soybean was unknown in South China before the Han period. From about the first century AD to the [[Age of Discovery]] (15–16th centuries), soybeans were introduced into across South and Southeast Asia. This spread was due to the establishment of sea and land trade routes. The earliest Japanese textual reference to the soybean is in the classic ''[[Kojiki]]'' (''Records of Ancient Matters''), which was completed in AD 712. [318] => [319] => The oldest preserved soybeans resembling modern varieties in size and shape were found in [[archaeological site]]s in [[Korea]] dated about 1000 BC.{{cite book |last=Stark|first=Miriam T. |title=Archaeology of Asia (Blackwell Studies in Global Archaeology) |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |location=Hoboken, NJ |year=2005 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=PoDFdOstSNwC&pg=PA81|page=81|isbn=978-1-4051-0213-1|access-date=February 18, 2012}} [[Radiocarbon dating]] of soybean samples recovered through [[flotation (archaeology)|flotation]] during excavations at the Early [[Mumun]] period Okbang site in Korea indicated soybean was cultivated as a food crop in around 1000–900 BC. Soybeans from the Jōmon period in Japan from 3000 BC are also significantly larger than wild varieties.Shurtleff, William; Aoyagi, Akiko. 2012. ''History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Japan''. Lafayette, California. [320] => [321] => ===Southeast Asia=== [322] => Soybeans were mentioned as ''kadêlê'' (modern [[Indonesian language|Indonesian]] term: {{Lang|id|kedelai}}){{Cite web|url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/dictionary/indonesian-english/kedelai|title=kedelai translate Indonesian to English: Cambridge Dictionary|website=dictionary.cambridge.org|language=en|access-date=2018-01-21}} in an [[old Javanese]] manuscript, Serat [[Sri Tanjung]], which dates to 12th- to 13th-century [[Java]].{{cite web | title=Sejarah Tempe| author=Hendri F. Isnaeni | date=9 July 2014| publisher=Historia |url=http://historia.id/kuliner/sejarah-tempe | language=id | access-date= 21 January 2018}} By the 13th century, the soybean had arrived and cultivated in Indonesia; it probably arrived much earlier however, carried by traders or merchants from Southern China.{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/139|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Southeast Asia (1770–2010)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|isbn=978-1-928914-30-3|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi|year=2010}} [323] => [324] => The earliest known reference to it as "[[tempeh]]" appeared in 1815 in the [[Serat Centhini]] manuscript.''The Book of Tempeh'', 2nd ed., by W. Shurtleff and A. Aoyagi (2001, Ten Speed Press, p. 145) The development of tempeh fermented soybean cake probably took place earlier, circa 17th century in Java. [325] => [326] => ===Indian subcontinent=== [327] => By the 1600s, soy sauce spread from southern Japan across the region through the [[Dutch East India Company]] (VOC). [328] => [[File:Soya Bean.jpg|thumb|From a high-altitude area of [[Nepal]]]] [329] => [[File:Soyabean field.jpg|thumb|[[India]]|alt=Field in India]] [330] => [331] => The soybean probably arrived from southern China, moving southwest into northern parts of Indian subcontinent by this period.{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/140|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in South Asia / Indian Subcontinent (1656–2010)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|isbn=978-1-928914-31-0|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi|year=2010}} [332] => [333] => ===Iberia=== [334] => In 1603, "[[Nippo Jisho|Vocabvlario da Lingoa de Iapam]]", a famous Japanese-Portuguese dictionary, was compiled and published by Jesuit priests in Nagasaki. It contains short but clear definitions for about 20 words related to soyfoods—the first in any European language. [335] => [336] => The Luso-Hispanic traders were familiar with soybeans and soybean product through their trade with Far East since at least the 17th century. However, it was not until the late 19th century that the first attempt to cultivate soybeans in the Iberian peninsula was undertaken. In 1880, the soybean was first cultivated in Portugal in the [[Botanical Garden of the University of Coimbra|Botanical Gardens at Coimbra]] (Crespi 1935). [337] => [338] => In about 1910 in Spain the first attempts at Soybean cultivation were made by the Count of San Bernardo, who cultivated soybeans on his estates at Almillo (in southwest Spain) about 48 miles east-northeast of Seville.Shurtleff, W.; Aoyagi, A. 2015. "History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Spain and Portugal (1603–2015)." Lafayette, California: Soyinfo Center. (624 references; 23 photos and illustrations. Free online.) [339] => [340] => ===North America=== [341] => Soybeans were first introduced to North America from China in 1765, by [[Samuel Bowen]], a former [[East India Company]] sailor who had visited China in conjunction with [[James Flint (merchant)|James Flint]], the first Englishman legally permitted by the Chinese authorities to learn Chinese.{{cite book [342] => | title = An Anxious Pursuit: Agricultural Innovation and Modernity in the Lower South, 1730–1815 [343] => | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=_I0_gkKKMM8C&pg=PA147 [344] => | last1 = Chaplin [345] => | first1 = J.E. [346] => | year = 1996 [347] => | isbn = 978-0-8078-4613-1 [348] => | publisher = University of North Carolina Press [349] => | page = 147}} The first "New World" soybean crop was grown on [[Skidaway Island, Georgia]], in 1765 by Henry Yonge from seeds given him by Samuel Bowen.{{Cite journal|last=Hymowitz|first=T.|date=1970-10-01|title=On the domestication of the soybean|journal=[[Economic Botany]]|language=en|volume=24|issue=4|pages=408–21|doi=10.1007/BF02860745|s2cid=26735964|url=http://elartu.tntu.edu.ua/handle/lib/43629 }}{{cite web|url=http://www.caes.uga.edu/extension/irwin/anr/Vol29.1.pdf.pdf |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150923195804/http://www.caes.uga.edu/extension/irwin/anr/Vol29.1.pdf.pdf |archive-date=September 23, 2015 |publisher=Georgia Soybean News |website=caes.uga.edu |title=Another First for Georgia Agriculture |author=Roger Boerma |page=5 |volume=1 |issue=1 }}{{cite web|url=https://news.google.com/newspapers?nid=360&dat=19940831&id=9eMyAAAAIBAJ&pg=6901,2669493&hl=en|publisher=The Rockmart Journal|title=Soybeans planted first in Georgia|date=21 August 1994|website=Google News Archive}} Bowen grew soy near [[Savannah, Georgia]], possibly using funds from Flint, and made soy sauce for sale to England.{{cite book|title=Eat Your Food! Gastronomical Glory from Garden to Gut: A Coastalfields Cookbook, Nutrition Textbook, Farming Manual and Sports Manual|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BtZ2oNGyv6AC&pg=PR2|access-date=4 May 2013|date=April 2007|publisher=Coastalfields Press|isbn=978-0-9785944-8-0}} Although soybean was introduced into North America in 1765, for the next 155 years, the crop was grown primarily for [[forage]].{{cite web|url=http://www.nsrl.uiuc.edu/aboutsoy/history4.html |title=NSRL: About Soy |date=November 22, 2003 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20031122134643/http://www.nsrl.uiuc.edu/aboutsoy/history4.html |archive-date=November 22, 2003 }} [350] => [351] => In 1831, the first soy product "a few dozen India Soy" [sauce] arrived in Canada. Soybeans were probably first cultivated in Canada by 1855, and definitely in 1895 at [[Ontario Agricultural College]].{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/137|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Canada (1831–2010)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|isbn=978-1-928914-28-0|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi|year=2010}} [352] => [353] => It was not until [[Lafayette Mendel]] and [[Thomas Burr Osborne (chemist)|Thomas Burr Osborne]] showed that the nutritional value of soybean seeds could be increased by cooking, moisture or heat, that soy went from a farm animal feed to a human food.{{cite web |url=http://www.aces.uiuc.edu/vista/html_pubs/irspsm91/kunitz.html|title=The Kunitz Soybean Variety|work=uiuc.edu|date=2018-02-20|first = Theodore|last =Hymowitz}}{{cite web|url=http://cropsci.illinois.edu/news/scientists-create-new-low-allergen-soybean|title= Scientists create new low-allergen soybean|work=illinois.edu|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150605195117/http://cropsci.illinois.edu/news/scientists-create-new-low-allergen-soybean|archive-date=June 5, 2015}} [354] => [355] => William Morse is considered the "father" of modern soybean agriculture in America. In 1910, he and [[Charles Piper]] (Dr. C. V. Piper) began to popularize what was regarded as a relatively unknown Oriental peasant crop in America into a "golden bean", with the soybean becoming one of America's largest and most nutritious farm crops.{{cite web|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/HSS/morse_and_piper.php|title=William J. Morse and Charles V. Piper|work=soyinfocenter.com|first1= William |last1=Shurtleff |first2=Akiko|last2= Aoyagi|date =2004}}{{cite web|url= http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/147|title=William J. Morse – History of His Work with Soybeans and Soyfoods (1884–1959) – SoyInfo Center |publisher=soyinfocenter.com}}{{cite book |last1=Piper |first1=Charles V. |author1-link=Charles Piper |last2=Morse |first2=William J. |year=1923 |title=The Soybean |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6hRCAAAAYAAJ |series=Agricultural and Biological Publications |location=New York |publisher=McGraw-Hill Book Company |oclc=252589754 |via=Google Books}} [356] => [357] => [[File:Soybeans 2021 US map.pdf|frameless|alt=Planted area 2021 US map by state|left|upright=2.0]] [358] => [359] => Prior to the 1920s in the US, the soybean was mainly a [[forage]] crop, a source of oil, meal (for feed) and industrial products, with very little used as food. However, it took on an important role after World War I. During the [[Great Depression]], the drought-stricken ([[Dust Bowl]]) regions of the United States were able to use soy to regenerate their soil because of its nitrogen-fixing properties. Farms were increasing production to meet with government demands, and [[Henry Ford]] became a promoter of soybeans.