Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Strong, positive emotional/mental states}} [1] => {{Other uses}} [2] => {{pp-semi-indef}} [3] => {{pp-move}} [4] => {{Use dmy dates|date=January 2018}} [5] => {{Love sidebar|all}} [6] => {{Emotion sidebar}} [7] => {{Contains special characters}} [8] => [9] => '''Love''' encompasses a range of strong and positive emotional and [[mental states]], from the most sublime [[virtue]] or good habit, the deepest [[Interpersonal relationship|interpersonal]] [[affection]], to the simplest pleasure.{{multiref2 [10] => |1={{cite encyclopedia |url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/love |title=Definition of ''love'' in English |dictionary=[[Oxford English Dictionary]] |access-date=May 1, 2018 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502140707/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/love |archive-date=2 May 2018 }} [11] => |2={{cite web |url=https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/love |title=Meaning of ''love'' in English |publisher=[[Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary|Cambridge English Dictionary]] |access-date=May 1, 2018 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180502141159/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/love#translations |archive-date=2 May 2018}} [12] => |3={{cite book | last=Karandashev | first=Victor | title=Romantic Love in Cultural Contexts | publisher=Springer International Publishing | publication-place=Cham | year=2017 | isbn=978-3-319-42681-5 | doi=10.1007/978-3-319-42683-9 }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}} [13] => |4={{cite book | title=Love and Friendship Across Cultures | publisher=Springer Singapore | publication-place=Singapore | year=2021 | isbn=978-981-334-833-2 | doi=10.1007/978-981-33-4834-9 | s2cid=243232407 | editor-last1=Hongladarom | editor-last2=Joaquin | editor-first1=Soraj | editor-first2=Jeremiah Joven }}{{page needed|date=August 2023}} [14] => |5={{cite book | last1=Treger | first1=Stanislav | last2=Sprecher | first2=Susan | last3=Hatfield | first3=Elaine C. | title=Encyclopedia of Quality of Life and Well-Being Research | chapter=Love | publisher=Springer Netherlands | publication-place=Dordrecht | year=2014 | doi=10.1007/978-94-007-0753-5_1706 | pages=3708–3712 | isbn=978-94-007-0752-8 | quote=Love is a universal human experience.}} }} An example of this range of meanings is that the love of a mother differs from the love of a [[spouse]], which differs from the love for [[food]]. Most commonly, love refers to a feeling of strong attraction and emotional [[attachment (psychology)|attachment]].{{multiref2 [15] => |1={{cite book|title=Oxford Illustrated American Dictionary|year=1998|publisher=Oxford University Press|page=[https://archive.org/details/dkoxfordillustra0000unse/page/485/mode/1up 485]}} [16] => |2={{cite web | title=Love Definition & Meaning | website= Merriam-Webster | date=27 Dec 1987 | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/love | access-date=30 Sep 2021 | archive-date=17 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517210605/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/love | url-status=live }} [17] => |3={{Cite web |title=Love Definition & Meaning |url=https://www.yourdictionary.com/love |access-date=2022-07-12 |website=YourDictionary |archive-date=12 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220712162141/https://www.yourdictionary.com/love |url-status=live}} }} [18] => [19] => Love is considered to be both positive and negative, with its [[virtue]] representing human [[kindness]], [[compassion]], and [[affection]]—"the unselfish, loyal and benevolent concern for the good of another"—and its [[vice]] representing a human [[morality|moral flaw]] akin to [[vanity]], [[selfishness]], [[amour-propre]], and [[egotism]], potentially leading people into a type of [[mania]], [[Obsessive love|obsessiveness]], or [[codependency]].{{multiref2 [20] => |1={{cite book|title=Roget's Thesaurus|year=1998|pages=592, 639}} [21] => |2={{cite web | title=Love Definition & Meaning | website= Merriam-Webster | date=27 Dec 1987 | url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/love | access-date=30 Sep 2021 | archive-date=17 May 2019 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190517210605/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/love | url-status=live }} }} It may also describe compassionate and affectionate actions towards other humans, oneself, or animals.{{cite book|last=Fromm|first=Erich|title=The Art of Loving|publisher=Harper Perennial|year=1956|edition=Original English|isbn=978-0-06-095828-2}} In its various forms, love acts as a major facilitator of [[interpersonal relationship]]s and, owing to its central psychological importance, is one of the most common themes in the [[creative arts]].{{cite web|last=Abbas|first=Azhar|date=2011-04-11|title=Just Love |url=http://www.slideshare.net/azharabbas/just-love |access-date=13 September 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120530043739/http://www.slideshare.net/azharabbas/just-love |archive-date=30 May 2012 }}{{Cite web |last=Callerame |first=Emmanuelle |date=2022-02-03 |title=An Exploration of Love in Art History |url=https://blog.artsper.com/en/a-closer-look/an-exploration-of-love-in-art-history/ |access-date=2023-08-24 |website=Artsper Magazine |language=en-GB}} Love has been postulated to be a function that keeps human beings together against menaces and to [[human reproduction|facilitate the continuation of the species]].{{cite book|first=Helen|last=Fisher|title=Why We Love: the nature and chemistry of romantic love|year=2004|publisher=Henry Holt & Co.|isbn=978-0805069136}} [22] => [23] => Ancient Greek philosophers identified [[Greek words for love|six forms of love]]: [[familial love]] ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[storge]]}}), [[friendship|friendly love]] or [[platonic love]] ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[philia]]}}), [[romance (love)|romantic love]] ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[Eros (concept)|eros]]}}), [[self-love]] ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[philautia]]}}), [[hospitality|guest love]] ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[Xenia (Greek)|xenia]]}}), and divine or [[unconditional love]] ({{lang|grc-Latn|[[agape]]}}). Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of love: [[unrequited love]], [[empty love]], [[companionate love]], [[consummate love]], [[limerence|infatuated love]], [[amour de soi]], and [[courtly love]]. Numerous cultures have also distinguished {{lang|lzh-Latn|[[Ren (Confucianism)|Ren]]}}, {{lang|zh-Latn|[[Yuanfen]]}}, {{lang|yag-Latn|[[Mamihlapinatapai]]}}, {{lang|pt|[[Physical intimacy|Cafuné]]}}, {{lang|sa-Latn|[[Kama]]}}, {{lang|sa-Latn|[[Bhakti]]}}, {{lang|pi-Latn|[[Mettā]]}}, {{lang|ar-Latn|[[Ishq]]}}, {{lang|he-Latn|[[Chesed]]}}, {{lang|it|[[Cupid|Amore]]}}, [[Charity (virtue)|Charity]], {{lang|pt|[[Saudade]]}} (and other [[Religious views on love|variants or symbioses of these states]]), as culturally unique words, definitions, or expressions of love in regard to specified "moments" currently lacking in the English language.{{multiref2 [24] => |1={{Cite web|first=Adrian|last=Catron|date=2014-12-05|title=What Is Love? A Philosophy of Life|url=https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-is-love-a-philosophy_b_5697322|access-date=2020-10-02|website=HuffPost|language=en|archive-date=3 August 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200803155921/https://www.huffpost.com/entry/what-is-love-a-philosophy_b_5697322|url-status=live}} [25] => |2={{cite book|author-link=Liddell and Scott|author=Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert|date=1940|location=Oxford|publisher=Clarendon Press|url=https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dfili%2Fa|title=A Greek-English Lexicon|chapter=φιλία|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170103220059/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dfili%2Fa |archive-date=3 January 2017 }} [26] => |3={{cite book |translator-last= Mascaró |translator-first=Juan |title=The Bhagavad Gita |publisher=Penguin|series=Penguin Classics |year=2003 |isbn=978-0-14-044918-1}} }} [27] => [28] => The [[color wheel theory of love]] defines three primary, three secondary, and nine tertiary love styles, describing them in terms of the traditional color wheel. The [[triangular theory of love]] suggests intimacy, passion, and commitment are core components of love. Love has additional religious or [[spiritual but not religious|spiritual]] meaning. This diversity of uses and meanings, combined with the complexity of the feelings involved, makes love unusually difficult to consistently define, compared to other emotional states. [29] => [30] => {{TOC limit|3}} [31] => [32] => ==Definitions== [33] => The word "love" can have a variety of related but distinct meanings in different contexts. Many other languages use multiple words to express some of the different concepts that in English are denoted as "love"; one example is the plurality of [[Greek words for love|Greek concepts for "love"]] ({{transliteration|grc|agape}}, {{transliteration|grc|eros}}, {{transliteration|grc|philia}}, {{transliteration|grc|storge}}).{{cite book|author-link=Anders Nygren|last=Nygren|first=Anders Theodor Samuel|title=[[Agape and Eros]]|year=1936}} [[Cultural identity|Cultural differences]] in conceptualizing love make it difficult to establish a universal definition.{{cite journal|last1=Kay|first1=Paul|title=What is the Sapir–Whorf Hypothesis?|journal=American Anthropologist|series=New Series|volume=86|issue=1|date=March 1984|pages=65–79|doi=10.1525/aa.1984.86.1.02a00050|last2=Kempton|first2=Willett}} [34] => [35] => Although the nature or essence of love is a subject of frequent debate, different aspects of the word can be clarified by determining what is ''not'' love (antonyms of "love"). Love, as a general expression of positive sentiment (a stronger form of ''like''), is commonly contrasted with [[hate]] (or neutral [[apathy]]). As a less sexual and more [[Emotional intimacy|emotionally intimate]] form of romantic attachment, love is commonly contrasted with [[lust]]. As an interpersonal relationship with romantic overtones, love is sometimes contrasted with [[friendship]], although the word ''love'' is often applied to close friendships or platonic love. (Further possible ambiguities come with usages like "girlfriend", "boyfriend" and "just good friends".) [36] => [37] => [[File:Columpio Veracruz 059.jpg|thumb|left|Fraternal love (Prehispanic sculpture from {{CE|250 to 900}}, of [[Huastec civilization|Huastec]] origin). [[Museo de Antropología de Xalapa|Museum of Anthropology]] in [[Xalapa]], [[Veracruz]], [[Mexico]]]] Abstractly discussed, ''love'' usually refers to a feeling one person experiences for another person. Love often involves caring for, or identifying with, a person or thing (cf. [[vulnerability and care theory of love]]), including oneself (cf. [[narcissism]]). In addition to cross-cultural differences in understanding love, ideas about love have also changed greatly over time. Some historians date modern conceptions of romantic love to courtly Europe during or after [[Middle Ages|the Middle Ages]], although the prior existence of romantic attachments is attested by ancient love poetry.