Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Medical study concerned with the kidneys}} [1] => {{More citations needed|date=June 2022}} [2] => {{Infobox medical speciality [3] => | title = Nephrology [4] => | subdivisions = [5] => | image = [[File:KidneyStructures PioM.svg|250px]] [6] => | caption = A human kidney (click on image for description). [7] => | system = [[Urinary system|Urinary]] [8] => | diseases = [[Hypertension]], [[Kidney cancer]] [9] => | tests = [[Renal biopsy|Kidney biopsy]], [[Urinalysis]] [10] => | specialist = Nephrologist [11] => | glossary = [[Glossary of medicine]] [12] => }} [13] => {{Infobox Occupation [14] => | name= Nephrologist [15] => | image= [16] => | caption= [17] => | official_names= [18] => * Physician [19] => | type= [[Specialty (medicine)|Specialty]] [20] => | activity_sector= [[Medicine]] [21] => | competencies= [22] => | formation= [23] => * [[Doctor of Medicine]] (M.D.) [24] => * [[Doctor of Osteopathic medicine]] (D.O.) [25] => * [[Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery]] (M.B.B.S.) [26] => * [[Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery]] (MBChB) [27] => | employment_field= [[Hospital]]s, [[Clinic]]s [28] => | related_occupation= [29] => }} [30] => '''Nephrology''' (from [[Ancient Greek|Greek]]'' nephros'' "[[kidney]]", combined with the suffix ''-logy'', "the study of") is a [[Specialty (medicine)|specialty]] for both adult [[internal medicine]] and [[pediatric]] medicine that concerns the study of the [[kidney]]s, specifically normal [[renal function|kidney function]] ([[renal physiology]]) and [[kidney disease]] (renal pathophysiology), the preservation of kidney health, and the treatment of kidney disease, from diet and medication to [[renal replacement therapy]] ([[Kidney dialysis|dialysis]] and [[kidney transplantation]]). The word "[[renal]]" is an adjective meaning "relating to the kidneys", and its roots are French or late Latin. Whereas according to some opinions, "renal" and "nephro" should be replaced with "kidney" in scientific writings such as "kidney medicine" (instead of '''nephrology''') or "kidney replacement therapy", other experts have advocated preserving the use of [[renal]] and nephro as appropriate including in "nephrology" and "renal replacement therapy", respectively.{{cite journal | title=Nomenclature in nephrology: preserving 'renal' and 'nephro' in the glossary of kidney health and disease. |journal=J. Nephrol. |volume=34|date=Mar 13, 2021 |pmid=33713333 |doi=10.1007/s40620-021-01011-3 |pmc=8192439 |last1=Kalantar-Zadeh |first1=Kamyar |last2=McCullough |first2=Peter A. |last3=Agarwal |first3=Sanjay Kumar |last4=Beddhu |first4=Srinivasan |last5=Boaz |first5=Mona |last6=Bruchfeld |first6=Annette |last7=Chauveau |first7=Philippe |last8=Chen |first8=Jing |last9=De Sequera |first9=Patricia |last10=Gedney |first10=Nieltje |last11=Golper |first11=Thomas A. |last12=Gupta |first12=Malini |last13=Harris |first13=Tess |last14=Hartwell |first14=Lori |last15=Liakopoulos |first15=Vassilios |last16=Kopple |first16=Joel D. |last17=Kovesdy |first17=Csaba P. |last18=MacDougall |first18=Iain C. |last19=Mann |first19=Johannes F. E. |last20=Molony |first20=Donald |last21=Norris |first21=Keith C. |last22=Perlmutter |first22=Jeffrey |last23=Rhee |first23=Connie M. |last24=Riella |first24=Leonardo V. |last25=Weisbord |first25=Steven D. |last26=Zoccali |first26=Carmine |last27=Goldsmith |first27=David |issue=3 |pages=639–648 }} [31] => [32] => Nephrology also studies [[systemic disease|systemic]] conditions that affect the kidneys, such as [[diabetes]] and [[autoimmune disease]]; and systemic diseases that occur as a result of kidney disease, such as [[renal osteodystrophy]] and [[hypertension]]. A physician who has undertaken additional training and become certified in nephrology is called a ''nephrologist''. [33] => [34] => The term "nephrology" was first used in about 1960, according to the French "néphrologie" proposed by Pr. Jean Hamburger in 1953, from the Greek {{lang|el|νεφρός}} / nephrós (kidney). Before then, the specialty was usually referred to as "kidney medicine".''