{{Cite news|url=https://www.bloomberg.com/opinion/articles/2019-12-07/history-of-soybeans-in-u-s-could-take-turn-in-trump-s-trade-war?srnd=premium|title=How Soybeans Became Ubiquitous |newspaper=Bloomberg.com |date=December 7, 2019 |publisher=Bloomberg News |access-date=2019-12-07}} In 1931, Ford hired chemists [[Robert Boyer (chemist)|Robert Boyer]] and Frank Calvert to produce [[artificial silk]]. They succeeded in making a textile fiber of spun soy protein fibers, hardened or tanned in a [[formaldehyde]] bath, which was given the name [[Azlon]]. It never reached the commercial market. Soybean oil was used by [[Ford Motor Company|Ford]] in [[Soy paint|paint]] for the automobiles,{{cite book |author=Joe Schwarcz|title=The Fly in the Ointment: 63 Fascinating Commentaries on the Science of Everyday Life |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rmIbClRzfeoC&pg=PA193 |access-date=4 May 2013 |year=2004 |publisher=ECW Press |isbn=978-1-55022-621-8|page=193}} as well as a fluid for shock absorbers. [360] => [361] => Prior to the 1970s, Asian-Americans and Seventh-Day Adventists were essentially the only users of soy foods in the United States.{{Cite book |last=Roth |first=Matthew |year=2018 |title=Magic Bean: The Rise of Soy in America |location=Lawrence, KS |publisher=University Press of Kansas|page=109 |isbn=978-0-7006-2633-5 |oclc=1012618664 }} "The soy foods movement began in small pockets of the counterculture, notably the Tennessee commune named simply [[The Farm (Tennessee)|The Farm]], but by the mid-1970s a vegetarian revival helped it gain momentum and even popular awareness through books such as [[William Shurtleff|''The Book of Tofu'']]."{{Cite book |last=Roth |first=Matthew |year=2018 |title=Magic Bean: The Rise of Soy in America |location=Lawrence, KS |publisher=University Press of Kansas|page=201 |isbn=978-0-7006-2633-5 |oclc=1012618664 }} [362] => [363] => Although practically unseen in 1900, by 2000 soybean plantings covered more than 70 million acres,{{Cite book |last=Roth |first=Matthew |year=2018 |title=Magic Bean: The Rise of Soy in America |location=Lawrence, KS |publisher=University Press of Kansas|page=8 |isbn=978-0-7006-2633-5 |oclc=1012618664 }} second only to corn, and it became America's largest cash crop.{{citation needed|date=February 2022}} In 2021, 87,195 acres were planted, with the largest acreage in the states of Illinois, Iowa, and Minnesota.{{cite web |title=2021 Soybean Planted Area (000) Acres and Percent Change from Previous Year |url=https://www.nass.usda.gov/Charts_and_Maps/graphics/soyacm.pdf |website=USDA-National Agricultural Statistics Service |publisher=USDA |access-date=4 February 2022 |date=12 January 2022}} [364] => [365] => ===Caribbean and West Indies=== [366] => The soybean arrived in the Caribbean in the form of soy sauce made by Samuel Bowen in Savannah, Georgia, in 1767. It remains only a minor crop there, but its uses for human food are growing steadily.{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/126|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in the Caribbean / West Indies (1767–2008)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi}} [367] => [368] => ===Mediterranean area=== [369] => The soybean was first cultivated in Italy by 1760 in the Botanical Garden of Turin. During the 1780s, it was grown in at least three other botanical gardens in Italy.Shurtleff, W.; Aoyagi, A. (2015). ''History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Italy (1597–2015)''. Lafayette, California: Soyinfo Center. 618 pp. (1,381 references; 93 photos and illustrations. Free online.) The first soybean product, soy oil, arrived in [[Anatolia]] during 1909 under [[Ottoman Empire]].{{Cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=urb6IPmxwU8C&q=soybean+turkey&pg=PA7|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in the Middle East: Extensively Annotated Bibliography and Sourcebook|last1=Shurtleff|first1=William|last2=Aoyagi|first2=Akiko|date=2008|publisher=Soyinfo Center|isbn=978-1-928914-15-0|language=en}} The first clear cultivation occurred in 1931. This was also the first time that soybeans were cultivated in Middle East. By 1939, soybeans were cultivated in Greece.Matagrin. 1939. "Le Soja et les Industries du Soja," p. 47–48Shurtleff, W.; Aoyagi, A. 2015. "History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Greece, the European Union and Small Western European Countries (1939–2015)." Lafayette, California: Soyinfo Center. 243 pp. (462 references; 20 photos and illustrations. Free online. {{ISBN|978-1-928914-81-5}}). [370] => [371] => ===Australia=== [372] => Wild soybeans were discovered in northeastern Australia in 1770 by explorers Banks and Solander. In 1804, the first soyfood product ("Fine India Soy" [sauce]) was sold in Sydney. In 1879, the first domesticated soybeans arrived in Australia, a gift of the Minister of the Interior Department, Japan.{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/138|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Australia, New Zealand and Oceania (1770–2010)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|isbn=978-1-928914-29-7|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi|year=2010}} [373] => [374] => ===Western Europe=== [375] => The soybean was first cultivated in France by 1779 (and perhaps as early as 1740). The two key early people and organizations introducing the soybean to France were the Society of Acclimatization (starting in 1855) and [[Li Shizeng|Li Yu-ying]] (from 1910). Li started a large tofu factory, where the first commercial soyfoods in France were made.Shurtleff, W.; Aoyagi, A.; 2015. "History of Soybeans and Soyfood in France (1665–2015)". Lafayette, California; Soyinfo Center. 1,202 pp. (3,405 references; 145 photos and illustrations. Free online). [376] => [377] => ===Africa=== [378] => The soybean first arrived in Africa via Egypt in 1857.{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/134|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Africa (1857–2009)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|isbn=978-1-928914-25-9|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi|date=2009}} Soya Meme (Baked Soya) is produced in the village called Bame Awudome near [[Ho, Ghana|Ho]], the capital of the [[Volta Region]] of [[Ghana]], by the [[Ewe people]] of Southeastern Ghana and southern Togo. [379] => [380] => ===Central Europe=== [381] => In 1873, Professor [[Friedrich J. Haberlandt]] first became interested in soybeans when he obtained the seeds of 19 soybean varieties at the [[Vienna World Exposition]] (Wiener Weltausstellung). He cultivated these seeds in Vienna, and soon began to distribute them throughout Central and Western Europe. In 1875, he first grew the soybeans in Vienna, then in early 1876 he sent samples of seeds to seven cooperators in central Europe, who planted and tested the seeds in the spring of 1876, with good or fairly good results in each case.Shurtleff, W.; Aoyagi, A. 2015. "History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Austria and Switzerland (1781–2015)." Lafayette, California: Soyinfo Center. 705 pp. (1444 references; 128 photos and illustrations). Free online. {{ISBN|978-1-928914-77-8}}. Most of the farmers who received seeds from him cultivated them, then reported their results. Starting in February 1876, he published these results first in various journal articles, and finally in his ''magnum opus'', Die Sojabohne (The Soybean) in 1878. In northern Europe, [[lupin]] (lupine) is known as the "soybean of the north".{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2011/11/17/business/energy-environment/soy-substitute-edges-its-way-into-european-meals.html?pagewanted=all&_r=0|title=Soy Substitute Edges Its Way Into European Meals|last=Ross|first=Kate|newspaper=New York Times|date=November 16, 2011|access-date=February 28, 2015}} [382] => [383] => ===Central Asia=== [384] => The soybean is first in cultivated Transcaucasia in Central Asia in 1876, by the Dungans. This region has never been important for soybean production.{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/123|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Central Asia (1876–2008)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi}} [385] => [386] => ===Central America=== [387] => The first reliable reference to the soybean in this region dates from Mexico in 1877.{{cite web|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/128|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in Mexico and Central America (1877–2009)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi}} [388] => [389] => ===South America=== [390] => The soybean first arrived in South America in Argentina in 1882.{{cite book|url=http://www.soyinfocenter.com/books/132|title=History of Soybeans and Soyfoods in South America (1882–2009)|publisher=Soy Info Center|access-date=February 18, 2012|isbn=978-1-928914-23-5|first1=William|last1=Shurtleff|first2=Akiko|last2=Aoyagi|year=2009}} [391] => [392] => Andrew McClung showed in the early 1950s that with soil amendments the [[Cerrado]] region of Brazil would grow soybeans.{{cite web|url=http://www.news.cornell.edu/stories/2006/06/cornellian-reaps-2006-world-food-prize|title=Cornell alumnus Andrew Colin McClung reaps 2006 World Food Prize|publisher=news.cornell.edu – Cornell Chronicle}} In June 1973, when soybean futures markets mistakenly portended a major shortage, the [[Presidency of Richard Nixon|Nixon administration]] imposed an embargo on soybean exports. It lasted only a week, but Japanese buyers felt that they could not rely on U.S. supplies, and the rival Brazilian soybean industry came into existence.