{{cite web [38] => |url=http://www.TrueOpenLove.org/reference/AncientLovePoetry.html [39] => |title=Ancient Love Poetry [40] => |url-status=dead [41] => |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070930072056/http://www.trueopenlove.org/reference/AncientLovePoetry.html [42] => |website=TrueOpenLove [43] => |archive-date=30 September 2007 [44] => }} [45] => [46] => The complex and {{clarify|text=abstract nature|reason=seems like the assertion that love has an "abstract" nature is something that needs to be argued for rather than just stated|date=August 2023}} of love often reduces its discourse to a [[thought-terminating cliché]]. Several common [[proverb]]s regard love, from [[Virgil]]'s "[[Amor Vincit Omnia (Caravaggio)|Love conquers all]]" to [[The Beatles]]' "[[All You Need Is Love]]". [[St. Thomas Aquinas]], following [[Aristotle]], defines love as "to will the good of another."{{cite book|author=[[Aristotle]]|title=[[Nicomachean Ethics]]|at=[https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/aristotle/nicomachean-ethics/f-h-peters/text/book-8#part-8-1 VIII]}}{{cite book |title-link=Summa Theologica|last=Aquinas|first=Thomas|title=Summa Theologiae|year=1485|at=[https://www.newadvent.org/summa/2026.htm#article4 I–II, Q26, Art.4] |publisher=New Advent }} [[Bertrand Russell]] describes love as {{clarify|text=a condition of|date=August 2023}} "absolute value," as opposed to [[relative value (economics)|relative value]].{{Cite journal |last=Kirsh |first=Marvin Eli |year=2013 |title=Philosophy, Science and Value |url=https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2250431 |journal=SSRN Electronic Journal |doi=10.2139/ssrn.2250431 |ssrn=2250431 |issn=1556-5068}} Philosopher [[Gottfried Leibniz]] said that love is "to be delighted by the happiness of another."{{cite web [47] => |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Translation:Confessio_philosophi [48] => |first=Gottfried [49] => |last=Leibniz [50] => |title=Confessio philosophi [51] => |year=1673 [52] => |publisher=Wikisource edition [53] => |access-date=25 March 2009 [54] => |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090427115126/http://la.wikisource.org/wiki/Confessio_philosophi [55] => |archive-date=27 April 2009 [56] => |url-status=live [57] => }} [[Meher Baba]] stated that in love there is a "feeling of unity" and an "active appreciation of the intrinsic worth of the object of love."{{cite book | last=Baba | first=Meher | author-link=Meher Baba | title=Discourses | year=1995 | isbn=978-1-880619-09-4 | location=Myrtle Beach |publisher= Sheriar Press | page=113}} Biologist [[Jeremy Griffith]] defines love as "unconditional selflessness".{{cite book|url=https://www.humancondition.com/book-of-answers-what-is-love/|chapter=What is love?|title=The Book of Real Answers to Everything!|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130116041234/http://www.worldtransformation.com/what-is-love/ |archive-date=16 January 2013 |last=Griffith|first=Jeremy|year=2011|isbn=978-1-74129-007-3}} According to [[Ambrose Bierce]], love is a temporary insanity curable by marriage.[http://dict.org/bin/Dict?Form=Dict2&Database=devil&Query=Love "Love" entry in ''The Devil's Dictionary''] at [[Dict.org]] [58] => [59] => ==Impersonal== [60] => People can express love towards things other than humans, this can range from expressing a strong liking of something, such as "I love popcorn" or that something is essential to one's identity, such as "I love being an actor".{{Citation |last=Helm |first=Bennett |title=Love |date=2021 |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |editor-last=Zalta |editor-first=Edward N. |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2021/entries/love/ |access-date=2024-04-15 |edition=Fall 2021 |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University}} [61] => [62] => People can have a profound dedication and immense appreciation for an object, principle, or objective, thereby experiencing a sense of love towards it. For example, compassionate outreach and volunteer workers' "love" of their cause may sometimes be born not of interpersonal love but impersonal love, [[altruism]], and strong spiritual or political convictions.{{r|Fromm}} [63] => [64] => People can also "love" material objects, animals, or activities if they invest themselves in bonding or otherwise identifying with those things. If sexual passion is also involved, then this feeling is called [[paraphilia]].{{cite web |title=Paraphilia |url=http://health.discovery.com/centers/sex/sexpedia/paraphilia.html|website=DiscoveryHealth |access-date=16 December 2007 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071212105714/http://health.discovery.com/centers/sex/sexpedia/paraphilia.html |archive-date=12 December 2007 }} [65] => [66] => ==Interpersonal== [67] => {{Close Relationships|emotions}} [68] => Interpersonal love refers to love between human beings. It is a much more potent sentiment than ''liking'' a person. [[Unrequited love]] refers to feelings of love that are not reciprocated. Interpersonal love is most closely associated with [[interpersonal relationship]]s.{{r|Fromm}} Such love might exist between family members, friends, and couples. There are several psychological disorders related to love, such as [[erotomania]]. [69] => [70] => Throughout history, philosophy and religion have speculated about the phenomenon of love. In the 20th century, the science of [[psychology]] has studied the subject. The sciences of [[anthropology]], [[neuroscience]], and biology have also added to the understanding of the concept of love. [71] => [72] => ===Biological basis=== [73] => {{Main|Biological basis of love}} [74] => Biological models of sex tend to view love as a [[mammal]]ian{{clarify|reason=do other classes of animal not have hunger or thirst?|date=August 2023}} drive, much like hunger or thirst.{{cite book | last1 = Lewis | first1 = Thomas |last2=Amini|first2= F. |last3=Lannon|first3= R. | title = A General Theory of Love | publisher = Random House | year = 2000 |isbn=978-0-375-70922-7| title-link = A General Theory of Love }} [[Helen Fisher (anthropologist)|Helen Fisher]], an anthropologist and human behavior researcher, divides the experience of love into three partly overlapping stages: lust, attraction, and attachment. Lust is the feeling of [[sexual desire]]; romantic attraction determines what partners find attractive and pursue, {{clarify|text=conserving time and energy by choosing|reason=it's not clear what this phrase is doing here|date=August 2023}}; and attachment involves sharing a home, parental duties, mutual defense, and in humans involves feelings of safety and security. [75] => {{cite journal|url=http://homepage.mac.com/helenfisher/archives_of_sex_beh.pdf |title=Defining the Brain Systems of Lust, Romantic Attraction, and Attachment |access-date=3 October 2011 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110628051603/http://homepage.mac.com/helenfisher/archives_of_sex_beh.pdf |archive-date=28 June 2011|journal=Archives of Sexual Behavior|volume=31|number=5|year=2002|first1=Helen E.|last1=Fisher|first2=Arthur|last2=Aron|first3=Debra|last3=Mashek|first4=Haifang|last4=Li|first5=Lucy L.|last5=Brown |pages=413–419 |doi=10.1023/A:1019888024255 |pmid=12238608 |s2cid=14808862 }} Three distinct neural circuitries,{{Specify|date=August 2023}} including neurotransmitters,{{Specify|date=August 2023}} and three behavioral patterns,{{Specify|date=August 2023}} are associated with{{How|date=August 2023}} these three romantic styles. [76] => [77] => [[File:Gothaer Liebespaar.jpg|thumb|left|180px|''Pair of Lovers''. 1480–1485]] [78] => [[Lust]] is the initial passionate sexual desire that promotes [[Mating (human)|mating]], and involves the increased release of [[hormones]] such as [[testosterone]] and [[estrogen]]. These effects rarely last more than a few weeks or months. [[Interpersonal attraction|Attraction]] is the more individualized and romantic desire for a specific candidate for mating, which develops out of lust as commitment to an individual mate form. Recent studies in [[neuroscience]] have indicated that as people fall in love, the brain consistently releases a certain set of chemicals, including the [[neuroendocrine|neurotransmitter hormones]] [[dopamine]], [[norepinephrine]], and [[serotonin]], the same compounds released by [[amphetamine]], stimulating the brain's [[pleasure center]] and leading to side effects such as increased [[heart rate]], [[Anorexia (symptom)|reduced appetite]] and [[insomnia|sleep]], and an [[euphoria|intense feeling of excitement]]. Research indicates that this stage generally lasts from one and a half to three years.{{cite book | publisher=Holt, Rinehart, & Winston | title=Holt World History: The Human Legacy | date=2008-01-01 | isbn=978-0-03-093780-4 }} [79] => [80] => Since the lust and attraction stages are both considered temporary, a third stage is needed to account for long-term relationships. [[Attachment theory|Attachment]] is the [[human bonding|bonding]] that promotes relationships lasting for many years and even decades. Attachment is generally based on commitments such as marriage and children, or mutual friendship based on things like shared interests. It has been linked to higher levels of the chemicals [[oxytocin]] and [[vasopressin]], to a greater degree than what is found in short-term relationships. [[Enzo Emanuele]] and coworkers reported the protein molecule known as the [[nerve growth factor]] (NGF) has high levels when people first fall in love, but these return to previous levels after one year.{{cite journal|last1=Emanuele|first1= E.|last2=Polliti|first2= P.|last3=Bianchi|first3= M.|last4=Minoretti|first4= P.|last5=Bertona|first5= M.|last6=Geroldi|first6= D.|year=2005|title=Raised plasma nerve growth factor levels associated with early-stage romantic love|url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0306453005001976|journal=Psychoneuroendocrinology|doi=10.1016/j.psyneuen.2005.09.002|volume=31|pmid=16289361|issue=3|pages=288–294|s2cid=18497668|access-date=3 December 2006|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061206142641/http://www.biopsychiatry.com/lovengf.htm|archive-date=6 December 2006|url-status=live}} [81] => {{clear}} [82] => [83] => ===Psychological basis=== [84] => {{Further|Human bonding}} [85] => [[File:Sri Lankan woman and child.jpg|thumb|Grandmother and grandchild in [[Sri Lanka]]]] [86] => [[Psychology]] depicts love as a cognitive and social phenomenon. [[Psychologist]] [[Robert Sternberg]] formulated a [[triangular theory of love]] in which love has three components: intimacy, commitment, and passion. Intimacy is when two people share confidences and various details of their personal lives, and is usually shown in friendships and romantic love affairs. Commitment is the expectation that the relationship is permanent. Passionate love is shown in infatuation as well as romantic love. All forms of love are viewed as varying combinations of these three components. Non-love does not include any of these components. Liking only includes intimacy. Infatuated love only includes passion. Empty love only includes commitment. Romantic love includes both intimacy and passion. Companionate love includes intimacy and commitment. Fatuous love includes passion and commitment. Consummate love includes all three components.{{cite journal | last=Sternberg| first= R.J. |year=1986| title=A triangular theory of love| journal=Psychological Review|volume= 93 |issue=2|pages= 119–135| doi= 10.1037/0033-295x.93.2.119}} [87] => [88] => American psychologist [[Zick Rubin]] sought to define ''love'' by [[psychometrics]] in the 1970s. His work identifies a different set of three factors that constitute love: attachment, caring, and intimacy.