[https://www.science.org.au/learning/general-audience/history/interviews-australian-scientists/professor-priscilla-kincaid-smith Professor Priscilla Kincaid-Smith, nephrologist]'', [[Australian Academy of Science]], Interview by Dr Max Blythe in 1998. [35] => [36] => ==Scope== [37] => Nephrology concerns the diagnosis and treatment of kidney diseases, including [[electrolyte disturbance]]s and [[hypertension]], and the care of those requiring [[renal replacement therapy]], including [[Kidney dialysis|dialysis]] and [[renal transplant]] patients.{{cite web|title=Nephrology Specialty Description|publisher=American Medical Association|url=https://www.ama-assn.org/specialty/nephrology-specialty-description}}{{cite web|title=Nephrology|publisher=American College of Physicians|url=https://www.acponline.org/about-acp/about-internal-medicine/subspecialties/nephrology}} The word 'dialysis' is from the mid-19th century: via Latin from the Greek word 'dialusis'; from 'dialuein' (split, separate), from 'dia' (apart) and 'luein' (set free). In other words, dialysis replaces the primary (excretory) function of the kidney, which separates (and removes) excess toxins and water from the blood, placing them in the urine.{{Cite web |date=2017-10-19 |title=Dialysis |url=https://www.nhs.uk/conditions/dialysis/what-happens/ |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=nhs.uk |language=en}} [38] => [39] => Many diseases affecting the kidney are systemic disorders not limited to the organ itself, and may require special treatment. Examples include acquired conditions such as systemic vasculitides (e.g. ANCA vasculitis) and [[autoimmune diseases]] (e.g. [[Lupus erythematosus|lupus]]), as well as [[Congenital nephrotic syndrome|congenital]] or genetic conditions such as [[polycystic kidney disease]].{{Cite web |date=2021-11-17 |title=Kidney failure (ESRD) - Symptoms, causes and treatment options {{!}} American Kidney Fund |url=https://www.kidneyfund.org/all-about-kidneys/kidney-failure-symptoms-and-causes |access-date=2022-09-14 |website=www.kidneyfund.org |language=en}} [40] => [41] => Patients are referred to nephrology specialists after a urinalysis, for various reasons, such as [[acute kidney injury]], [[chronic kidney disease]], [[hematuria]], [[proteinuria]], [[kidney stone]]s, [[hypertension]], and disorders of acid/base or [[electrolyte]]s.{{Cite web |date=2021-09-15 |title=5 Reasons Why You May be Referred to a Nephrologist - Durham Nephrology Associates, PA |url=https://www.durhamnephrology.com/5-reasons-why-you-may-be-referred-to-a-nephrologist/ |access-date=2022-09-13 |language=en-US}} [42] => [43] => ==Nephrologist== [44] => A nephrologist is a [[physician]] who specializes in the care and treatment of kidney disease. Nephrology requires additional training to become an [[expert]] with advanced skills. Nephrologists may provide care to people without kidney problems and may work in [[general medicine|general/internal medicine]], [[organ transplant|transplant medicine]], [[immunosuppression|immunosuppression management]], [[intensive care|intensive care medicine]], [[clinical pharmacology]], [[perioperative medicine]], or pediatric nephrology.{{Cite journal |date=2003-07-01 |title=International Society of Nephrology |url=https://www.kidney-international.org/article/S0085-2538(15)49342-1/abstract |journal=Kidney International |language=English |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=387–389 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.t01-7-00001.x |issn=0085-2538|doi-access=free }} [45] => [46] => Nephrologists may further sub-specialise in [[Kidney dialysis|dialysis]], [[Organ transplant|kidney transplantation]], home therapies (home dialysis), cancer-related kidney diseases ([[Onconephrology|onco-nephrology]]), structural kidney diseases (uro-nephrology), procedural nephrology or other non-nephrology areas as described above. [47] => [48] => Procedures a nephrologist