{{Cite web|url=https://www.agpolicy.org/weekcol/217.html|title=Policy Pennings, by Daryll E. Ray, Agricultural Policy Analysis Center|website=www.agpolicy.org|access-date=2019-12-07}} This led Brazil to become the world's largest producer of soybeans in 2020, with 131 million tons.[https://revistagloborural.globo.com/Noticias/Agricultura/noticia/2020/06/brasil-deve-colher-131-milhoes-de-toneladas-de-soja-na-safra-202021-aponta-usda.html Brasil deve colher 131 milhões de toneladas de soja na safra 2020/21, aponta USDA] [393] => [394] => Industrial soy production in South America is characterized by wealthy management who live far away from the production site which they manage remotely. In Brazil, these managers depend heavily on advanced technology and machinery, and agronomic practices such as zero tillage, high pesticide use, and intense fertilization. One contributing factor is the increased attention on the Brazilian [[Cerrado]] in [[Bahia]], Brazil by US farmers in the early 2000s. This was due to rising values of scarce farmland and high production costs in the US Midwest. There were many promotions of the Brazilian Cerrado by US farm producer magazines and market consultants who portrayed it as having cheap land with ideal production conditions, with infrastructure being the only thing it was lacking. These same magazines also presented Brazilian soy as inevitably out-competing American soy. Another draw to investing was the insider information about the climate and market in Brazil. A few dozen American farmers purchased varying amounts of land by a variety of means including finding investors and selling off land holdings. Many followed the [[Ethanol fuel|ethanol]] company model and formed an [[Limited liability company|LLC]] with investments from neighboring farmers, friends, and family while some turned to investment companies. Some soy farmers either [[Liquidation|liquidated]] their Brazilian assets or switched to remote management from the US to return to farming there and implement new farming and business practices to make their US farms more productive. Others planned to sell their now expensive Bahia land to buy land cheaper land in the frontier regions of [[Piauí]] or [[Tocantins]] to create more soybean farms.{{Cite journal |last=Ofstehage |first=Andrew L. |date=2018-05-10 |title=Financialization of work, value, and social organization among transnational soy farmers in the Brazilian Cerrado |url=http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/sea2.12123 |journal=Economic Anthropology |volume=5 |issue=2 |pages=274–285 |doi=10.1002/sea2.12123 |issn=2330-4847}} [395] => [396] => ==Genetics== [397] => [398] => Chinese [[landrace]]s were found to have a slightly higher genetic diversity than inbred lines by Li ''et al.'', 2010. Specific locus amplified fragment sequencing (SLAF-seq) has been used by Han ''et al.'', 2015 to study the genetic history of the [[crop domestication|domestication process]], perform [[genome-wide association study|genome-wide association studies]] (GWAS) of [[agronomic trait|agronomically relevant traits]], and produce [[high-density linkage map]]s.{{cite journal | last1=Rasheed | first1=Awais | last2=Hao | first2=Yuanfeng | last3=Xia | first3=Xianchun | last4=Khan | first4=Awais | last5=Xu | first5=Yunbi | last6=Varshney | first6=Rajeev K. | last7=He | first7=Zhonghu | title=Crop Breeding Chips and Genotyping Platforms: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives | journal=[[Molecular Plant]] | volume=10 | issue=8 | year=2017 | doi=10.1016/j.molp.2017.06.008 | pages=1047–1064 | s2cid=33780984 | pmid=28669791| doi-access=free }} An [[SNP array]] was developed by Song ''et al.'', 2013 and has been used for research and [[crop breeding|breeding]];{{cite journal |display-authors=3 | last1=Hulse-Kemp | first1=Amanda M|last2=Lemm | first2=Jana | last3=Plieske | first3=Joerg | last4=Ashrafi | first4=Hamid | last5=Buyyarapu | first5=Ramesh | last6=Fang | first6=David D | last7=Frelichowski | first7=James | last8=Giband | first8=Marc | last9=Hague | first9=Steve | last10=Hinze | first10=Lori L | last11=Kochan | first11=Kelli J | last12=Riggs | first12=Penny K | last13=Scheffler | first13=Jodi A | last14=Udall | first14=Joshua A | last15=Ulloa | first15=Mauricio | last16=Wang | first16=Shirley S | last17=Zhu | first17=Qian-Hao | last18=Bag | first18=Sumit K | last19=Bhardwaj | first19=Archana | last20=Burke | first20=John J | last21=Byers | first21=Robert L | last22=Claverie | first22=Michel | last23=Gore | first23=Michael A | last24=Harker | first24=David B | last25=Islam | first25=Mohammad Sariful | last26=Jenkins | first26=Johnie N | last27=Jones | first27=Don C | last28=Lacape | first28=Jean-Marc | last29=Llewellyn | first29=Danny J | last30=Percy | first30=Richard G | last31=Pepper | first31=Alan E | last32=Poland | first32=Jesse A | last33=Mohan Rai | first33=Krishan | last34=Sawant | first34=Samir V | last35=Singh | first35=Sunil Kumar | last36=Spriggs | first36=Andrew | last37=Taylor | first37=Jen M | last38=Wang | first38=Fei | last39=Yourstone | first39=Scott M | last40=Zheng | first40=Xiuting | last41=Lawley | first41=Cindy T | last42=Ganal | first42=Martin W | last43=Van Deynze | first43=Allen | last44=Wilson | first44=Iain W | last45=Stelly | first45=David M | title=Development of a 63K SNP Array for Cotton and High-Density Mapping of Intraspecific and Interspecific Populations of ''Gossypium'' spp. | journal=[[G3: Genes, Genomes, Genetics]] | volume=5 | issue=6 | date=2015-06-01 | doi=10.1534/g3.115.018416 | pages=1187–1209 | pmid=25908569 | pmc=4478548 | s2cid=11590488}} the same team applied their array in Song ''et al.'', 2015 against the USDA Soybean Germplasm Collection and obtained mapping data that are expected to yield [[association mapping]] data for such traits.{{cite journal | display-authors=3|last1=Hinze | first1=Lori L. | last2=Hulse-Kemp | first2=Amanda M. | last3=Wilson | first3=Iain W. | last4=Zhu | first4=Qian-Hao | last5=Llewellyn | first5=Danny J. | last6=Taylor | first6=Jen M. | last7=Spriggs | first7=Andrew | last8=Fang | first8=David D. | last9=Ulloa | first9=Mauricio | last10=Burke | first10=John J. | last11=Giband | first11=Marc | last12=Lacape | first12=Jean-Marc | last13=Van Deynze | first13=Allen | last14=Udall | first14=Joshua A. | last15=Scheffler | first15=Jodi A. | last16=Hague | first16=Steve | last17=Wendel | first17=Jonathan F. | last18=Pepper | first18=Alan E. | last19=Frelichowski | first19=James | last20=Lawley | first20=Cindy T. | last21=Jones | first21=Don C. | last22=Percy | first22=Richard G. | last23=Stelly | first23=David M. | title=Diversity analysis of cotton (''Gossypium hirsutum'' L.) germplasm using the CottonSNP63K Array | journal=BMC Plant Biology | volume=17 | issue=1 | date=2017-02-03 | doi=10.1186/s12870-017-0981-y | page=Article number 37 | pmid=28158969 | pmc=5291959 | s2cid=3969205 | doi-access=free }} [399] => [400] => {{Vanchor|Rpp1-R1}} is a [[crop fungal disease resistance gene|resistance gene]] against [[soybean rust]]. Rpp1-R1 is an [[R gene]] (NB-LRR) providing resistance against the rust pathogen ''[[Phakopsora pachyrhizi]]''. Its synthesis product includes a [[ULP1 protease]]. [401] => {{ Cite journal [402] => | doi=10.1042/ebc20210084 [403] => | pmc=9528084 [404] => | pmid=35635051 [405] => | title=Show me your ID: NLR immune receptors with integrated domains in plants [406] => | date=2022 [407] => | last1=Marchal [408] => | first1=Clemence [409] => | last2=Michalopoulou [410] => | first2=Vassiliki A. [411] => | last3=Zou [412] => | first3=Zhou [413] => | last4=Cevik [414] => | first4=Volkan [415] => | last5=Sarris [416] => | first5=Panagiotis F. [417] => | journal=Essays in Biochemistry [418] => | volume=66 [419] => | issue=5 [420] => | pages=527–539 [421] => }} [422] => [423] => Qijian ''et al.'', 2017 provides the {{Vanchor|SoySNP50K}} [[gene array]]. [424] => :{{ Cite journal | issue = 8 | volume = 10 | year = 2017 | last1=Rasheed | first1=Awais | last2=Hao | first2=Yuanfeng | last3=Xia | first3=Xianchun | last4=Khan | first4=Awais | last5=Xu | first5=Yunbi | last6=Varshney | first6=Rajeev K. | last7=He | first7=Zhonghu |s2cid=33780984|pmid=28669791|doi=10.1016/j.molp.2017.06.008|pages=1047–1064|title=Crop Breeding Chips and Genotyping Platforms: Progress, Challenges, and Perspectives | journal=[[Molecular Plant]] | doi-access=free }} [425] => : [426] => :This review cites this research. [427] => : [428] => :{{ Cite journal | issue = 1 | volume = 8 | year = 2013 | journal = [[PLoS ONE]] | last1 = Song | first1 = Qijian | last2 = Hyten | first2 = David | last3 = Jia | first3 = Gaofeng | last4 = Quigley | first4 = Charles | last5 = Fickus | first5 = Edward | last6 = Nelson | first6 = Randall | last7 = Cregan | first7 = Perry | page = e54985 | s2cid = 1850673 | pmc = 3555945 | pmid = 23372807 | doi = 10.1371/journal.pone.0054985 | title = Development and Evaluation of SoySNP50K, a High-Density Genotyping Array for Soybean | bibcode = 2013PLoSO...854985S | doi-access = free }} [429] => [430] => [431] => ===Genetic modification=== [432] => {{further|Genetically modified soybean}} [433] => [[File:Multicolor soybeans in Hale Township.jpg|thumb|Different varieties of soybeans being grown together]] [434] => Soybeans are one of the "[[Biotechnology|biotech]] food" crops that have been [[Genetically modified food|genetically modified]], and genetically modified soybeans are being used in an increasing number of products. In 1995, [[Monsanto]] company introduced [[Genetically modified crops|glyphosate-tolerant]] soybeans that have been genetically modified to be resistant to Monsanto's [[glyphosate]] herbicides through substitution of the ''[[Agrobacterium]] sp.'' (strain CP4) [[gene]] EPSP (5-enolpyruvyl shikimic acid-3-phosphate) synthase. The substituted version is not sensitive to [[glyphosate]].