{{multiref2 [89] => |1={{cite journal|last=Rubin|first=Zick|title=Measurement of Romantic Love|journal=Journal of Personality and Social Psychology|volume=16|pages=265–273|year=1970|doi=10.1037/h0029841|pmid=5479131|issue=2|citeseerx=10.1.1.452.3207}} [90] => |2={{cite book|last=Rubin|first=Zick|title=Liking and Loving: an invitation to social psychology|url=https://archive.org/details/likinglovinginvi00rubi|url-access=registration|location=New York|publisher=Holt, Rinehart & Winston|year=1973|isbn=978-0030830037}} }} [91] => [92] => Following developments in electrical theories such as [[Coulomb's law]], which showed that positive and negative charges attract, analogs in human life were envisioned, such as "opposites attract". Research on human mating has generally found this not to be true when it comes to character and personality—people tend to like people similar to themselves. However, in a few unusual and specific domains, such as [[immune system]]s, it seems that humans prefer others who are unlike themselves (e.g., with an orthogonal immune system), perhaps because this will lead to a baby that has the best of both worlds.{{cite book | last1 = Berscheid | first1 = Ellen | author-link1 = Ellen S. Berscheid |last2=Walster|first2= Elaine H. | title = Interpersonal Attraction | publisher = Addison-Wesley Publishing Co | year = 1969 | lccn = 69-17443 | isbn = 978-0-201-00560-8 }} [93] => [94] => In recent years, various [[human bonding]] theories have been developed, described in terms of attachments, ties, bonds, and affinities. [95] => Some [[Western culture|Western]] authorities {{clarify|text=disaggregate|reason=disaggregate what?|date=August 2023}} into two main components, the altruistic and the narcissistic. This view is represented in the works of [[M. Scott Peck|Scott Peck]], whose work in the field of [[applied psychology]] explored the definitions of love and evil. Peck maintains that love is a combination of the "concern for the spiritual growth of another" and simple narcissism.{{cite book | title=The Road Less Traveled | isbn=978-0-671-25067-6 | last=Peck | first=Scott | publisher=Simon & Schuster | year=1978 | page=[https://archive.org/details/roadlesstraveled00peck_0/page/169 169] | url=https://archive.org/details/roadlesstraveled00peck_0/page/169 }} In combination, love is an ''activity'', not simply a feeling. [96] => [97] => Psychologist [[Erich Fromm]] maintained in his book ''[[The Art of Loving]]'' that love is not merely a feeling but is also actions, and that in fact the "feeling" of love is superficial in comparison to one's commitment to love via a series of loving actions over time.{{r|Fromm}} Fromm held that love is ultimately not a feeling at all, but rather is a commitment to, and adherence to, loving actions towards another, oneself, or many others, over a sustained duration.{{r|Fromm}} Fromm also described love as a conscious choice that in its early stages might originate as an involuntary feeling, but which then later no longer depends on those feelings, but rather depends only on conscious commitment.{{r|Fromm}} [98] => [99] => ===Evolutionary basis=== [100] => [[File:Place des Abbesse (the plaque with the je t'aime=te iubesc in 311 laguages).jpg|thumb|''[[Wall of Love]]'' on [[Montmartre]] in Paris: "I love you" in 250 languages, by calligraphist Fédéric Baron and artist Claire Kito (2000)]] [101] => [102] => [[Evolutionary psychology]] has attempted to provide various reasons for love as a survival tool. Humans are dependent on parental help for a large portion of their lifespans compared to other mammals. Love has therefore been seen as a mechanism to promote parental support of children for this extended time period. Furthermore, researchers as early as [[Charles Darwin]] identified unique features of human love compared to other mammals and credited love as a major factor for creating social support systems that enabled the development and expansion of the human species.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} Another factor may be that [[sexually transmitted disease]]s can cause, among other effects, permanently reduced [[fertility]], injury to the fetus, and increase complications during [[childbirth]]. This would favor monogamous relationships over [[polygamy]].{{cite book|title=The Handbook of Evolutionary Psychology|editor-first=David M.|editor-last=Buss|publisher=John Wiley & Sons, Inc.|year=2005|chapter=Commitment, Love, and Mate Retention|first1=Lorne|last1=Campbell|first2=Bruce J.|last2=Ellis}} [103] => [104] => ===Adaptive benefit=== [105] => Interpersonal love between a man and woman provides an evolutionary adaptive benefit since it facilitates mating and [[sexual reproduction]].{{cite journal|last=Michod|first=Richard E.|title=What's love got to do with it? The solution to one of evolution's greatest riddles|journal=The Sciences|year=1989|pages=22–27|doi=10.1002/j.2326-1951.1989.tb02156.x}} However, some organisms can reproduce [[asexual reproduction|asexually]] without mating. Understanding the adaptive benefit of interpersonal love depends on understanding the adaptive benefit of sexual reproduction as opposed to asexual reproduction. Richard Michod reviewed evidence that love, and consequently sexual reproduction, provides two major adaptive advantages.{{r|Michod1989}} First, sexual reproduction facilitates [[DNA repair|repair of damages in the DNA]] that is passed from parent to progeny (during [[origin and function of meiosis|meiosis]], a key stage of the sexual process). Second, a gene in either parent may contain a harmful [[mutation]], but in the progeny produced by sexual reproduction, expression of a harmful mutation introduced by one parent is likely to be masked by expression of the unaffected homologous gene from the other parent.{{r|Michod1989}} [106] => [107] => ===Comparison of scientific models=== [108] => Biological models of love tend to see it as a {{clarify|text=mammalian|reason=why should we expect other classes of animal not to have hunger or thirst?|date=August 2023}} drive, similar to hunger or thirst. Psychology sees love as more of a social and cultural phenomenon. Love is influenced by [[hormone]]s (such as [[oxytocin]]), [[neurotrophins]] (such as [[nerve growth factor|NGF]]), and [[pheromone]]s, and how people think and behave in love is influenced by their conceptions of love. The conventional view in [[biology]] is that there are two major drives in love: [[sexual attraction]] and [[attachment theory|attachment]]. Attachment between adults is presumed to work on the same principles that lead an infant to become attached to its mother. The traditional psychological view sees love as being a combination of [[companionate love]] and passionate love. Passionate love is intense longing, and is often accompanied by [[physiological arousal]] (shortness of breath, rapid heart rate); companionate love is affection and a feeling of intimacy not accompanied by physiological arousal. [109] => [110] => ===Health=== [111] => Love plays a role in human well-being and health.{{Cite web |s2cid=45264075 }} Engaging in activities associated with love, such as nurturing relationships, has been shown to activate key brain regions responsible for emotion, attention, motivation, and memory. These activities also contribute to the regulation of the [[autonomic nervous system]], leading to stress reduction over time, although the initial stages of love may induce stress.{{Cite journal |last1=Esch |first1=Tobias |last2=Stefano |first2=George B. |date=June 2005 |title=Love promotes health |url=https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15990734/ |journal=Neuro Endocrinology Letters |volume=26 |issue=3 |pages=264–267 |issn=0172-780X |pmid=15990734}} Love's social bonds enhance both physical and mental health, fostering resilience, compassion, and closeness. It boosts immune function and promotes healing, while also encouraging positive motivations and behaviors for individual flourishing and survival. Breakups can evoke a range of emotional states, including distrust, rejection, and anger, leading to trauma and various psychological challenges such as anxiety, social withdrawal, and even love addiction. Individuals may become fixated on past relationships, perpetuating emotional distress akin to addiction.{{Cite journal |last=Timmreck |first=Thomas C. |date=April 1990 |title=Overcoming the Loss of a Love: Preventing Love Addiction and Promoting Positive Emotional Health |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.2466/pr0.1990.66.2.515 |journal=Psychological Reports |language=en |volume=66 |issue=2 |pages=515–528 |doi=10.2466/pr0.1990.66.2.515 |pmid=2190254 |issn=0033-2941}} Health benefits grow bigger when married couples are older, this is because the partners play a crucial role in promoting each other's well-being.{{Cite journal |last1=Rauer |first1=Amy J. |last2=Sabey |first2=Allen |last3=Jensen |first3=Jakob F. |date=August 2014 |title=Growing old together: Compassionate love and health in older adulthood |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0265407513503596 |journal=Journal of Social and Personal Relationships |language=en |volume=31 |issue=5 |pages=677–696 |doi=10.1177/0265407513503596 |issn=0265-4075}} A loving relationship with God has significant impact on health. [112] => [113] => ==Cultural views== [114] => ===Ancient Greek=== [115] => {{See also|Greek words for love}} [116] => [[File:Eros bow Musei Capitolini MC410.jpg|thumb|Roman copy of a Greek sculpture by [[Lysippus]] depicting [[Eros]], the Greek personification of romantic love]] [117] => [[Greek language|Greek]] distinguishes [[Greek words for love|several different senses]] in which the word "love" is used. Ancient Greeks identified three main forms of love: [[friendship]] and/or [[platonic love|platonic desire]] ({{transliteration|grc|[[philia]]}}), sexual and/or [[romance (love)|romantic desire]] ({{transliteration|grc|[[eros (concept)|eros]]}}), and [[Kenosis|self-emptying]] or divine love ({{transliteration|grc|[[agape]]}}). Modern authors have distinguished further varieties of romantic love.[[Stendhal]], in his book ''On Love'' ("De l'amour"; Paris, 1822), distinguished carnal love, passionate love, a kind of uncommitted love that he called "taste-love", and love of vanity. [[Denis de Rougemont]] in his book ''Love in the Western World'' traced the story of passionate love ({{lang|fr|l'amour-passion}}) from its courtly to its romantic forms. [[Benjamin Péret]], in the introduction to his ''Anthology of Sublime Love'' (Paris, 1956), further identified "sublime love", a state of realized idealisation perhaps equatable with the romantic form of passionate love. [118] => [119] => ;''[[Agapē|Agape]]'' ({{lang|grc|ἀγάπη}} {{transliteration|grc|agápē}}) [120] => : ''Agape'', often a Christian term, denotes a form of love that stands apart from the conventional understanding of affection. Rooted in theological discourse, ''agape'' represents a love that is characterized by its spontaneous nature and its independence from the inherent value of its object. Originating from the Greek term for "love", ''agape'' has been examined within theological scholarship, particularly in contrast to ''eros.'' In the Christian tradition, agape is often attributed to the love of God for humanity, as well as humanity's reciprocal love for God and for one another, often termed as brotherly love. ''Agape'' is considered to be unmerited and unmotivated by any inherent worthiness in its recipient. Instead, it is portrayed as an expression of the nature of God, exemplifying divine love that transcends human comprehension. [121] => [122] => ;''[[Eros (love)|Eros]]'' ({{lang|grc|ἔρως}} {{transliteration|grc|érōs}}) [123] => : ''Eros'' originally referred to a passionate desire, often synonymous with sexual passion, reflecting an egocentric nature. However, its modern interpretation portrays it as both selfish and responsive to the merits of the beloved, thus contingent on reasons. Plato, in his ''[[Symposium (Plato)|Symposium]]'', argued that sexual desire, fixated on physical beauty, is inadequate and should evolve into an appreciation of the beauty of the soul, culminating in an appreciation of the form of beauty itself. In Greek mythology, [[Eros]]symbolizes the state of being in love, extending beyond mere physical sexuality (referred to as "Venus"). Unrestrained Venus can reduce individuals to mere appetite, but when Eros is present, the focus shifts to the beloved, elevating intimacy beyond physical gratification. Eros is depicted as divine yet potentially dangerous, capable of inspiring both altruism and selfishness.