may perform include native kidney and transplant [[renal biopsy|kidney biopsy]], [[Kidney dialysis|dialysis]] access insertion (temporary vascular access lines, tunnelled vascular access lines, peritoneal dialysis access lines), [[fistula]] management ([[angiogram|angiographic]] or surgical fistulogram and plasty), and [https://www.nlm.nih.gov/medlineplus/ency/article/003923.htm bone biopsy]. Bone biopsies are now unusual. [49] => [50] => ===Training=== [51] => '''India''' [52] => [53] => To become a nephrologist in India, one has to complete an [[MBBS]] (5 and 1/2 years) degree, followed by an [[Doctor of Medicine|MD]]/[[Diplomate of National Board|DNB]] (3 years) either in medicine or paediatrics, followed by a [[Doctor of Medicine|DM]]/DNB (3 years) course in either nephrology or paediatric nephrology. [54] => [55] => ====Australia and New Zealand==== [56] => Nephrology training in Australia and New Zealand typically includes completion of a medical degree ([[Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery]]: 4–6 years), [[Internship (medicine)|internship]] (1 year), Basic Physician Training (3 years minimum), successful completion of the [[Royal Australasian College of Physicians]] written and clinical examinations, and Advanced Physician Training in Nephrology (3 years). The training pathway is overseen and accredited by the Royal Australasian College of Physicians, though the application process varies across states. Completion of a post-graduate degree (usually a [[PhD]]) in a nephrology research interest (3–4 years) is optional but increasingly common. Finally, many Australian and New Zealand nephrologists participate in career-long professional and personal development through bodies such as the Australian and New Zealand Society of Nephrology and the Transplant Society of Australia and New Zealand. [57] => [58] => ====United Kingdom==== [59] => In the United Kingdom, nephrology (often called renal medicine) is a subspecialty of general medicine. A nephrologist has completed medical school, foundation year posts (FY1 and FY2) and [[core medical training]] (CMT), specialist training (ST) and passed the [[Membership of the Royal College of Physicians]] (MRCP) exam before competing for a National Training Number (NTN) in renal medicine. The typical Specialty Training (when they are called a registrar, or an ST) is five years and leads to a [[Certificate of Completion of Training]] (CCT) in both renal medicine and general (internal) medicine. In those five years, they usually rotate yearly between hospitals in a region (known as a deanery). They are then accepted on to the Specialist Register of the General Medical Council (GMC). Specialty trainees often interrupt their clinical training to obtain research degrees (MD/PhD). After achieving CCT, the registrar (ST) may apply for a permanent post as Consultant in Renal Medicine. Subsequently, some Consultants practice nephrology alone. Others work in this area, and in Intensive Care (ICU), or General (Internal) or Acute Medicine. [60] => [61] => ====United States==== [62] => Nephrology training can be accomplished through one of two routes. The first path way is through an internal medicine pathway leading to an Internal Medicine/Nephrology specialty, and sometimes known as "adult nephrology". The second pathway is through [[Pediatrics]] leading to a speciality in Pediatric Nephrology. In the [[United States]], after [[medical school]] adult nephrologists complete a three-year [[residency (medicine)|residency]] in internal medicine followed by a two-year (or longer) [[fellowship (medicine)|fellowship]] in nephrology. Complementary to an adult nephrologist, a pediatric nephrologist will complete a three-year pediatric residency after medical school or a four-year Combined Internal Medicine and Pediatrics residency. This is followed by a three-year fellowship in Pediatric Nephrology. Once training is satisfactorily completed, the physician is eligible to take the [[American Board of Internal Medicine]] (ABIM) or [[American Osteopathic Board of Internal Medicine]] (AOBIM) nephrology examination. Nephrologists must be approved by one of these boards. To be approved, the physician must fulfill the requirements for education and training in nephrology in order to qualify to take the board's examination. If a physician passes the examination, then he or she can become a nephrology specialist. Typically, nephrologists also need two to three years of training in an [[ACGME]] or [[American Osteopathic Association|AOA]] accredited fellowship in nephrology. Nearly all programs train nephrologists in [[Hemofiltration|continuous renal replacement therapy]]; fewer than half in the United States train in the provision of [[plasmapheresis]].{{cite journal|author=Berns JS|author2=O'Neill WC|title=Performance of procedures by nephrologists and nephrology fellows at U.S. nephrology training programs|journal=Clin J Am Soc Nephrol|volume=3|issue=4|pages=941–7|date=2008|pmid=18417748|doi=10.2215/CJN.00490108|pmc=2440278}} Only pediatric trained physicians are able to train in pediatric nephrology, and internal medicine (adult) trained physicians may enter general (adult) nephrology fellowships. [63] => [64] => ==Diagnosis== [65] => [[History]] and [[physical examination]] are central to the diagnostic workup in nephrology. The history typically includes the present illness, family history, general medical history, diet, medication use, drug use and occupation. The physical examination typically includes an assessment of volume state, blood pressure, heart, lungs, peripheral arteries, joints, abdomen and [[Latus (anatomy)|flank]]. A rash may be relevant too, especially as an indicator of autoimmune disease. [66] => [67] => Examination of the urine ([[urinalysis]]) allows a direct assessment for possible kidney problems, which may be suggested by appearance of blood in the urine ([[hematuria]]), protein in the urine ([[proteinuria]]), pus cells in the urine ([[pyuria]]) or cancer cells in the urine. A 24-hour urine collection used to be used to quantify daily protein loss (see [[proteinuria]]), urine output, [[creatinine clearance]] or electrolyte handling by the [[renal tubules]]. It is now more common to measure protein loss from a small random sample of urine. [68] => [69] => Basic blood tests can be used to check the concentration of [[hemoglobin]], white count, [[platelets]], sodium, potassium, chloride, bicarbonate, [[urea]], [[creatinine]], albumin, calcium, magnesium, phosphate, alkaline phosphatase and [[parathyroid hormone]] (PTH) in the blood. All of these may be affected by kidney problems. The serum creatinine concentration is the most important blood test as it is used to estimate the function of the kidney, called the [[creatinine clearance]] or estimated [[glomerular filtration rate]] (GFR). [70] => [71] => It is a good idea for patients with longterm kidney disease to know an up-to-date list of medications, and their latest blood tests, especially the blood creatinine level. In the United Kingdom, blood tests can monitored online by the patient, through a website called RenalPatientView. [72] => [73] => More specialized tests can be ordered to discover or link certain systemic diseases to kidney failure such as infections ([[hepatitis B]], [[hepatitis C]]), [[autoimmune conditions]] ([[Lupus nephritis|systemic lupus erythematosus]], [[ANCA-associated vasculitides|ANCA vasculitis]]), [[paraproteinemias]] ([[amyloidosis]], [[multiple myeloma]]) and [[Metabolic disorder|metabolic diseases]] ([[diabetes]], [[cystinosis]]). [74] => [75] => Structural abnormalities of the kidneys are identified with imaging tests. These may include [[Medical ultrasonography|Medical ultrasonography/ultrasound]], [[Computed axial tomography|computed axial tomography (CT)]], [[scintigraphy]] ([[nuclear medicine]]), [[angiography]] or [[magnetic resonance imaging|magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)]]. [76] => [77] => In certain circumstances, less invasive testing may not provide a certain