{{cite journal |pages=1451–61 |doi=10.2135/cropsci1995.0011183X003500050032x |title=Development, Identification, and Characterization of a Glyphosate-Tolerant Soybean Line |year=1995 |last1=Padgette |first1=S.R. |last2=Kolacz |first2=K.H. |last3=Delannay |first3=X. |last4=Re |first4=D.B. |last5=Lavallee |first5=B.J. |last6=Tinius |first6=C.N. |last7=Rhodes |first7=W.K. |last8=Otero |first8=Y.I. |last9=Barry |first9=G.F. | display-authors=8 |journal=[[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]]|volume=35 |issue=5}} [435] => [436] => In 1997, about 8% of all soybeans cultivated for the commercial market in the United States were genetically modified. In 2010, the figure was 93%.National Agricultural Statistics Board annual report, June 30, 2010. Retrieved July 23, 2010. As with other glyphosate-tolerant crops, concern is expressed over damage to [[biodiversity]].{{cite book |last= Liu |first= KeShun |title= Soybeans: Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization |url= https://archive.org/details/soybeanschemistr00liuk |url-access= limited |year=1997 |publisher= Springer |location=Berlin|isbn= 978-0-8342-1299-2 |page= [https://archive.org/details/soybeanschemistr00liuk/page/n555 532]}} A 2003 study{{cite journal |doi=10.2135/cropsci2003.0409 |author=Sneller CH |title=Impact of Transgenic Genotypes and Subdivision on Diversity Within Elite North American Soybean Germplasm |journal=[[Crop Science (journal)|Crop Science]]|volume=43 |pages=409–14 |year=2003}} concluded the "Roundup Ready" (RR) gene had been bred into so many different soybean cultivars, there had been little decline in genetic diversity, but "diversity was limited among elite lines from some companies". [437] => [438] => The widespread use of such types of GM soybeans in the Americas has caused problems with exports to some regions. GM crops require extensive certification before they can be legally imported into the [[European Union]], where there is considerable supplier and consumer reluctance to use GM products for consumer or animal use. Difficulties with [[Co-existence of genetically modified and conventional crops and derived food and feed|coexistence]] and subsequent traces of cross-contamination of non-GM stocks have caused shipments to be rejected and have put a premium on non-GM soy.{{cite news|title= EU Caught in Quandary Over GMO Animal Feed Imports |newspaper=The Guardian|date= December 7, 2007}} [439] => [440] => A 2006 [[United States Department of Agriculture]] report found the adoption of genetically engineered (GE) soy, corn and cotton reduced the amount of pesticides used overall, but did result in a slightly greater amount of [[herbicide]]s used for soy specifically. The use of GE soy was also associated with greater [[No-till farming|conservation tillage]], indirectly leading to better soil conservation, as well as increased income from off-farming sources due to the greater ease with which the crops can be managed. Though the overall estimated benefits of the adoption of GE soybeans in the United States was $310 million, the majority of this benefit was experienced by the companies selling the seeds (40%), followed by biotechnology firms (28%) and farmers (20%).{{cite web| publisher = United States Department of Agriculture|url=http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib11/eib11.pdf|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100614154639/http://www.ers.usda.gov/publications/eib11/eib11.pdf|archive-date=2010-06-14 |title = The First Decade of Genetically Engineered Crops in the United States |last = Fernandez-Cornejo | first = J. | author2 = Caswell, Margriet|date = April 1, 2006|access-date=February 18, 2012}} The patent on glyphosate-tolerant soybeans expired in 2014,{{cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2009/12/18/business/18seed.html|title=As Patent Ends, a Seed's Use Will Survive|date=December 18, 2009|newspaper=The New York Times|last1=Pollack|first1=Andrew}} so benefits can be expected to shift.{{Cite web|url=http://extension.udel.edu/kentagextension/2008/11/18/soybean-seed-decisions-2009/|title=Cooperative Extension ‹ Log In}}{{Dead link|date=August 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [441] => [442] => ==Uses== [443] => [[File:Global-soy-production-to-end-use.png|frameless|right|alt=Breakdown of what the world's soy was used for in 2018]] [444] => [[File:TofuWithSoySauceAndCarrot.jpg|thumb|[[Tofu]] and [[soy sauce]]]] [445] => Among the [[legume]]s, the soybean is valued for its high (38–45%) [[protein]] content as well as its high (approximately 20%) oil content. Soybeans are the most valuable agricultural export of the United States.{{Cite web|title = Top U.S. Agricultural Exports in 2017|url = https://www.fas.usda.gov/data/top-us-agricultural-exports-2017|website = US [[Foreign Agricultural Service]]| date=March 23, 2018 |access-date = 2019-05-01}} Approximately 85% of the world's soybean crop is processed into soybean meal and soybean oil, the remainder processed in other ways or eaten whole.{{cite web|url=http://www.soyatech.com/soy_facts.htm|title=Soy Facts|publisher=Soyatech|access-date=Jan 24, 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170112075924/http://www.soyatech.com/soy_facts.htm|archive-date=January 12, 2017}} [446] => [447] => Soybeans can be broadly classified as "vegetable" (garden) or field (oil) types. Vegetable types cook more easily, have a mild, nutty flavor, and better texture, are larger in size, higher in protein, and are lower in oil than field types. [[Tofu]], [[soy milk]], and [[soy sauce]] are among the top edible commodities made using soybeans. Producers prefer the higher protein cultivars bred from vegetable soybeans originally brought to the United States in the late 1930s. The "garden" cultivars are generally not suitable for mechanical combine harvesting because there is a tendency for the pods to shatter upon reaching maturity. [448] => [449] => ===Soybean oil=== [450] => {{Main|Soybean oil}} [451] => Soybean seed contains 18–19% oil. To extract soybean oil from seed, the soybeans are cracked, adjusted for moisture content, rolled into flakes, and solvent-extracted with commercial hexane.{{cite journal | last1=Friedrich | first1=John | last2=Gary | first2=R | title=Characterization of soybean oil extracted by supercritical carbon dioxide and hexane. | url=https://pubs.acs.org/doi/10.1021/jf00109a044 | journal=[[Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry]]| year=1982 | volume=30 | issue=1 | pages=192–193 | doi=10.1021/jf00109a044 }} The oil is then refined, blended for different applications, and sometimes hydrogenated. Soybean oils, both liquid and partially hydrogenated, are exported abroad, sold as "vegetable oil," or end up in a wide variety of processed foods. [452] => [453] => ===Soybean meal=== [454] => {{Main|Soybean meal}} [455] => [[Soybean meal]], or soymeal, is the material remaining after solvent extraction of oil from soybean flakes, with a 50% [[soy protein]] content. The meal is 'toasted' (a [[misnomer]] because the heat treatment is with moist steam) and ground in a [[hammer mill]]. Ninety-seven percent of soybean meal production globally is used as livestock feed.{{Cite web|title = Livestock's long shadow: environmental issues and options|url = http://www.fao.org/docrep/010/a0701e/a0701e00.HTM|website = www.fao.org|access-date = 2016-01-15}} Soybean meal is also used in some [[dog food]]s.{{cite journal|first1 = Edmund W.|last1 = Lusas|first2 = Mian N.|last2 = Riaz|year = 1995|url = http://jn.nutrition.org/content/125/3_Suppl/573S.full.pdf|title = Soy Protein Products: Processing and Use|journal=[[Journal of Nutrition]]|volume = 125|issue = 125|pages = 573S–80S|doi = 10.1093/jn/125.3_Suppl.573S|doi-broken-date = January 31, 2024|pmid = 7884536|access-date = January 20, 2013|archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20121207023240/http://jn.nutrition.org/content/125/3_Suppl/573S.full.pdf|archive-date = December 7, 2012}} [456] => [457] => ===Livestock feed=== [458] => One of the major uses of soybeans globally is as livestock feed, predominantly in the form of soybean meal. In the European Union, for example, though it does not make up most of the weight of livestock [[Animal feed|feed]], soybean meal provides around 60% of the protein fed to livestock.{{Cite web|title=Soybean meal {{!}} Feedipedia|url=https://www.feedipedia.org/node/674|website=www.feedipedia.org|access-date=2020-05-17}} In the United States, however, 70 percent of soybean production is used for animal feed, with poultry being the number one livestock sector of soybean consumption.{{cite web | url=https://www.usda.gov/sites/default/files/documents/coexistence-soybeans-factsheet.pdf | title=USDA Coexistence Fact Sheet Soybeans | author= | date=Feb 12, 2015 | website=www.usda.gov | access-date=Jan 11, 2023 }} [[Vernal grass|Spring grasses]] are rich in omega-3 fatty acids, whereas soy is predominantly omega-6. The soybean hulls, which mainly consist of the outer coats of the beans removed before oil extraction, can also be fed to livestock and whole soybean seeds after processing.Heuzé V., Thiollet H., Tran G., Lessire M., Lebas F., 2017. Soybean hulls. Feedipedia, a program by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ, and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/719Heuzé V., Tran G., Nozière P., Lessire M., Lebas F., 2017. Soybean seeds. Feedipedia, a program by INRA, CIRAD, AFZ, and FAO. https://www.feedipedia.org/node/42 Last updated on July 4, 2017, 10:37 [459] => [460] => ===Food for human consumption=== [461] => [[File:Tempeh 003.jpg|thumb|[[Tempeh]]]] [462] => In addition to their use in livestock feed, soybean products are widely used for human consumption. Common soybean products include [[soy sauce]], [[soy milk]], [[tofu]], [[#Meal|soy meal]], [[#Flour|soy flour]], [[textured vegetable protein]] (TVP), [[soy curls]], [[tempeh]], soy [[lecithin]] and [[#Oil|soybean oil]]. Soybeans may also be eaten with minimal processing, for example, in the Japanese food {{Nihongo|''[[edamame]]''|枝豆|edamame}}, in which immature soybeans are boiled whole in their pods and served with [[edible salt|salt]]. [463] => [464] => [[File:Aesthetic meal maker of Salem.jpg|thumb|Soy chunks]] [465] => In China, Japan, Vietnam and [[Korea]], soybean and soybean products are a standard part of the diet.