{{r|Nygren}} [124] => [125] => ;''[[Philia]]'' ({{lang|grc|φιλία}} {{transliteration|grc|philía}}) [126] => : ''Philia'' originally describing an affectionate regard or friendly feeling, extended to relationships like friendship, family members, business partners, and one's nation. Similar to ''eros'', ''philia'' is often seen as responsive to positive attributes in the beloved. This similarity has led scholars to think whether the primary difference between romantic ''eros'' and ''philia'' lies solely in the sexual dimension of the former. The distinction between the two becomes more complex with attempts from scholars to diminish the importance of the sexual aspect in eros, contributing to a nuanced understanding of these forms of love. ''Philia'' was articulated by Aristotle in his ''[[Nicomachean Ethics]].'' Aristotle suggests that ''philia'' can be motivated by considerations for either one's own benefit or the benefit of the other. ''Philia'' often arises from the utility found in the relationship or from admiration for the character or virtues of the other individual. Aristotle further elucidates that the foundation of philia rests on objective grounds; individuals must share similar dispositions, refrain from holding grudges, and embody qualities such as justice, among others.{{Cite web |title=Philosophy of Love {{!}} Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |url=https://iep.utm.edu/love/ |access-date=2024-04-23 |language=en-US}} [127] => [128] => ===Ancient Roman=== [129] => In Latin, friendship was distinctly termed ''amicitia,'' while ''amor'' encompassed erotic passion, familial attachment, and, albeit less commonly, the affection between friends. Cicero, in his essay [[On Friendship|''On Friendship'']] reflects on the innate human tendency to both love oneself and seek out another with whom to intertwine minds, nearly blending them into a singular entity. This suggests that while friends remain distinct individuals, they also, in some sense, become intertwined, embodying a shared essence.{{Cite book |last=Konstan |first=David |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/12383 |title=In the Orbit of Love |date=2018-07-19 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-088787-2 |volume=1 |language=en |doi=10.1093/oso/9780190887872.001.0001}} [130] => [131] => [[Lucretius]] perceives love as a disruptive and irrational force, leading to madness and despair. To him, it is an affliction distorting reality, a primal urge rooted in the biological need for species to propagate. He emphasizes love's futility and self-destructive nature. In contrast, [[Ovid]] acknowledges the pleasure of love alongside its risks and complexities. He views love as a game of manipulation and deception, marked by a blend of hedonism and cynicism. Ovid recognizes the transient nature of passion and the inevitable disappointment in romantic relationships.{{Cite journal |last=Singer |first=Irving |date=1965 |title=Love in Ovid and Lucretius |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3849704 |journal=The Hudson Review |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=537–559 |doi=10.2307/3849704 |jstor=3849704 |issn=0018-702X}} [132] => [133] => ===Chinese=== [134] => [[File:Love-zh.svg|thumb|left|upright|{{lang|zh|愛}} (Mandarin: {{transliteration|cmn|ài}}), the traditional [[Chinese character]] for love, contains a [[heart]] ({{lang|zh|心}}) in the middle.]] [135] => [136] => [[Ren (philosophy)|Ren]] (仁), a concept in [[Confucianism]] philosophy, embodying the essence of humanity and virtue. It is regarded as the sum of all virtues within a person, encompassing traits such as selflessness and self-cultivation. Ren emphasizes the cultivation of harmonious relationships within society, starting from the family unit and extending outward. Within Confucianism, these relationships are delineated by five main categories: father-son, older brother-younger brother, husband-wife, older friend-younger friend, and lord-servant. In Confucianism, one displays benevolent love by performing actions such as [[filial piety]] from children, kindness from parents, loyalty to the king and so forth.{{Cite journal |last=Havens |first=Timothy |date=2013 |title=Confucianism as Humanism |url=https://uca.edu/cahss/files/2020/07/Confucianism-as-Humanism.pdf |journal=CLA Journal}} [137] => [138] => Central to the concept of Ren is the notion of reciprocity and empathetic understanding. It is often interpreted as akin to love (愛, ''ài''), but sometimes it also considered a stage between ''ài'' and [[Ling (Chinese religion)|''ling'']], characterized by the sincere and open-hearted expression of human feelings. Through genuine love for others, individuals cultivate Ren and foster deeper connections that bridge the gap between the human and the divine. Ren's significance lies in its ability to foster genuine human connection and empathy, laying the foundation for harmonious relationships within society.{{Cite journal |last1=Wang |first1=Huaiyu |last2=王懷聿 |date=2012 |title="Ren" and "Gantong": Openness of Heart and the Root of Confucianism |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41684476 |journal=Philosophy East and West |volume=62 |issue=4 |pages=463–504 |doi=10.1353/pew.2012.0067 |jstor=41684476 |issn=0031-8221}} [139] => [140] => Mozi, a Chinese philosopher, articulated a philosophy centered on the principle of universal love. At the core of his teachings lay the belief that genuine harmony and societal well-being could only be achieved through love for others, transcending narrow self-interest. Mozi contended that universal love was not merely an abstract concept but a practical imperative, requiring individuals to actively promote the welfare of all members of society through their actions.{{Cite journal |last=Wang |first=Yuxi (Candice) |date=2016-04-28 |title=Mozi: Universal Love and Human Agency |url=https://scholarship.claremont.edu/cclura_2016/1 |journal=2016 Claremont Colleges Library Undergraduate Research Award}}{{Citation |last=Cotesta |first=Vittorio |title=The Heavens and the Earth: Graeco-Roman, Ancient Chinese, and Mediaeval Islamic Images of the World |date=2021-01-01 |url=https://brill.com/display/title/33819 |access-date=2024-04-25 |publisher=Brill |language=en |isbn=978-90-04-46472-8}} [141] => [142] => In Mozi's philosophical framework, universal love was not only a moral obligation but also a divine principle originating from Heaven itself. He argued that this principle was exemplified through the actions of sage-kings from ancient times, who demonstrated how love could manifest in tangible ways within human interactions. Mozi's advocacy for universal love extended beyond interpersonal relationships; he believed it should guide the selection of rulers and the structuring of society, emphasizing reciprocity and egalitarianism as foundational principles for a harmonious social order. [143] => [144] => In [[Taoism]], the concept of 慈 (''ci'') embodies compassion or love, with connotations of tender nurturing akin to a mother's care. It emphasizes the idea that creatures can only thrive through raising and nurturing. ''Ci'' serves as the wellspring of compassion or love that transcends preconceived notions of individuals, instead fostering compassion for people as they are. Love, as depicted in the Taoist text, ''[[Daodejing]]'', is depicted as open and responsive to each person's unique circumstances. Taoism juxtaposes human beings with the vastness of nature, likening the creation of people to the formation of waves in the ocean. Unlike Confucianism, as portrayed in the Taoist text [[Zhuangzi (book)|''Zhuangzi'']], Taoist responses to the loss of a beloved may involve either mourning their passing or embracing the loss and finding joy in new creations. Daoist love seeks connections that surpass distinctions and superficial reflections.{{Cite book |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/books/edit/10.4324/9781315645209/routledge-handbook-love-philosophy-adrienne-martin |title=The Routledge Handbook of Love in Philosophy |date=2018-12-21 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-64520-9 |editor-last=Martin |editor-first=Adrienne M. |location=New York |doi=10.4324/9781315645209}} [145] => [146] => ===Japanese=== [147] => [148] => The [[Japanese language]] uses three words to convey the English equivalent of love — {{Nihongo|''ai''|愛}}, {{Nihongo|''koi''|恋 or 孤悲}} and {{Nihongo|''ren'ai''|恋愛}}. The term ''ai'' carries a multiple meanings, encompassing feelings of feelings from superior to inferiors, compassion and empathy towards others and selfless love, originally referred to beauty and was often used in a religious context. Initially synonymous with ''koi'', representing romantic love between a man and a woman, emphasizing its physical expression, ''ai'' underwent a transformation during the early [[Meiji era]]. It evolved into a euphemistic term for {{Nihongo|renbo|恋慕}} or love attachment, signifying a shift towards a more egalitarian treatment and consideration of others as equals. Prior to Western influence, the term ''koi'' generally represented romantic love. {{transliteration|ja|Koi}} describes a longing for a member of the opposite sex and is typically interpreted as selfish and wanting. The term's origins come from the concept of lonely solitude as a result of separation from a loved one. Though modern usage of {{transliteration|ja|koi}} focuses on sexual love and infatuation, the Manyō used the term to cover a wider range of situations, including tenderness, benevolence, and material desire. The fusion of ''ai'' and ''koi'' gave rise to the modern term ''ren'ai''; its usage more closely resembles that of {{transliteration|ja|koi}} in the form of romantic love.{{cite book |last1=Ryang |first1=Sonia |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tkOUAgAAQBAJ |title=Love in Modern Japan: Its Estrangement from Self, Sex and Society |publisher=Routledge |year=2006 |isbn=978-1-135-98863-0 |pages=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tkOUAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13]–14 |access-date=3 February 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160711112044/https://books.google.com/books?id=tkOUAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |archive-date=11 July 2016 |url-status=live}}{{Cite book |last1=Palmer |first1=Gary B. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VfPIZCIfGIAC&dq=japan+love+ai+koi+ren'ai+&pg=PA131 |title=Languages of Sentiment: Cultural constructions of emotional substrates |last2=Occhi |first2=Debra J. |date=1999-12-15 |publisher=John Benjamins Publishing |isbn=978-90-272-9995-6 |language=en}} [149] => [150] => The concept {{Nihongo|''amae''|甘え}}, the dependency and emotional bonds between an infant and its mother—a bond that lays the foundation for the archetypal concept of love. Japanese culture traditionally distinguishes between marriage and love, valuing practical considerations and complementarity within family units. [151] => [152] => ===Indian=== [153] => [[File:Radha Madhavam.jpg|thumb|left|The love stories of the Hindu deities [[Krishna]] and [[Radha]] have influenced the Indian culture and arts. Above: Radha Madhavam by [[Raja Ravi Varma]].]] [154] => In [[ancient India]], there was a understanding of erotics and the art of love. References in the [[Rigveda]] suggest the presence of romantic narratives in ancient Indo-Aryan society, evident in dialogues between deities like [[Yama]] and [[Yami]], and [[Pururavas]] and [[Urvashi]]. The [[Sanskrit|Sanskrit language]], offered various terms to convey the concept of love, such as ''kama,'' ''sneha, priya, vatsalya,'' ''bhakti'', ''priti'' and ''prema''. [155] => [156] => In Indian literature, there are seven stages of love. The first is ''preska'', characterized by the desire to see something pleasant. Next is ''abhilasa,'' involving constant thoughts about the beloved. Then comes ''raga,'' signifying the mental inclination to be united with the beloved. Following that is ''shena'', which involves favorable activities directed towards the beloved. ''Prema'' is the stage where one cannot live without the beloved. Then there is ''rati'', which involves living together with the beloved. Finally, ''srngara'' represents the playful interaction with the beloved. [157] => [158] => ''Kama'' initially representing desire and longing. Later, [[Vātsyāyana]], the author of the [[Kama Sutra]], explored the concept of ''kama'', defining it as the enjoyment of sensory pleasures with conscious awareness. However, there were also teachings cautioning against becoming overly attached to desire, advocating for the pursuit of genuine happiness through transcending desires. The [[Atharvaveda]], presents ''kama'' as the tender affection between partners.{{Cite journal |last=Hara |first=Minoru |date=2007 |title=Words for love in Sanskrit |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41913379 |journal=Rivista degli studi orientali|volume=80 |issue=1/4 |pages=81–106 |jstor=41913379 }} [159] => [160] => Nevertheless, ''kama'' is also often associated with insatiable sexual desire intertwined with intense emotions like anger and greed, portraying it as potentially harmful. Over time, ''kama'' took on [[Anthropomorphism|anthropomorphic]] qualities, evolving into the figure of the Indian Cupid. [161] => [162] => ''Sneha'', considered the emotional facet of love, stands in contrast to the intense passion of ''kama'' with its calm demeanor. Characterized by moisture and viscosity, the term originally denoted oiliness. It is often compounded with words for family members, reflecting attachment to individuals like mothers, fathers, and sons. Those experiencing ''sneha'' tend to exhibit great concern for one another. While traditionally attributed to sensing, the [[Harshacharita]] presents a spontaneous perspective, suggesting it lacks a definitive cause. Due to its emotional nature, ''sneha'' is transient, emerging without reason and disappearing likewise. [163] => [164] => ''Preman'' represents a heightened stage in the development of love, characterized by the unbearable feeling of separation from the beloved. Etymologically, it denotes the sense of endearment akin to one's own. ''Priti'', similar to ''preman'', denotes fondness for anything delightful and familiar. It encompasses a general liking for arts, sports, and objects, while also encompassing a human instinct. ''Priti'' is built on foundations of trust and fidelity. Friendly relations (''priti'') may persist between individuals but are not necessarily bound by affection (''sneha''). [165] => [166] => ''Vatsalya'' originally signifies the tender affection exhibited by a cow towards her calf, extending to denote the love nurtured by elders or superiors towards the younger or inferior. This love is exemplified in the affection of parents towards their children, a husband's care for his wife, or a ruler's concern for their subjects. Conversely, ''bhakti'' denotes the love expressed by the younger towards the seniors, exemplified in a child's devotion to their parents.{{clear}} [167] => [168] => ===Persian=== [169] => Interpretations of [[Rumi|Rumi's]] poetry and [[Sufi cosmology]] by scholars emphasize a divine-centric perspective, focusing on the transcendent nature of love. These interpretations emphasize Rumi's rejection of mortal attachments in favor of a love for the ultimate beloved, seen as embodying absolute beauty and grandeur. Scholars like [[William Chittick]] assert that all love stems from the divine, with God being both lover and beloved. [[Leonard Lewisohn (Islamic studies scholar)|Leonard Lewisohn]] characterizes Rumi's poetry as part of a mystical tradition that celebrates love as pathways to union with the divine, highlighting a transcendent experience.{{Cite journal |last=Vali-Zadeh |first=Mahdieh |date=2022-06-02 |title=Agency of the Self and the Uncertain Nature of the Beloved in Persian Love Mysticism: Earthly, Ethereal, Masculine, or Feminine? |url=https://jurnalfuf.uinsa.ac.id/index.php/teosofi/article/view/1868 |journal=Teosofi: Jurnal Tasawuf Dan Pemikiran Islam |language=en |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=22–42 |doi=10.15642/teosofi.2022.12.1.22-42 |issn=2442-871X}} [170] => {{quote box [171] => | author = [[Saadi (poet)|Sa'di]] [172] => | salign = right [173] => | source = ''[[Gulistan (book)|Gulistan]]''{{space|3}} [174] => | quote = The children of Adam are limbs of one body [175] => Having been created of one essence. [176] => When the calamity of time afflicts one limb [177] => The other limbs cannot remain at rest. [178] => If you have no sympathy for the troubles of others [179] => You are not worthy to be called by the name of "man". [180] => }} [181] => In [[Persian mysticism]], the concept of creation stems from love, viewed as the fundamental essence from which all beings originate and to which they ultimately return. This notion, influenced by [[neoplatonism]], portrays love as both earthly and transcendent, embodying a universal striving for reunion with the divine. Scholars such as [[Abdolhossein Zarrinkoob]] trace this philosophical stance, highlighting its fusion with ancient Persian religious beliefs in figures like [[Ibn Arabi]]. According to Islamicists like [[William Chittick]] and [[Leonard Lewisohn (Islamic studies scholar)|Leonard Lewisohn]], all forms of love find their origin in divine love, with creation serving as a reflection of God's beauty and love. This perspective is evident in the poetry of [[Hafez]] and others, where the concept of [[tajalli]], or divine self-manifestation, underscores the profound spiritual significance of love as it pertains to both human relationships and devotion to God. [182] => [183] => ==Religious views== [184] => {{main|Religious views on love}} [185] => [186] => ===Abrahamic=== [187] => [[File:Ahava.jpg|thumb|[[Robert Indiana]]'s 1977 [[Love (sculpture)|''Love'' sculpture]] spelling {{transliteration|he|ahava}}]] [188] => [189] => ====Judaism==== [190] => {{see also|Jewish views on love}} [191] => In [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]], {{lang|he|אהבה}} (''ahavah'') signifies the love of Israelites for God and each other. However, the concept ''hesed'' offers a deeper understanding of love within Jewish thought and life. It goes beyond mere passion, embodying a character trait that is actively expressed through generosity and grace. ''Hesed'' has a dual nature: when attributed to God, it denotes grace or favor, while when practiced by humans, it reflects piety and devotion. [192] => [193] => ''Hasidim'', demonstrate their commitment and love for God through acts of ''hesed''. The [[Torah]] serves as a guide, outlining how Israelites should express their love for God, show reverence for nature, and demonstrate compassion toward fellow human beings. The commandment "Love thy neighbor as thyself" from the Torah's, gives emphasis on ethical obligations and impartiality in judgment. It highlights the importance of treating all individuals equally before the law, rejecting favoritism and bribery; [[deuteronomy]] further emphasizes impartiality in judgment.Goodman, Lenn Evan. ''Love Thy Neighbor as Thyself''. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press, 2008, 13. [194] => [195] => As for love between marital partners, this is deemed an essential ingredient to life: "See life with the wife you love" ([[Ecclesiastes]] {{Bibleverse|Ecclesiastes|9:9|nobook=yes}}). Rabbi [[David Wolpe]] writes that "love is not only about the feelings of the lover... It is when one person believes in another person and shows it." He further states that "love... is a feeling that expresses itself in action. What we really feel is reflected in what we do."{{cite web |last=Wolpe |first=David |url=https://time.com/4225777/meaning-of-love/ |title=We Are Defining Love the Wrong Way |magazine=[[Time (magazine)|Time]] |date=February 16, 2016 |access-date=February 14, 2019 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190226085614/http://time.com/4225777/meaning-of-love/ |archive-date=26 February 2019 }} The biblical book [[Song of Solomon]] is considered a romantically phrased metaphor of love between [[God]] and his people, but in its plain reading it reads like a love song. The 20th-century [[rabbi]] [[Eliyahu Eliezer Dessler]] is frequently quoted as defining love from the Jewish point of view as "giving without expecting to take".{{cite book | last=Dessler | first=Eliyahu | chapter=Kuntres ha-Chesed | title=Michtav me-Eliyahu | lang=he | volume=1}} [196] => [197] => ====Christianity==== [198] => [[File:Liebe und die Einbahnstraße - Lange Straße in Sebnitz - Bildimpression aus Sebnitz von einem Fotografen.jpg|thumb|Love and the One-way Street]] [199] => The Christian understanding is that love comes from [[God]], who is himself love ({{Bibleverse|1 John|4:8}}). The love of man and woman—{{transliteration|grc|eros}} in Greek—and the unselfish love of others ({{transliteration|grc|agape}}), are often contrasted as "descending" and "ascending" love, respectively, but are ultimately the same thing.{{cite web [200] => |url=https://www.vatican.va/content/benedict-xvi/en/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20051225_deus-caritas-est.html [201] => |author=Pope Benedict XVI [202] => |title=papal encyclical, Deus Caritas Est [203] => |access-date=11 June 2008 [204] => |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20111008152102/https://www.vatican.va/holy_father/benedict_xvi/encyclicals/documents/hf_ben-xvi_enc_20051225_deus-caritas-est_en.html [205] => |archive-date=8 October 2011 [206] => |url-status=live [207] => }} [208] => [209] => There are several Greek words for "love" that are regularly referred to in Christian circles. [210] => ; {{transliteration|grc|[[agape]]}}: In the [[New Testament]], {{transliteration|grc|agapē}} is charitable, selfless, altruistic, and unconditional. It is parental love, seen as creating goodness in the world; it is the way God is seen to love humanity, and it is seen as the kind of love that Christians aspire to have for one another.{{r|Nygren}} [211] => ; {{transliteration|grc|[[phileo]]}}: Also used in the New Testament, {{transliteration|grc|phileo}} is a human response to something that is found to be delightful. Also known as "brotherly love." [212] => Two other [[#Ancient Greek|words for love in the Greek language]], {{transliteration|grc|[[Eros (love)|eros]]}} (sexual love) and {{transliteration|grc|[[storge]]}} (child-to-parent love), were never used in the New Testament.{{r|Nygren}} [213] => [214] => [[Christianity|Christians]] believe that to ''love God with all your heart, mind, and strength'' and ''love your [[neighbourhood|neighbor]] as yourself'' are the two most important things in life (the [[Great Commandment|greatest commandment]] of the Jewish [[Torah]], according to [[Jesus]]; cf. [[Gospel of Mark]] {{Bibleverse|Mark|12:28–34|nobook=yes}}). [[Augustine of Hippo|Saint Augustine]] summarized this when he wrote "Love God, and do as thou wilt."{{citation|author=[[Augustine of Hippo]]|chapter=Homily 7 on the First Epistle of John|title=Homilies on First John|chapter-url=https://www.newadvent.org/fathers/170207.htm|publisher=New Advent|at=8|translator-first=H.|translator-last=Browne}} [215] => [216] => [[The Apostle Paul]] glorified love as the most important virtue of all. Describing love in the famous poetic interpretation in [[First Epistle to the Corinthians|1 Corinthians]], he wrote, "Love is patient, love is kind. It does not envy, it does not boast, it is not proud. It is not rude, it is not self-seeking, it is not easily angered, it keeps no record of wrongs. Love does not delight in evil but rejoices with the truth. It always protects, always trusts, always hopes, and always perseveres." ({{bibleverse|1 Corinthians|13:4–7|NIV}}) [217] => [218] => [[John the Apostle|The Apostle John]] wrote, "For God so loved the world that he gave his one and only Son, that whoever believes in him shall not perish but have eternal life. For God did not send his Son into the world to condemn the world, but to save the world through him." ([[Gospel of John|John]] {{bibleverse|John|3:16–17|niv|nobook=yes}}) John also wrote, "Dear friends, let us love one another for love comes from God. Everyone who loves has been born of God and knows God. Whoever does not love does not know God, because God is love." ({{bibleverse|1 John|4:7–8|NIV}}) [219] => [220] => [[Saint Augustine]] wrote that one must be able to decipher the difference between love and lust. Lust, according to Saint Augustine, is an overindulgence, but to love and be loved is what he has sought for his entire life. He even says, "I was in love with love."{{cn|date=August 2023}} Finally, he does fall in love and is loved back, by God. Saint Augustine says the only one who can love you truly and fully is God, because love with a human only allows for flaws such as "jealousy, suspicion, fear, anger, and contention."{{cite book|author=[[Augustine of Hippo]]|title=[[Confessions (Augustine)|Confessions]]}}{{rp|at=III.1}} According to Saint Augustine, to love God is "to attain the peace which is yours."{{r|Confessions|at=X.27}} [221] => [222] => Augustine regards the duplex commandment of love in {{Bibleverse|Matthew|22}} as the heart of Christian faith and the interpretation of the Bible. After the review of Christian doctrine, Augustine treats the problem of love in terms of use and enjoyment until the end of Book I of ''[[De Doctrina Christiana]]'' (1.22.21–1.40.44).{{cite journal | last=Woo | first=B. Hoon | title=Augustine's Hermeneutics and Homiletics in ''De doctrina christiana'' | journal=Journal of Christian Philosophy | year=2013 | volume=17 | url=https://www.academia.edu/5228314 | pages=97–117 | access-date=24 March 2014 | archive-date=26 March 2023 | archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230326032901/https://www.academia.edu/5228314 | url-status=live }} [223] => [224] => Christian [[Theology|theologians]] see God as the source of love, which is mirrored in humans and their own loving relationships. Influential Christian theologian [[C. S. Lewis]] wrote a book called ''[[The Four Loves]]''. [[Benedict XVI]] named his first [[encyclical]] ''[[Deus caritas est|God is love]]''. He said that a human being, created in the image of God, who is love, is able to practice love; to give himself to God and others ({{transliteration|grc|[[agape]]}}) and by receiving and experiencing God's love in contemplation ({{transliteration|grc|eros}}). This life of love, according to him, is the life of the saints such as [[Teresa of Calcutta]] and [[Mary, the mother of Jesus]] and is the direction Christians take when they believe that God loves them. [225] => [226] => [[File:Cristo crucificado.jpg|thumb|upright|Pope Francis: the "Cross ([[Crucifixion of Jesus|Jesus crucified]]) is the greatest meaning of the greatest love".{{cite web|last=McLellan|first=Justin|url=https://www.usccb.org/news/2023/do-you-cry-pope-asks-800000-young-people-wyd-so-does-jesus-he-says|title='Do you cry?' pope asks 800,000 young people at WYD; so does Jesus, he says|access-date=9 August 2023|archive-url=}}]] [227] => [[Pope Francis]] asserts that the "Cross ([[Crucifixion of Jesus|Jesus crucified]]) is the greatest meaning of the greatest love,"{{r|McLellan}} and in the crucifixion is found everything, all knowledge and the entirety of God's love.{{cite web|first=Hannah|last=Brockhaus|url=https://www.catholicnewsagency.com/news/44277/pope-francis-the-entirety-of-gods-love-is-found-in-the-crucifix|date=22 April 2020|title=Pope Francis: The entirety of God's love is found in the crucifix|access-date=9 August 2023|archive-url=}} Pope Francis taught that "True love is both loving and letting oneself be loved... what is important in love is not our loving, but allowing ourselves to be loved by God."{{cite web|author=[[Pope Francis]]|url=https://www.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2015/january/documents/papa-francesco_20150118_srilanka-filippine-incontro-giovani.html|location=Manila|title=Meeting with the young people in the sports field of Santo Tomas University|date=18 January 2015|website=w2.vatican.va|access-date=24 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180223111444/http://w2.vatican.va/content/francesco/en/speeches/2015/january/documents/papa-francesco_20150118_srilanka-filippine-incontro-giovani.html|archive-date=23 February 2018|url-status=live}} And so, in the analysis of a Catholic theologian, for Pope Francis, "the key to love... is not our activity. It is the activity of the greatest, and the source, of all the powers in the universe: God's."{{cite web|url=https://opinion.inquirer.net/82535/the-key-to-love-according-to-pope-francis|title=The key to love according to Pope Francis|first=Raul|last=Nidoy|date=13 February 2015|access-date=24 February 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180224115656/http://opinion.inquirer.net/82535/the-key-to-love-according-to-pope-francis|archive-date=24 February 2018|url-status=live}} [228] => [229] => In Christianity the practical definition of love is summarized by [[Thomas Aquinas]], who defined love as "to will the good of another," or to desire for another to succeed.{{r|newadvent.org}} This is an explanation of the Christian need to love others, including their enemies. Thomas Aquinas explains that Christian love is motivated by the need to see others succeed in life, to be good people. [230] => [231] => Regarding love for enemies, Jesus is quoted in the Gospel of Matthew: [232] => [233] => {{quote|You have heard that it was said, "Love your neighbor and hate your enemy." But I tell you, love your enemies and pray for those who persecute you, that you may be children of your Father in heaven. He causes his sun to rise on the evil and the good, and sends rain on the righteous and the unrighteous. If you love those who love you, what reward will you get? Are not even the tax collectors doing that? And if you greet only your own people, what are you doing more than others? Do not even pagans do that? Be perfect, therefore, as your heavenly Father is perfect.|{{bibleverse|Matthew|5:43–48}} }} [234] => [235] => [[Tertullian]] wrote regarding love for enemies: "Our individual, extraordinary, and perfect goodness consists in loving our enemies. To love one's friends is common practice, to love one's enemies only among Christians."{{citation|author=Tertulliam|title=Ad Scapulam|url=https://www.tertullian.org/works/ad_scapulam.htm|volume=I}} [236] => [237] => ====Islam==== [238] => [[File:الودود.jpg|thumb|200px|alt=Al-Wadūd or The Loving is a name of God in Islam.|In Islam, one of the 99 names of God is {{Nowrap|''Al-Wadūd''}}, which means "The Loving".]] [239] => Love encompasses the Islamic view of life as universal brotherhood that applies to all who hold faith. Among the 99 names of God ([[Allah]]) is the name ''Al-Wadud'', or "the Loving One," which is found in [[Surah]] {{qref|11|90|pl=y}} and {{qref|85|14|pl=y}}. God is also referenced at the beginning of every chapter in the Qur'an as ''Ar-Rahman'' and ''Ar-Rahim'', or the "Most Compassionate" and the "Most Merciful", indicating that nobody is more loving, compassionate, and benevolent than God. The [[Qur'an]] refers to God as being "full of loving kindness." [240] => [241] => The Qur'an exhorts Muslim believers to treat {{clarify|text=all people, those who have not persecuted them|reason=which is it?|date=August 2023}}, with {{transliteration|ar|birr}} or "deep kindness" as stated in Surah {{qref|6|8-9|pl=y}}. {{transliteration|ar|Birr}} is also used by the Qur'an to describe the love and kindness that children must show to their parents. [242] => [243] => {{transliteration|ar|[[Ishq]]}}, or divine love, is emphasized by [[Sufism]] in the Islamic tradition. Practitioners of Sufism believe that love is a projection of the essence of God into the universe. God desires to recognize beauty, and as if one looks at a mirror to see oneself, God "looks" at himself within the dynamics of nature. Since everything is a reflection of God, the school of Sufism practices seeing the beauty inside the apparently ugly. Sufism is often referred to as the religion of love.{{cite book|last=Lewisohn|first=Leonard|title=Cambridge Companions to Religion|year=2014|location=Cambridge|publisher=Cambridge University Press|pages=150–180}} God in Sufism is referred to in three main terms—Lover, Loved, and Beloved—with the last of these terms often seen in Sufi poetry. A common viewpoint of Sufism is that through love, humankind can return to its inherent purity and grace. The saints of Sufism are infamous for being "drunk" due to their [[love of God]]; hence, the constant reference to wine in Sufi poetry and music. [244] => [245] => ====Bahá'í Faith==== [246] => The Bahá'í concept of the human soul emphasizes its expression through capacities such as knowledge, love, and will. According to Bahá'í teachings, conscious recognition of one's Creator and a reciprocal love relationship with that Creator form the basis of obedience to religious law. This perspective grounds adherence to law within the spiritual dynamics of each individual's journey, portraying obedience as a conscious choice driven by love rather than as mere compliance with external dictates.