{{cite journal | last1=Lindsay | first1=Shirley | last2=Lora | first2=G | title=Considering soy | url=https://www.nwhjournal.org/article/S1091-5923(15)30123-0/abstract | journal=Nursing for Women's Health| volume=2 | issue=1 | pages=41–44 }} [[Tofu]] (豆腐 ''dòufu'') is thought to have originated in China, along with [[soy sauce]] and several varieties of [[soybean paste]] used as seasonings.{{citation needed|date=October 2013}} Japanese foods made from soya include ''[[miso]]'' ({{Lang|ja|味噌}}), ''[[nattō]]'' ({{Lang|ja|納豆}}), ''[[kinako]]'' ({{Lang|ja|黄粉}}) and ''edamame'' ({{Lang|ja|枝豆}}), as well as products made with tofu such as [[atsuage]] and [[aburaage]]. In China, whole dried soybeans are sold in supermarkets and used to cook various dishes, usually after rehydration by soaking in water; they find their use in soup or as a savory dish. In [[Korean cuisine]], soybean sprouts ([[:ko:콩나물|콩나물]] ''[[kongnamul]]'') are used in a variety of dishes, and soybeans are the base ingredient in ''[[doenjang]]'', ''[[cheonggukjang]]'' and [[Kanjang|''ganjang'']]. In Vietnam, soybeans are used to make soybean paste (''[[tương]]'') in the North with the most popular products are ''tương Bần'', ''tương Nam Đàn'', ''tương Cự Đà'' as a garnish for ''[[phở]]'' and ''[[gỏi cuốn]]'' dishes, as well as tofu ({{Lang|vi|đậu hũ}} or {{Lang|vi|đậu phụ}} or {{Lang|vi|tàu hũ}}), soy sauce ({{Lang|vi|nước tương}}), soy milk ({{Lang|vi|nước đậu}} in the North or {{Lang|vi|sữa đậu nành}} in the South), and {{Lang|vi|đậu hũ nước đường}} (tofu sweet soup). [466] => [467] => ====Flour==== [468] => {{Commons category|Soy powder|Soybean flour}} [469] => [[File:JapaneseSoybeanMeat.jpg|thumb|Japanese soybean meat]] [470] => Soy flour refers to soybeans ground finely enough to pass through a 100-mesh or smaller screen where special care was taken during desolventizing (not toasted) to minimize [[denaturation (biochemistry)|denaturation]] of the protein to retain a high [[protein dispersibility index]], for uses such as [[food extrusion]] of [[textured vegetable protein]].{{cite journal | last1=Shao | first1=Suquin | title=Tracking isoflavones: From soybean to soy flour, soy protein isolates to functional soy bread. | journal=Journal of Functional Foods| year=2009 | volume=1 | issue=1 | pages=119–127 | doi=10.1016/j.jff.2008.09.013 | doi-access=free }} It is the starting material for soy concentrate and protein isolate production. [471] => [472] => Soy flour can also be made by roasting the soybean, removing the coat (hull), and grinding it into flour. Soy flour is manufactured with different fat levels.{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}} Alternatively, raw soy flour omits the roasting step. [473] => * Defatted soy flour is obtained from [[solvent]] [[extraction (chemistry)|extracted]] flakes and contains less than 1% oil.{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}} [474] => * "Natural or full-fat soy flour is made from unextracted, dehulled beans and contains about 18% to 20% oil."{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}} Its high oil content requires the use of a specialized Alpine Fine Impact Mill to grind rather than the usual [[hammer mill]]. Full-fat soy flour has a lower protein concentration than defatted flour. Extruded full-fat soy flour, ground in an Alpine mill, can replace/extend eggs in baking and cooking.{{cite journal | doi=10.1007/BF02664977 | volume=41 | issue=9 | title=Production and nutritional evaluation of extrusion-cooked full-fat soybean flour | journal=[[Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society]]| pages=607–14 | year=1964 | last1 = Mustakas | first1 = G.C.| s2cid=84967811 }}{{cite book|title=World Protein Resources|year=1966|volume=57|pages=101–11|doi=10.1021/ba-1966-0057.ch008|chapter = Full-Fat Soybean Flours by Continuous Extrusion Cooking|series = Advances in Chemistry|last1 = Mustakas|first1 = GUS C.|last2=Griffin|first2=Edward L.|last3=Sohns|first3=Virgil E.|isbn=978-0-8412-0058-6}} Full-fat soy flour is a component of the famous [[Cornell bread]] recipe.{{cite web|url=http://cornell-classic.univcomm.cornell.edu/search/?tab=facts&id=188 |title=Cornell University |date=May 9, 2015 |url-status=bot: unknown |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150509122617/http://cornell-classic.univcomm.cornell.edu/search/?tab=facts&id=188 |archive-date=May 9, 2015 }}{{cite web|url=http://www.motherearthnews.com/real-food/whole-wheat-bread-mccays-miracle-loaf-zmaz81sozhun.aspx|title=Whole Wheat Bread Recipe: McCay's Miracle Loaf – Real Food |date=September 1981 |publisher=Mother Earth News}}{{Cite web|url=http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1987-05-21/entertainment/8702070654_1_amino-acids-soy-flour-nonfat-dry-milk|title=Cornell Bread A Heavyweight When It Comes To Nutrition And Fiber|date=May 21, 1987 }} [475] => * Low-fat soy flour is made by adding some oil back into defatted soy flour. Fat levels range from 4.5% to 9%.{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}} [476] => * High-fat soy flour can also be produced by adding back soybean oil to defatted flour, usually at 15%.{{Cite web|url=https://www.fao.org/3/t0532e/t0532e05.htm|title=Technology of production of edible flours and protein products from soybeans. Chapter 4.|website=www.fao.org}} [477] => [478] => [[Soy lecithin]] can be added (up to 15%) to soy flour to make lecithinated soy flour. It increases dispersibility and gives it emulsifying properties.{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}} [479] => [480] => Soy flour has 50% protein and 5% fiber. It has higher levels of protein, thiamine, riboflavin, phosphorus, calcium, and iron than [[wheat flour]]. It does not contain [[gluten]].{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}} As a result, [[yeast]]-raised [[bread]]s made with soy flour are dense in texture. Among many uses, soy flour thickens sauces, prevents [[staling]] in baked food, and reduces oil absorption during frying. Baking food with soy flour gives it tenderness, moistness, a rich color, and a fine texture.{{sfn|Lim|2012|p=637}} [481] => [482] => Soy grits are similar to soy flour, except the soybeans have been toasted and cracked into coarse pieces. [483] => [484] => ''[[Kinako]]'' is a soy flour used in [[Japanese cuisine]]. [485] => [486] => {{resize|''Section reference'': {{harvtxt|Smith|Circle|1972|p=442|note=Reference for soy flour section}}}} [487] => [488] => {{anchor|Soy-based infant formula}} [489] => [490] => ====Soy-based infant formula==== [491] => Soy-based [[infant formula]] (SBIF) is sometimes given to infants who are not being strictly breastfed; it can be useful for infants who are either allergic to pasteurized cow milk proteins or who are being fed a [[Veganism|vegan]] diet. It is sold in powdered, ready-to-feed, and concentrated liquid forms. [492] => [493] => Some reviews have expressed the opinion that more research is needed to determine what effect the phytoestrogens in soybeans may have on infants.{{cite journal |pmid=14599051 |year=2003 |last1=Miniello |first1=VL |last2=Moro |first2=GE |last3=Tarantino |first3=M |last4=Natile |first4=M |last5=Granieri |first5=L |last6=Armenio |first6=L |title=Soy-based Formulas and Phyto-oestrogens: A Safety Profile |volume=91 |issue=441 |pages=93–100 |journal=[[Acta Paediatrica]]|doi=10.1111/j.1651-2227.2003.tb00655.x|s2cid=25762109 }} Diverse studies have concluded there are no adverse effects in human growth, development, or reproduction as a result of the consumption of soy-based infant formula.{{cite journal |pages=191–96 |doi=10.1515/JPEM.2004.17.2.191 |title=Soy Protein Formulas in Children: No Hormonal Effects in Long-term Feeding |year=2004 |last1=Giampietro |first1=P.G. |last2=Bruno |first2=G. |last3=Furcolo |first3=G. |last4=Casati |first4=A. |last5=Brunetti |first5=E. |last6=Spadoni |first6=G.L. |last7=Galli |first7=E. |journal=Journal of Pediatric Endocrinology and Metabolism|volume=17 |issue=2 |pmid=15055353|s2cid=43304969 }}{{cite journal |pages=807–14 |doi=10.1001/jama.286.7.807 |title=Exposure to Soy-Based Formula in Infancy and Endocrinological and Reproductive Outcomes in Young Adulthood |year=2001 |last1=Strom |first1=B.L. |journal=JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association |volume=286 |issue=7 |pmid=11497534 |last2=Schinnar |first2=R |last3=Ziegler |first3=EE |last4=Barnhart |first4=KT |last5=Sammel |first5=MD |last6=MacOnes |first6=GA |last7=Stallings |first7=VA |last8=Drulis |first8=JM |last9=Nelson |first9=SE| display-authors=8 |doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |first1=Russell J. |last1=Merritt |first2=Belinda H. |last2=Jenks |title=Safety of Soy-Based Infant Formulas Containing Isoflavones: The Clinical Evidence |journal=The Journal of Nutrition|pmid=15113975 |year=2004 |volume=134 |issue=5 |pages=1220S–24S|doi=10.1093/jn/134.5.1220S |doi-access=free }} One of these studies, published in the ''[[Journal of Nutrition]]'', concludes that there are: [494] => [495] =>
... no clinical concerns with respect to nutritional adequacy, sexual development, neurobehavioral development, immune development, or thyroid disease. SBIFs provide complete nutrition that adequately supports normal infant growth and development. FDA has accepted SBIFs as safe for use as the sole source of nutrition.