{{Cite journal |last=Danesh |first=Roshan |date=2014-06-01 |title=Some Reflections on the Concept of Law in the Bahá’í Faith |url=https://journal.bahaistudies.ca/online/article/view/161 |journal=The Journal of Bahá’í Studies |language=en |volume=24 |issue=1-2 |pages=27–46 |doi=10.31581/jbs-24.1-2.3(2014) |issn=2563-755X}} [247] => [248] => [[Baháʼu'lláh]], the founder of the Bahá'í Faith, emphasizes the importance of observing God's commandments out of love, describing them as "the lamps of My loving providence" and urging followers to adhere to them for "the love of My beauty." This framing positions love as the motive force for individuals striving to follow divine laws. In Bahá'í understanding, love is considered the fundamental universal law. [[ʻAbdu'l-Bahá]], Bahá'u'lláh's son and successor, describes love as the "most great law" and the force that binds together the diverse elements of the material world. He further asserts that love is the establisher of true civilization and the source of glory for every race and nation. [249] => [250] => From the Bahá'í perspective, God's revelation of laws to humanity is an act of love, and the legitimate reason for their application and adherence lies in their expression of love. This understanding underscores the intimate connection between spiritual principles, individual growth, and the practice of religious law within the Bahá'í Faith. [251] => [252] => ===Dharmic=== [253] => ====Buddhism==== [254] => {{citation needed section|date=August 2023}} [255] => In [[Buddhism]], {{transliteration|sa|[[kāma]]}} is sensuous, sexual love. It is an obstacle on the path to [[enlightenment (Buddhism)|enlightenment]], since it is selfish. {{transliteration|sa|[[Karuṇā]]}} is compassion and mercy, which reduces the suffering of others. It is complementary to wisdom and is necessary for enlightenment. {{transliteration|sa|[[Adveṣa]]}} and {{transliteration|pi|[[mettā]]}} are benevolent love. This love is unconditional and requires considerable self-acceptance. This is quite different from ordinary love, which is usually about attachment and sex and which rarely occurs without self-interest. Instead, in Buddhism love refers to detachment and unselfish interest in others' welfare. [256] => [257] => The [[Bodhisattva]] ideal in Mahayana Buddhism involves the complete renunciation of oneself in order to take on the burden of a suffering world. [258] => [259] => ====Hinduism==== [260] => {{Main|Kama|Kama Sutra}} [261] => [262] => [[File:Kama Rati sculpture at the group of monuments at Belur, Hassan, Karnataka, India (2009).jpg|thumb|upright|Kama (left) with Rati on a temple wall of [[Chennakeshava Temple, Belur|Chennakesava Temple]], [[Belur, Karnataka|Belur]]]] [263] => In [[Hinduism]], {{transliteration|sa|[[kāma]]}} is pleasurable, sexual love, personified by the god [[Kamadeva]]. For many Hindu schools, it is the third end ({{transliteration|sa|Kama}}) in life. Kamadeva is often pictured holding a bow of [[sugar cane]] and an arrow of flowers; he may ride upon a great parrot.{{relevance inline|date=August 2023}} He is usually accompanied by his consort [[Rati]] and his companion Vasanta, lord of the spring season.{{relevance inline|date=August 2023}} Stone images of [[Kamadeva]] and Rati can be seen on the door of the [[Chennakeshava Temple, Belur]], in [[Karnataka]], [[India]].{{relevance inline|date=August 2023}} ''Maara'' is another name for {{transliteration|sa|kāma}}.{{cn|date=August 2023}} [264] => [265] => In contrast to {{transliteration|sa|kāma}}, {{transliteration|sa|prema}}—or {{transliteration|sa|prem}}efers to elevated love. {{transliteration|sa|[[Karuṇā]]}} is compassion and mercy, which impels one to help reduce the suffering of others. {{transliteration|sa|[[Bhakti]]}} is a [[Sanskrit]] term meaning "loving devotion to the supreme God." A person who practices {{transliteration|sa|bhakti}} is called a {{transliteration|sa|bhakta}}. Hindu writers, theologians, and philosophers have distinguished nine forms of {{transliteration|sa|bhakti}}, which can be found in the ''[[Bhagavata Purana]]'' and works by [[Tulsidas]]. The philosophical work ''[[Narada Bhakti Sutra]]'', written by an unknown author (presumed to be [[Narada]]), distinguishes eleven forms of love. [266] => [267] => In certain [[Vaishnava]] sects within [[Hinduism]], attaining unadulterated, unconditional, and incessant love for the Godhead is considered the foremost goal of life. Gaudiya Vaishnavas who worship Krishna as the Supreme Personality of Godhead and the cause of all causes consider Love for Godhead ({{transliteration|sa|Prema}}) to act in two ways: {{transliteration|sa|sambhoga}} and {{transliteration|sa|vipralambha}} (union and separation)—two opposites.{{cite web|url=https://www.facebook.com/note.php?note_id=10150168632408280|author=Gour Govinda Swami|title=The Wonderful Characteristic of Krishna Prema|website=[[Facebook]]|access-date=7 January 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20121129064142/https://www.facebook.com/note.php?note_id=10150168632408280|archive-date=29 November 2012|url-status=live}} [268] => [269] => In the condition of separation, there is an acute yearning for being with the beloved and in the condition of union, there is supreme happiness and {{clarify|text=nectarean|reason=nectarean what? (it's an adjective)|date=August 2023}}. Gaudiya Vaishnavas consider that Krishna-prema (Love for Godhead) burns away one's material desires, pierces the heart, and washes away everything—one's pride, one's religious rules, and one's shyness. Krishna-prema is considered to make one drown in the ocean of transcendental ecstasy and pleasure. The love of Radha, a cowherd girl, for Krishna is often cited as the supreme example of love for Godhead by Gaudiya Vaishnavas. [[Radha]] is considered to be the internal potency of [[Krishna]], and is the supreme lover of Godhead. Her example of love is considered to be beyond the understanding of material realm as it surpasses any form of selfish love or lust that is visible in the material world. The reciprocal love between [[Radha]] (the supreme lover) and [[Krishna]] (God as the Supremely Loved) is the subject of many poetic compositions in [[India]] such as the ''[[Gita Govinda]]'' of [[Jayadeva]] and ''Hari Bhakti Shuddhodhaya.'' [270] => [271] => In the {{transliteration|sa|Bhakti}} tradition within [[Hinduism]], it is believed that execution of devotional service to God leads to the development of Love for God ({{transliteration|bn|taiche bhakti-phale krsne prema upajaya}}), and as love for God increases in the heart, the more one becomes free from material contamination ({{transliteration|bn|krishna-prema asvada haile, bhava nasa paya}}). Being perfectly in love with God or Krishna makes one perfectly free from material contamination, and this is the ultimate way of salvation or liberation. In this tradition, salvation or liberation is considered inferior to love, and just an incidental by-product. Being absorbed in Love for God is considered to be the perfection of life.{{cite web|url=https://www.prabhupadanugas.eu/news/?p=23368|author=A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami|title=Perfectly in Krishna Love|date=29 November 1966|access-date=7 January 2012|archive-url=http://arquivo.pt/wayback/20141123025652/http%3A//www.prabhupadanugas.eu/?p%3D23368|archive-date=23 November 2014|url-status=live}} [272] => [273] => ==Political views== [274] => [275] => ===Free love=== [276] => {{Main|Free love}} [277] => The term "free love" has been used{{cite book|title=Hand-book of the Oneida Community|url=https://library.syracuse.edu/digital/collections/h/Hand-bookOfTheOneidaCommunity/|year=1867|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100613152552/http://library.syr.edu/digital/collections/h/Hand-bookOfTheOneidaCommunity/ |archive-date=13 June 2010 }} Claims to have coined the term around 1850, and laments that its use was appropriated by [[socialist]]s to attack marriage, an institution that they felt protected women and children from abandonment.{{page needed|date=August 2023}} to describe a [[social movement]] that rejects [[marriage]], which is seen as a form of social bondage. The free love movement's initial goal was to separate the state from sexual matters such as marriage, [[birth control]], and [[adultery]]. It claimed that such issues were the concern of the people involved, and no one else.{{cite journal | last1 = McElroy | first1 = Wendy | year = 1996 | title = The Free Love Movement and Radical Individualism | journal = Libertarian Enterprise | volume = 19 | page = 1 }} [278] => [279] => Many people in the early 19th century believed that marriage was an important aspect of life to "fulfill earthly human happiness."{{Cite web |title=Free love - Connexipedia article |url=https://www.connexions.org/CxLibrary/Docs/CxP-Free_Love.htm |access-date=2024-01-20 |website=www.connexions.org}} Middle-class Americans wanted the home to be a place of stability in an uncertain world. This mentality created a vision of strongly defined gender roles, which provoked the advancement of the free love movement as a contrast.{{cite book|last=Spurlock|first=John C.|title=Free Love, Marriage, and Middle-Class Radicalism in America|location=New York|publisher=New York University Press|year=1988}} [280] => [281] => Advocates of free love had two strong beliefs: opposition to the idea of forceful sexual activity in a relationship and advocacy for a woman to use her body in any way that she pleases.{{cite book|last=Passet|first=Joanne E.|title=Sex Radicals and the Quest for Women's Equality|location=Chicago|publisher=University of Illinois Press|year=2003}} These are also beliefs of [[feminism]].{{Citation | title= Love's Lessons: Intimacy, Pedagogy and Political Community | first1= Timothy | last1= Laurie | first2= Hannah | last2= Stark | journal= Angelaki: Journal of the Theoretical Humanities | volume= 22 | issue= 4 | pages= 69–79 | year= 2017 | url= https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/0969725X.2017.1406048 | doi= 10.1080/0969725x.2017.1406048 | s2cid= 149182610 | access-date= 3 January 2018 | archive-date= 21 February 2023 | archive-url= https://web.archive.org/web/20230221024035/https://www.academia.edu/35349930 | url-status= live }} [282] => [283] => ==Philosophical views== [284] => {{Main|Philosophy of love}} [285] => Philosophically, there four types of love that are distinguished: love as a union; love as robust concern; love as valuing; and love as an emotion. Love as a union suggests that love involves the formation of a union between the two individuals, creating a "we". [[Roger Scruton]] and [[Mark Fisher]] emphasize the union of concerns, where the distinction between the lover's different interests dissapears and a new shared care and concern emerges. [[Robert C. Solomon]] views love as a literal fusion between the two individuals, resulting in a shared identity and mutual definition. [[Robert Nozick]] argues that love creates a new "we" through the pooling of well-being and autonomy, as well as the adoption of a joint identity. Critics argue that love as a union undermines individual autonomy and the lovers become unintelligible. However, Nozick and Fisher claim that this loss is a desirable aspect of love. [[Michael Friedman (philosopher)|Michael Friedman]] proposes a federation model, where love creates a new unified entity without erasing individual identities, thus allowing for the concern for the beloved's sake. [286] => [[File:Edvard Munch - The Kiss - Google Art Project.jpg|200px|right|thumbnail|[[The Kiss (Munch)|The Kiss]], a painting by [[Edvard Munch]], shows a couple kissing, their faces fusing as one in a symbolic representation of their unity]] [287] => Love as a robust concern posits that love is primarily defined by caring about the beloved's sake, without creating a "we" or any type of union between the lovers. This perspective emphasizes the willing aspect of love, where one's desire and motivations are shaped by concern for the beloved's well-being. Critics of this view argue that the definition is too passive, in the sense that the conception of the beloved overlooks the interactive nature of love, as well as the emotional responsiveness to the beloved. However, defenders argue that promoting the beloved's well-being requires respecting their autonomy and emotional responses. Furthermore, critics claim that the robust concern focus solely on desires and concerns for the beloved's welfare, making it too strict of a definition. Defenders counter that the desire for the beloved's well being is an essential aspect to love. [[Monique wonderly|Monique Wonderly]] suggests that the concept of attachment can complement the robust concern view, capturing the idea that the beloved is not only important for their own sake but also to the lover. [288] => [289] => Love as valuing has two main approaches: love as appraisal of value and love as bestowal of value. [[J. David Velleman]] proposes that the former involves acknowledging and responding uniquely to the value of the beloved. [[Kantianism|Kantian]] distinctions are drawn between dignity and price, dignity being that the value of something is not comparable, and price being that it is comparable; thus people possess dignity due to their rational nature. Love, on this view, responds to the dignity of persons, but it differs from respect in that it disarms emotional defenses, making one vulnerable to the beloved. However, critics argue that Velleman's account struggles to explain the selectivity and constancy of love, as well as the role of emotions in appraisal. [[Peter Singer]] claims that love as a bestowal of value involves bestowing intrisic value upon the beloved. Unlike appraisal, which responds to pre-existing value, bestowal creates value in the beloved. Singer argues that love is non-teleological and cannot be justified, but rather involves attachment and commitment to the beloved. However, critics question how bestowal accounts for the selectivity of love and its discerning nature. [290] => [291] => Finally, love as an emotion is divided in two perspectives: love as emotion proper and love as emotion complex. The former sees love as a particular motivational response to an object, similar to other emotions. However, critics argue that defining love solely as an emotion oversimplifies its nature. [[James Robert Brown]] suggests that love evaluates the beloved as worthwhile, but this perspective fails to capture the complexity of love compared to other evaluative responses like admiration or respect, according to critics. Love as emotion complex understands love as a complex emotional attitude towards another person, involving historical patterns concerning of one's emotional responsiveness to the beloved. It emphasizes the dynamic nature of love, where ther lover's identity is continually transformed by loving the beloved. Emotional responses are interconnected and tied to the historical narrative of the relationship. [[Annette Baier]] and [[Neera K. Badhwar]] emphasize emotional interdependence, while [[Paul Helm]] suggests that love involves intimate identification, where sharing the values of the beloved is central. Critics argue that these views don't answer how to distinguish loving relationship from other relationships and what constitues the characteristic narrative history of love. [292] => [293] => == Literature depictions == [294] => [[File:Romeo_and_Juliet_(watercolour)_by_Ford_Maddox_Brown.jpg|thumb|292x292px|''Romeo and Juliet'', depicted as they part on the balcony in Act III, 1867 by [[Ford Madox Brown]]]] [295] => {{Empty section|date=May 2023}} [296] => [297] => ==See also== [298] => * {{annotated link|[[Color wheel theory of love]]}} [299] => * {{annotated link|[[Finger heart]]}} [300] => * {{annotated link|[[Hand heart]]}} [301] => * {{annotated link|[[Heart in hand]]}} [302] => * {{annotated link|[[Human bonding]]}} [303] => * {{annotated link|[[ILY sign]]}} [304] => * {{annotated link|[[Love at first sight]]}} [305] => * {{annotated link|[[Love-in]]}} [306] => * {{annotated link|[[Pair bond]]}} [307] => * {{annotated link|[[Polyamory]]}} [308] => * {{annotated link|[[Relationship science]]}} [309] => * {{annotated link|[[Romance (love)]]}} [310] => * {{annotated link|[[Self-love]]}} [311] => * {{annotated link|[[Social connection]]}} [312] => * Traditional forms, [[Agape]], [[Philia]], [[Philautia]], [[Storge (familial love)|Storge]], [[Eros (concept)|Eros]]: Greek terms for [[Greek words for love|love]] [313] => [314] => ==References== [315] => {{Reflist}} [316] => [317] => ==Sources== [318] => {{Refbegin|30em}} [319] => * {{cite book |last=Chadwick|first=Henry|title=Saint Augustine Confessions|location=Oxford|publisher=Oxford University Press|year=1998|isbn=978-0-19-283372-3}} [320] => * {{cite book|last=Fisher|first=Helen|title=Why We Love: the Nature and Chemistry of Romantic Love|isbn=978-0-8050-6913-6|year=2004|url=https://archive.org/details/whywelove00hele|publisher=New York : H. Holt}} [321] => * {{cite journal |author=Giles, James|title=A theory of love and sexual desire|year=1994|journal=Journal for the Theory of Social Behaviour|volume=24|pages=339–357|doi=10.1111/j.1468-5914.1994.tb00259.x|issue=4}} [322] => * {{cite book |last=Kierkegaard|first=Søren|title=Works of Love|location=New York|publisher=Harper Perennial Modern Classics|year=2009|isbn=978-0-06-171327-9}} [323] => * {{cite book |last=Oord|first=Thomas Jay|title=Defining Love: A Philosophical, Scientific, and Theological Engagement|location=Grand Rapids, MI|publisher=Brazos|year=2010|isbn=978-1-58743-257-6}} [324] => * {{cite book|last=Singer|first=Irving|title=The Nature of Love|volume=(in three volumes)|publisher=Random House|year=1966|edition=v.1 reprinted and later volumes from The University of Chicago Press, 1984|isbn=978-0-226-76094-0|url=https://archive.org/details/natureoflove0000sing}} [325] => * {{cite journal |author=Sternberg, R.J.|title=A triangular theory of love|year=1986|journal=Psychological Review|volume=93|pages=119–135|doi=10.1037/0033-295X.93.2.119|issue=2}} [326] => * {{cite journal |author=Sternberg, R.J.|title=Liking versus loving: A comparative evaluation of theories|year=1987|journal=Psychological Bulletin|volume=102|pages=331–345|doi=10.1037/0033-2909.102.3.331|issue=3}} [327] => * {{cite book|last=Tennov|first=Dorothy|title=Love and Limerence: the Experience of Being in Love|location=New York|publisher=Stein and Day|year=1979|isbn=978-0-8128-6134-1|url=https://archive.org/details/lovelimerenceexp00tenn}} [328] => * {{cite book|author=Wood Samuel E., Ellen Wood and Denise Boyd|title=The World of Psychology|edition=5th|year=2005|publisher=Pearson Education|pages=[https://archive.org/details/masteringworldof00wood/page/402 402–403]|isbn=978-0-205-35868-7|url=https://archive.org/details/masteringworldof00wood/page/402}} [329] => {{Refend}} [330] => [331] => ==Further reading== [332] => * {{cite book |editor=Bayer, A| title= Art and love in Renaissance Italy | location=New York | publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art | year=2008 | url= http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/ref/collection/p15324coll10/id/53033}} [333] => [334] => ==External links== [335] => {{sister project links|d=Q316|v=Have a Happy Relationship|voy=no|m=no|mw=no|species=no|n=no|b=no|c=Category:Love}} [336] => * [http://www.iep.utm.edu/love-his/ History of Love], ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' [337] => * {{Curlie|Society/Relationships/Friendship/|Friendship}} [338] => * {{Curlie|Society/Philanthropy/|Philanthropy}} [339] => * {{Curlie|Society/Relationships/Romance/|Romance}} [340] => [341] => {{emotion-footer}} [342] => {{Interpersonal relationships footer}} [343] => {{Virtues}} [344] => [345] => {{Authority control}} [346] => [347] => [[Category:Love| ]] [348] => [[Category:Emotions]] [349] => [[Category:Concepts in ethics]] [350] => [[Category:Fruit of the Holy Spirit]] [351] => [[Category:Personal life]] [352] => [[Category:Virtue]] [353] => [[Category:Mental states]] [] => )
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Love

Love is a complex set of emotions, behaviors, and beliefs associated with affection, intimacy, and care. It is a universal human experience, and one of the most powerful and fundamental emotions.

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It is a universal human experience, and one of the most powerful and fundamental emotions. Love can be directed towards a romantic partner, family member, friend, pet, or even an inanimate object or idea. It encompasses a wide range of feelings, from deep attachment and immense joy to intense longing and heartbreak. Love is often categorized into different types, including passionate love, compassionate love, and companionate love. Passionate love is characterized by intense feelings of desire and attraction, often associated with the early stages of a romantic relationship. Compassionate love involves caring for and supporting others, and is often found in long-term committed relationships. Companionate love refers to the deep bond and friendship between individuals, often seen in long-term friendships or between family members. The concept of love has been explored and analyzed by various fields of study, including psychology, philosophy, and sociology. Many theories have been proposed to explain the nature of love, such as the triangular theory of love by psychologist Robert Sternberg, which posits that love is composed of three components: intimacy, passion, and commitment. Love has a profound impact on individuals and society as a whole. It has the ability to bring people together, foster connection and empathy, and provide a sense of meaning and purpose. Love plays a significant role in personal relationships, influencing attraction, mate selection, and relationship satisfaction. It also has a profound impact on physical and mental health, with research suggesting that experiencing love and being in a loving relationship can have numerous benefits. Throughout history, love has been celebrated and depicted in various forms of art, literature, and music. Love stories are an enduring and popular theme in literature, and romantic love has been idealized and romanticized in countless works of art. Love songs are a staple of popular music, with artists expressing their feelings of love and longing through lyrics and melodies. Despite its universal appeal, love can also be a source of emotional pain and suffering. Heartbreak, unrequited love, and loss are common experiences associated with love. Love can also be complicated by factors such as jealousy, possessiveness, and conflicts in values or expectations. In conclusion, love is a complex and powerful emotion that shapes our lives and relationships. It is a universal human experience that has been explored and celebrated throughout history. Love can bring joy and fulfillment, but also heartbreak and pain. Understanding and navigating love is a central part of the human experience.

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