[496] => [497] => ====Meat and dairy alternatives and extenders==== [498] => [[File:Chives Cream Sheese.jpg|thumb|[[Cream cheese]] alternative with [[chives]]|alt=Package of a soy-based [[cream cheese]] alternative with [[chives]]]] [499] => Soybeans can be processed to produce a texture and appearance similar to many other foods. For example, soybeans are the primary ingredient in many [[dairy product]] substitutes (e.g., [[soy milk]], [[margarine]], soy ice cream, [[soy yogurt]], [[soy cheese]], and soy cream cheese) and meat alternatives (e.g. [[veggie burgers]]). These substitutes are readily available in most supermarkets. Soy milk does not naturally contain significant amounts of digestible [[calcium]]. Many manufacturers of soy milk sell calcium-enriched products, as well. [500] => [501] => Soy products also are used as a low-cost substitute for meat and poultry products.{{cite book |author=Hoogenkamp, Henk W. |title=Soy Protein and Formulated Meat Products |publisher=CABI Publishing |location=Wallingford, Oxon|year=2005 |page=14 |isbn=978-0-85199-864-0|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRIRBOd_oTcC&q=soy+protein |access-date=February 18, 2012}}{{cite book |last=Endres|first=Joseph G.|title=Soy Protein Products |publisher=AOCS Publishing |location=Champaign-Urbana, IL |year=2001 |pages=43–44 |isbn=978-1-893997-27-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3RNa1vS0sZYC&q=Soy+Protein+Products++endres&pg=PA15 |access-date=February 18, 2012}} Food service, retail and institutional (primarily school lunch and correctional) facilities regularly use such "extended" products. The extension may result in diminished flavor, but fat and cholesterol are reduced. Vitamin and mineral fortification can be used to make soy products nutritionally equivalent to animal protein; the protein quality is already roughly equivalent. The soy-based meat substitute [[textured vegetable protein]] has been used for more than 50 years as a way of inexpensively extending [[ground beef]] without reducing its nutritional value.{{cite book |last1=Circle|first1=Sidney Joseph|last2=Smith|first2=Allan H. |title=Soybeans: Chemistry and Technology |publisher=Avi Publishing |location=Westport, CT|year=1972 |pages=7, 350 |isbn=978-0-87055-111-6|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=A3NRAAAAMAAJ&q=without+reducing+its+nutritional+value |access-date=February 18, 2012}}{{cite book |last=Liu|first=KeShun |title=Soybeans: Chemistry, Technology, and Utilization |publisher=Aspen Publishers |location=Gaithersburg, MD |year=1997 |page= 69|isbn=978-0-8342-1299-2 |url= https://books.google.com/books?id=Plmi4WfHos4C&q=reducing+nutritional+value|access-date=February 18, 2012}} [502] => [503] => ====Soy nut butter==== [504] => The soybean is used to make a product called soy [[nut butter]] which is similar in texture to peanut butter.{{cite web | url=http://www.soyfoods.org/soy-products/soy-fact-sheets/soy-nut-butter-fact-sheet | title=Soy fact sheets: soy nut butter | publisher=Soyfoods Association of North America, Washington, DC | date=2016 | access-date=1 November 2016 | archive-date=January 31, 2018 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180131081150/http://www.soyfoods.org/soy-products/soy-fact-sheets/soy-nut-butter-fact-sheet }} [505] => [506] => ==== Sweetened soybean ==== [507] => Sweet-boiled beans are popular in Japan and Korea, and the sweet-boiled soybeans are called "Daizu no {{interlanguage link|Nimame|ja|煮豆}}" in Japan and Kongjorim ({{lang-ko|콩조림}}) in Korea. Sweet-boiled beans are even used in sweetened buns, especially in {{interlanguage link|Mame Pan|ja|豆パン}}. [508] => [509] => The boiled and pasted edamame, called {{interlanguage link|Zunda|ja|ずんだ}}, is used as one of the [[Sweet bean paste]]s in [[Wagashi|Japanese confections]]. [510] => [511] => ==== Coffee substitute ==== [512] => Roasted and ground soybeans can be a caffeine-free substitute for [[coffee]]. After the soybeans are roasted and ground, they look similar to regular coffee beans or can be used as a powder similar to instant coffee, with the aroma and flavor of roasted soybeans.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YIP-szICnhIC|title=History of Whole Dry Soybeans, Used as Beans, or Ground, Mashed or Flaked (240 BCE to 2013); see page 254|author=William Shurtleff, Akiko Aoyagi|publisher=Soyinfo Center|year=2013|isbn=978-1-928914-57-0}} [513] => [514] => ===Other products=== [515] => [[File:Display of soybean wax candle in Texas store.jpg|thumb|[[Texas]]|alt=Display of soybean wax candle in Texas store]] [516] => Soybeans with black hulls are used in Chinese fermented black beans, ''[[douchi]]'', not to be confused with [[black turtle bean]]s. [517] => [518] => Soybeans are also used in industrial products, including oils, soap, cosmetics, [[resin]]s, plastics, inks, crayons, [[solvent]]s, and clothing. Soybean oil is the primary source of [[biodiesel]] in the United States, accounting for 80% of domestic biodiesel production.{{cite web|title=Sustainability Fact Sheet|publisher=National Biodiesel Board|date=April 2008|url=http://biodiesel.org/resources/sustainability/pdfs/SustainabilityFactSheet.pdf|access-date=February 18, 2012|archive-date=May 28, 2008|archive-url=https://wayback.archive-it.org/all/20080528055311/http://biodiesel.org/resources/sustainability/pdfs/SustainabilityFactSheet.pdf|url-status=dead}} Soybeans have also been used since 2001 as fermenting stock in the manufacture of a brand of [[vodka]].{{cite web|url=http://www.martinimuse.com/vodka_brands_and_types.shtml|title=How Vodka is Made|publisher=Martini Muse|access-date=February 18, 2012}} In 1936, Ford Motor Company developed a method where soybeans and fibers were rolled together producing a soup which was then pressed into various parts for their cars, from the distributor cap to knobs on the dashboard. Ford also informed in public relation releases that in 1935 over five million acres (20,000 km{{sup|2}}) was dedicated to growing soybeans in the United States.{{cite journal |title=Soy Bean Soup is Pressed into Auto Parts |journal=[[Popular Mechanics]]|volume=64 |issue=4 |page=513 |date=April 1936 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lNsDAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA513 }} [519] => [520] => ==Health effects== [521] => [522] => [523] => ===Reducing risk of cancer=== [524] => According to the [[American Cancer Society]], "There is growing evidence that eating traditional soy foods such as tofu may lower the risk of cancers of the breast, prostate, or endometrium (lining of the uterus), and there is some evidence it may lower the risk of certain other cancers." There is insufficient research to indicate whether taking soy [[dietary supplement]]s (e.g., as a pill or capsule) has any effect on health or cancer risk.{{cite web|url=http://blogs.cancer.org/expertvoices/2012/08/02/the-bottom-line-on-soy-and-breast-cancer-risk/ |title=How Your Diet May Affect Your Risk of Breast Cancer |date=1 October 2018 |publisher=[[American Cancer Society]] |access-date=16 March 2019}} [525] => [526] => As of 2018, rigorous dietary [[clinical research]] in people with cancer has proved inconclusive.{{cite web |title=Soy: How Your Diet May Affect Your Risk of Breast Cancer |url=https://www.cancer.org/latest-news/how-your-diet-may-affect-your-risk-of-breast-cancer.html |publisher=American Cancer Society |access-date=9 May 2019 |date=1 October 2018}} [527] => [528] => ====Breast cancer==== [529] => Although considerable research has examined the potential for soy consumption to lower the risk of [[breast cancer]] in women, as of 2016 there is insufficient evidence to reach a conclusion about a relationship between soy consumption and any effects on breast cancer. A 2011 [[meta-analysis]] stated: "Our study suggests soy isoflavones intake is associated with a significant reduced risk of breast cancer incidence in Asian populations, but not in Western populations."{{cite journal |pages=315–323 |doi=10.1007/s10549-010-1270-8 |title=Soy Isoflavones Consumption and Risk of Breast Cancer Incidence or Recurrence: A Meta-analysis of Prospective Studies |date=January 2011 |last1=Dong |first1=Jia-Yi |last2=Qin |first2=Li-Qiang |journal=[[Breast Cancer Research and Treatment]]|volume=125 |issue=2 |pmid=21113655|s2cid=13647788 }} [530] => [531] => ====Gastrointestinal and colorectal cancer==== [532] => Reviews of preliminary clinical trials on people with [[colorectal cancer|colorectal]] or [[gastrointestinal cancer]] suggest that soy isoflavones may have a slight protective effect against such cancers.{{cite journal | last1=Yu | first1=Yi | last2=Jing | first2=Xiaoli | last3=Li | first3=Hui | last4=Zhao | first4=Xiang | last5=Wang | first5=Dongping | title=Soy isoflavone consumption and colorectal cancer risk: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal=[[Scientific Reports]]| volume=6 | issue=1 | page=25939 | year=2016 | doi=10.1038/srep25939 | pmid=27170217|pmc=4864327| bibcode=2016NatSR...625939Y }}{{cite journal | last1=Tse | first1=Genevieve | last2=Eslick | first2=Guy D. | title=Soy and isoflavone consumption and risk of gastrointestinal cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis | journal=[[European Journal of Nutrition]]| volume=55 | issue=1 | date=30 December 2014 | doi=10.1007/s00394-014-0824-7 | pages=63–73|pmid=25547973| s2cid=32112249 }} [533] => [534] => ====Prostate cancer==== [535] => A 2016 review concluded that "current evidence from [[observational study|observational studies]] and small clinical trials is not robust enough to understand whether soy protein or [[isoflavone]] supplements may help prevent or inhibit the progression of [[prostate cancer]]." A 2010 review showed that neither soy foods nor isoflavone supplements alter measures of bioavailable [[testosterone]] or [[estrogen]] concentrations in men.{{cite journal |pages=997–1007 |doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2009.04.038 |title=Clinical studies show no effects of soy protein or isoflavones on reproductive hormones in men: Results of a meta-analysis |year=2010 |last1=Hamilton-Reeves |first1=Jill M. |last2=Vazquez |first2=Gabriela |last3=Duval |first3=Sue J. |last4=Phipps |first4=William R. |last5=Kurzer |first5=Mindy S. |last6=Messina |first6=Mark J. |journal=[[Fertility and Sterility]]|volume=94 |issue=3 |pmid=19524224}} Soy consumption has been shown to have no effect on the levels and quality of [[sperm]].{{cite journal |pages=2095–2104 |doi=10.1016/j.fertnstert.2010.03.002 |title=Soybean isoflavone exposure does not have feminizing effects on men: A critical examination of the clinical evidence |year=2010 |last1=Messina |first1=Mark |journal=[[Fertility and Sterility]]|volume=93 |issue=7 |pmid=20378106|doi-access=free }} [[Meta-analysis|Meta-analyses]] on the association between soy consumption and prostate cancer risk in men concluded that dietary soy may lower the risk of prostate cancer.{{cite journal |first1=Lin |last1=Yan |first2=Edward L |last2=Spitznagel |title=Soy consumption and prostate cancer risk in men: a revisit of a meta-analysis |journal=The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition|pmid=19211820 |doi=10.3945/ajcn.2008.27029 |year=2009 |volume=89 |issue=4 |pages=1155–63|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal | last1=van Die | first1=MD | last2=Bone | first2=KM | last3=Williams | first3=SG | last4=Pirotta | first4=MV | title=Soy and soy isoflavones in prostate cancer: a systematic review and meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. | journal=[[BJU International]]| volume=113 | issue=5b | year=2014 | pmid=24053483 | doi=10.1111/bju.12435 | pages=E119–30| s2cid=39315041 }} [536] => [537] => ===Cardiovascular health=== [538] => The [[Food and Drug Administration]] (FDA) granted the following health claim for soy: "25 grams of soy protein a day, as part of a diet low in [[saturated fat]] and [[cholesterol]], may reduce the risk of [[heart disease]]." One serving, (1 cup or 240 mL) of soy milk, for instance, contains 6 or 7 grams of soy protein. [539] => [540] => An [[American Heart Association]] (AHA) review of a decade long study of soy protein benefits did not recommend [[isoflavone]] supplementation. The review panel also found that soy isoflavones have not been shown to reduce post-menopausal "hot flashes" and the efficacy and safety of isoflavones to help prevent cancers of the breast, uterus or prostate is in question. AHA concluded that "many soy products should be beneficial to cardiovascular and overall health because of their high content of [[polyunsaturated fat]]s, fiber, vitamins, and minerals and low content of saturated fat". Other studies found that soy protein consumption could lower the [[concentration]] of [[low-density lipoprotein]]s (LDL) transporting fats in the extracellular water to [[Cell (biology)|cells]].{{cite journal |first1=David J.A. |last1=Jenkins |first2=Arash |last2=Mirrahimi |first3=Korbua |last3=Srichaikul |first4=Claire E. |last4=Berryman |first5=Li |last5=Wang |first6=Amanda |last6=Carleton |first7=Shahad |last7=Abdulnour |first8=John L. |last8=Sievenpiper |first9=Cyril W.C. |last9=Kendall | display-authors=8 |title=Soy Protein Reduces Serum Cholesterol by Both Intrinsic and Food Displacement Mechanisms |journal=The Journal of Nutrition|date=December 2010 |volume=140 |issue=12 |pages=2302S–11S |doi=10.3945/jn.110.124958|pmid=20943954|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal |pmid=18534601 |date=September 2008 |last1=Harland |first1=J.I. |last2=Haffner |first2=T.A. |title=Systematic Review, Meta-analysis and Regression of Randomised Controlled Trials Reporting an Association Between an Intake of Circa 25 g Soya Protein Per Day and Blood Cholesterol |volume=200 |issue=1 |pages=13–27 |doi=10.1016/j.atherosclerosis.2008.04.006 |journal=[[Atherosclerosis (journal)|Atherosclerosis]]}} [541] => [542] => ===Soy allergy=== [543] => {{Main|Soy allergy}} [544] => Allergy to soy is common, and the food is listed with other foods that commonly cause allergy, such as milk, eggs, peanuts, tree nuts, shellfish. The problem has been reported among younger children, and the diagnosis of soy allergy is often based on symptoms reported by parents and results of skin tests or blood tests for allergy. Only a few reported studies have attempted to confirm allergy to soy by direct challenge with the food under controlled conditions.{{cite journal |last = Cantani | first = A. |author2=Lucenti P. | date = August 1997 | title = Natural History of Soy Allergy and/or Intolerance in Children, and Clinical Use of Soy-protein Formulas |journal=Pediatric Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology| volume = 8 | issue = 2 | pages = 59–74 | doi = 10.1111/j.1399-3038.1997.tb00146.x | pmid = 9617775 | s2cid = 35264190 }} It is very difficult to give a reliable estimate of the true prevalence of soy allergy in the general population. To the extent that it does exist, soy allergy may cause cases of [[urticaria]] and [[angioedema]], usually within minutes to hours of ingestion. In rare cases, true [[anaphylaxis]] may also occur. The reason for the discrepancy is likely that soy proteins, the causative factor in [[allergy]], are far less potent at triggering allergy symptoms than the proteins of peanut and shellfish.{{cite journal | last = Cordle | first = C.T. | date = May 2004 | title = Soy Protein Allergy: Incidence and Relative Severity |journal=[[Journal of Nutrition]]| volume = 134 | issue = 5 | pages = 1213S–19S | pmid = 15113974 | doi = 10.1093/jn/134.5.1213S | doi-access = free }} An allergy test that is positive demonstrates that the immune system has formed IgE antibodies to soy proteins. However, this is only a factor when soy proteins reach the blood without being digested, in sufficient quantities to reach a threshold to provoke actual symptoms. [545] => [546] => Soy can also trigger symptoms via [[food intolerance]], a situation where no allergic mechanism can be proven. One scenario is seen in very young infants who have vomiting and [[Diarrhea|diarrhoea]] when fed soy-based formula, which resolves when the formula is withdrawn. Older infants can suffer a more severe disorder with vomiting, diarrhoea that may be bloody, [[anemia]], weight loss and failure to thrive. The most common cause of this unusual disorder is a sensitivity to cow's milk, but soy formulas can also be the trigger. The precise mechanism is unclear and it could be immunologic, although not through the IgE-type antibodies that have the leading role in urticaria and anaphylaxis. However, it is also self-limiting and will often disappear in the [[toddler]] years.{{cite journal | last = Sampson | first = H.A. | date = May 1999 | title = Food Allergy, Part 1: Immunopathogenesis and Clinical Disorders |journal=The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology| volume = 103 | issue = 5 | pages = 717–728 | doi = 10.1016/S0091-6749(99)70411-2 | pmid = 10329801 | url = http://www.jacionline.org/article/S0091674999704112/pdf }} [547] => [548] => In the [[European Union]], identifying the presence of soy either as an ingredient or unintended contaminant in packaged food is compulsory. The regulation (EC) 1169/2011 on food-labeling lists 14 allergens, including soy, in packaged food must be clearly indicated on the label as part of the list of ingredients, using a distinctive typography (such as bold type or capital letters).{{cite web |title=Regulation (EG) 1169/2011 |url=https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX:32011R1169|publisher=Eur-Lex - European Union Law, European Union|date=25 October 2011 |access-date=7 October 2020}} [549] => [550] => ===Thyroid function=== [551] => One review noted that soy-based foods may inhibit absorption of thyroid hormone medications required for treatment of [[hypothyroidism]].{{cite journal|pmid=16571087|year=2006|last1=Messina|first1=M|title=Effects of soy protein and soybean isoflavones on thyroid function in healthy adults and hypothyroid patients: A review of the relevant literature|journal=[[Thyroid (journal)|Thyroid]]|volume=16|issue=3|pages=249–58|last2=Redmond|first2=G|doi=10.1089/thy.2006.16.249}} A 2015 scientific review by the [[European Food Safety Authority]] concluded that intake of isoflavones from supplements did not affect thyroid hormone levels in [[postmenopausal]] women.{{cite journal|url=https://www.efsa.europa.eu/en/efsajournal/pub/4246|journal=[[EFSA Journal]]|year=2015|volume=13|issue=10|page=4246|doi=10.2903/j.efsa.2015.4246|title=Risk assessment for peri- and postmenopausal women taking food supplements containing isolated isoflavones|doi-access=free}} [552] => [553] => ===Research by constituent=== [554] => ====Lignans==== [555] => Plant [[lignans]] are associated with high fiber foods such as cereal brans and beans are the principal precursor to mammalian lignans which have an ability to bind to human estrogen sites. Soybeans are a significant source of mammalian lignan precursor [[secoisolariciresinol]] containing 13–273 µg/100 g dry weight.{{cite journal |pmid=10702603 |date=March 2000 |last1=Adlercreutz |first1=H. |last2=Mazur |first2=W. |last3=Bartels |first3=P. |last4=Elomaa |first4=V. |last5=Watanabe |first5=S. |last6=Wähälä |first6=K. |last7=Landström |first7=M. |last8=Lundin |first8=E. |last9=Bergh |first9=A. | display-authors=8 |title=Phytoestrogens and Prostate Disease |volume=130 |issue=3 |pages=658S–59S |journal=The Journal of Nutrition|doi=10.1093/jn/130.3.658S |doi-access=free }} [556] => [557] => ====Phytochemicals==== [558] => {{See also|Phytochemicals}} [559] => [560] => Soybeans and processed soy foods are among the richest foods in total [[phytoestrogen]]s (wet basis per 100 g), which are present primarily in the form of the [[isoflavone]]s, [[daidzein]] and [[genistein]].{{cite web | url=http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/mic/dietary-factors/phytochemicals/soy-isoflavones | title=Soy isoflavones | publisher=Micronutrient Information Center, Linus Pauling Institute, Oregon State University, Corvallis | date=2016 | access-date=4 March 2021}}{{cite journal |pages=184–201 |doi=10.1207/s15327914nc5402_5 |title=Phytoestrogen Content of Foods Consumed in Canada, Including Isoflavones, Lignans, and Coumestan |year=2006 |last1=Thompson |first1=Lilian U. |last2=Boucher |first2=Beatrice A. |last3=Liu |first3=Zhen |last4=Cotterchio |first4=Michelle |last5=Kreiger |first5=Nancy |journal=[[Nutrition and Cancer]]|volume=54 |issue=2 |pmid=16898863|s2cid=60328 }} Because most naturally occurring phytoestrogens act as [[selective estrogen receptor modulators]], or SERMs, which do not necessarily act as direct agonists of estrogen receptors, normal consumption of foods that contain these phytoestrogens should not provide sufficient amounts to elicit a physiological response in humans.{{cite journal |pages=613–18 |doi=10.1042/CS20000212 |title=Effect of a Phytoestrogen Food Supplement on Reproductive Health in Normal Males |date=June 2001 |last1=Mitchell |first1=Julie H. |last2=Cawood |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Kinniburgh |first3=David |last4=Provan |first4=Anne |last5=Collins |first5=Andrew R. |last6=Irvine |first6=D. Stewart |journal=[[Clinical Science (journal)|Clinical Science]]|volume=100 |issue=6 |pmid=11352776}}{{ cite journal | last1 = Oseni | first1 = T | last2 = Patel | first2 = R | last3 = Pyle | first3 = J | last4 = Jordan | first4 = VC | year = 2008 | title = Selective Estrogen Receptor Modulators and Phytoestrogens. |journal=[[Planta Med]]| volume = 74 | issue = 13 | pages = 1656–65 | doi = 10.1055/s-0028-1088304 | pmid = 18843590 | pmc = 2587438 }} The major product of daidzein microbial metabolism is [[equol]].{{cite journal | vauthors=Luca SV, Macovei I, Bujor A, Trifan A | title=Bioactivity of dietary polyphenols: The role of metabolites | journal=[[Critical Reviews in Food Science and Nutrition]] | volume=60 | issue=4 | pages=626–659 | year=2020 | doi = 10.1080/10408398.2018.1546669 | pmid=30614249| s2cid=58651581 }} Only 33% of Western Europeans have a [[microbiome]] that produces equol, compared to 50–55% of Asians. [561] => [562] => Soy isoflavones—[[polyphenol]]ic compounds that are also produced by other legumes like peanuts and [[chickpea]]s—are under preliminary research. As of 2016, no [[causality|cause-and-effect]] relationship has been shown in [[clinical research]] to indicate that soy isoflavones lower the risk of cardiovascular diseases.{{cite journal |date=February 21, 2006|pages=1034–44 |doi=10.1161/CIRCULATIONAHA.106.171052 |title=Soy Protein, Isoflavones, and Cardiovascular Health: An American Heart Association Science Advisory for Professionals from the Nutrition Committee|last1=Sacks |first1=F.M. |journal=[[Circulation (journal)|Circulation]]|volume=113 |issue=7 |pmid=16418439 |last2=Lichtenstein |first2=A. |last3=Van Horn |first3=L. |last4=Harris |first4=W. |last5=Kris-Etherton |first5=P. |last6=Winston |first6=M. |author7=American Heart Association Nutrition Committee|doi-access=free }}{{cite journal | title=Isoflavones for hypercholesterolaemia in adults |vauthors=Qin Y, Niu K, Zeng Y, Liu P, Yi L, Zhang T, Zhang QY, Zhu JD, Mi MT | journal=[[Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews]]| year=2013 | volume=2013 | issue=6 | pages=CD009518 | doi=10.1002/14651858.CD009518.pub2 | pmid=23744562|pmc=10163823 }} [563] => [564] => ====Phytic acid==== [565] => Soybeans contain [[phytic acid]], which may act as a [[Chelation|chelating agent]] and inhibit mineral absorption, especially for diets already low in minerals.{{cite book | chapter = Phytates | title = Toxicants Occurring Naturally in Foods | author = Committee on Food Protection, Food and Nutrition Board, National Research Council | publisher = National Academy of Sciences | location = Washington, DC | year = 1973 | isbn = 978-0-309-02117-3 | pages = [https://archive.org/details/toxicantsoccurri0000unse/page/363 363–71] | chapter-url = https://books.google.com/books?id=lIsrAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA363 | url = https://archive.org/details/toxicantsoccurri0000unse/page/363 }} [566] => [567] => ==In culture== [568] => [569] => Although observations of soy consumption having a feminization effect on men{{cite journal |last1=Jorge Martinez, Jack E Lewi |title=An unusual case of gynecomastia associated with soy product consumption |journal=[[Endocrine Practice]]|date=2008|volume=14 |issue=4 |pages=415–418 |doi=10.4158/EP.14.4.415 |pmid=18558591 }} are not conclusive,{{cite journal |author=Glenn D. Braunstein |author2=James R. Klinenberg |title=Environmental Gynecomastia |journal=[[Endocrine Practice]]|volume=14 |number=4 |pages=409–411 |date=1 May 2008 | url=https://www.endocrinepractice.org/article/S1530-891X(20)43301-4/fulltext |doi=10.4158/EP.14.4.409|pmid=18558589 }} a pejorative term, "[[soy boy]]", has emerged to describe perceived emasculated young men with [[Femininity|feminine]] traits.{{Cite web|url=https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/soy-boy-insult-what-is-definition-far-right-men-masculinity-women-a8027816.html |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220524/https://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/soy-boy-insult-what-is-definition-far-right-men-masculinity-women-a8027816.html |archive-date=May 24, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|title=Soy Boy: What is this new online insult used by the far right?|first=Rachel|last=Hosie|website=The Independent|date=September 30, 2020}} [570] => [571] => ==Futures== [572] => Soybean [[Futures contract|futures]] are traded on the [[Chicago Board of Trade]] and have delivery dates in January (F), March (H), May (K), July (N), August (Q), September (U), November (X). [573] => [574] => They are also traded on other commodity futures exchanges under different contract specifications: [575] => * SAFEX: [[The South African Futures Exchange]]{{cite web|url=http://www.jse.co.za/Markets/Commodity-Derivatives-Market.aspx|title=SAFEX Commodity Derivatives Market|publisher=Johannesburg Stock Exchange|access-date=February 19, 2012|archive-date=March 9, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120309211057/http://www.jse.co.za/Markets/Commodity-Derivatives-Market.aspx}} [576] => * DC: [[Dalian Commodity Exchange]]{{cite web|url=http://www.dce.com.cn/|title=交易所动态|publisher=Dalian Commodity Exchange|access-date=February 19, 2012|archive-date=February 20, 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120220091624/http://www.dce.com.cn/}} [577] => * ODE: [[Osaka Dojima Commodity Exchange]] (formerly Kansai Commodities Exchange, KEX) in Japan{{Cite web|url=http://ode.or.jp/english/index.html|title=Exchange Introduction|website=Osaka Dojima Commodity Exchange|access-date=18 November 2020|archive-date=March 3, 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303074858/http://ode.or.jp/english/index.html}} [578] => * NCDEX: National Commodity and Derivatives Exchange, India. [579] => * ROFEX: Rosario Grain Exchange in Argentina [580] => [581] => [582] => {{Wikiquote}} [583] => {{Commons category|Glycine max|Soybean}} [584] => {{Americana Poster|Soy bean|year=1920}} [585] => [586] => ==See also== [587] => {{Portal|Food}} [588] => {{div col|small=yes|colwidth=20em}} [589] => * [[Fodder#Common plants specifically grown for fodder|Alternative fodders]] [590] => * [[Cash crop]] [591] => * [[List of soy-based foods]] [592] => * [[Organic infant formula]] [593] => * [[Soy molasses]] [594] => * [[Soybean in Paraguay]] [595] => * [[Soybean management practices]] [596] => * [[Soybean agglutinin]], a lectin [597] => {{div col end}} [598] => [599] => ==Further reading== [600] => * da Silva, Claiton Marcio; de Majo, Claudio, eds. ''The Age of the Soybean: An Environmental History of Soy during the Great Acceleration'' (White Horse Press, 2022) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=58897 online review] [601] => [602] => ==References== [603] => {{Reflist|refs= [604] => {{Cite web|url=https://extension.missouri.edu/publications/g4450|title=Soybean Cyst Nematode: Diagnosis and Management|website=extension.missouri.edu|date=August 2010 }} [605] => }} [606] => {{reflist|group="RM"}} [607] => [608] => {{Soy}} [609] => {{Agriculture country lists}} [610] => {{Vegetarianism}} [611] => {{Bioenergy}} [612] => {{Nuts}} [613] => {{Taxonbar|from=Q11006}} [614] => {{Authority control}} [615] => [616] => [[Category:Soybeans| ]] [617] => [[Category:Chinese cuisine]] [618] => [[Category:Crops]] [619] => [[Category:Crops originating from China]] [620] => [[Category:Edible legumes]] [621] => [[Category:Energy crops]] [622] => [[Category:Fabales of Asia]] [623] => [[Category:Fiber plants]] [624] => [[Category:Fodder]] [625] => [[Category:Glycine (plant)]] [626] => [[Category:Japanese cuisine]] [627] => [[Category:Korean cuisine]] [628] => [[Category:Nitrogen-fixing crops]] [629] => [[Category:Phaseoleae]] [630] => [[Category:Soy products|Soy products]] [631] => [[Category:Taxa named by Elmer Drew Merrill]] [] => )
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Soybean

Soybean, also known as soya bean or Glycine max, is a legume native to East Asia. It has been cultivated for thousands of years due to its numerous uses and benefits.

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It has been cultivated for thousands of years due to its numerous uses and benefits. This Wikipedia page provides a comprehensive overview of soybeans, including their characteristics, cultivation, nutritional value, and various applications. The article begins by describing the physical features of soybeans, such as their size, color, and shape. It also discusses their growth habits, including the optimal growing conditions and their ability to fix nitrogen, which benefits soil health. Next, the article delves into the history of soybean cultivation, tracing its origins in ancient China to its widespread adoption in other countries over time. The importance of soybeans in Asian cuisine and culture is highlighted, as well as their introduction to the Western world during the 1800s. The nutritional composition of soybeans is thoroughly covered, emphasizing their high protein content and rich array of essential amino acids. Other nutritional components, like fiber, vitamins, and minerals, are also discussed. Moreover, the article examines the health benefits associated with consuming soybeans, such as reducing cholesterol levels and improving bone health. Additionally, the page explores the various ways soybeans are processed and used. It explains the methods of extracting oil from soybeans, resulting in soybean oil, which is widely used in cooking, biodiesel fuel, and various industrial applications. Soy milk, tofu, and tempeh are among the many soy-based food products discussed, highlighting their popularity and versatility in vegetarian and vegan diets. The environmental impact of soybean cultivation is addressed, acknowledging both negative aspects such as deforestation in certain regions and positive aspects such as soil fertility enhancement and carbon sequestration. Genetically modified soybeans are also mentioned, along with the controversies and debates surrounding their use. To conclude, the article discusses the global production and trade of soybeans, with major producers and consumers identified. It mentions important factors affecting the soybean market, such as changing dietary preferences and increasing demand for plant-based proteins. Overall, this Wikipedia page provides a comprehensive overview of soybeans, covering their physical characteristics, cultivation techniques, nutritional composition, health benefits, processing methods, environmental impact, and global significance. It serves as a valuable resource for anyone seeking an in-depth understanding of this versatile and widely cultivated legume.

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