diagnosis. Where definitive diagnosis is required, a [[biopsy]] of the kidney ([[renal biopsy]]) may be performed. This typically involves the insertion, under [[local anaesthetic]] and ultrasound or CT guidance, of a [[core biopsy]] needle into the kidney to obtain a small sample of kidney tissue. The kidney tissue is then examined under a microscope, allowing direct visualization of the changes occurring within the kidney. Additionally, the pathology may also [[staging (pathology)|stage]] a problem affecting the kidney, allowing some degree of [[Prognosis|prognostication]]. In some circumstances, kidney biopsy will also be used to monitor response to treatment and identify early [[relapse]]. A transplant kidney biopsy may also be performed to look for rejection of the kidney. [78] => [79] => ==Treatment== [80] => Treatments in nephrology can include [[medications]], [[blood products]], surgical interventions ([[urology]], [[vascular surgery|vascular]] or [[general surgery|surgical]] procedures), [[renal replacement therapy]] ([[Kidney dialysis|dialysis]] or [[kidney transplantation]]) and [[plasma exchange]]. Kidney problems can have significant impact on quality and length of life, and so psychological support, health education and advanced care planning play key roles in nephrology. [81] => [82] => [[Chronic kidney disease]] is typically managed with treatment of causative conditions (such as [[diabetes]]), avoidance of substances toxic to the kidneys ([[nephrotoxicity|nephrotoxins]] like [[contrast medium|radiologic contrast]] and [[non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs]]), [[antihypertensives]], diet and weight modification and planning for [[end-stage kidney failure]]. Impaired kidney function has systemic effects on the body. An [[erythropoetin|erythropoetin stimulating agent]] (ESA) may be required to ensure adequate production of [[red blood cells]], [[calcitriol|activated vitamin D]] supplements and [[phosphate binders]] may be required to counteract the effects of kidney failure on [[renal osteodystrophy|bone metabolism]], and blood volume and [[electrolyte disturbance]] may need correction. Diuretics (such as furosemide) may be used to correct fluid overload, and alkalis (such as sodium bicarbonate) can be used to treat metabolic acidosis. [83] => [84] => [[Auto-immune]] and [[Inflammation|inflammatory]] kidney disease, such as [[vasculitis]] or [[transplant rejection]], may be treated with [[immunosuppression]]. Commonly used agents are [[prednisone]], [[mycophenolate]], [[cyclophosphamide]], [[ciclosporin]], [[tacrolimus]], [[everolimus]], [[thymoglobulin]] and [[sirolimus]]. Newer, so-called "[[biologic medical product|biologic drugs]]" or [[monoclonal antibodies]], are also used in these conditions and include [[rituximab]], [[basiliximab]] and [[eculizumab]]. Blood products including [[intravenous immunoglobulin]] and a process known as [[plasma exchange]] can also be employed. [85] => [86] => When the kidneys are no longer able to sustain the demands of the body, end-stage kidney failure is said to have occurred. Without [[renal replacement therapy]], death from [[kidney failure]] will eventually result. [[Kidney dialysis|Dialysis]] is an artificial method of replacing some kidney function to prolong life. [[Renal transplantation]] replaces kidney function by inserting into the body a healthier kidney from an [[organ donor]] and inducing [[immunologic tolerance]] of that organ with [[immunosuppression]]. At present, [[renal transplantation]] is the most effective treatment for end-stage kidney failure although its worldwide availability is limited by lack of availability of donor organs. Generally speaking, kidneys from living donors are 'better' than those from deceased donors, as they last longer. [87] => [88] => Most kidney conditions are [[chronic condition]]s and so long term followup with a nephrologist is usually necessary. In the United Kingdom, care may be shared with the patient's primary care physician, called a General Practitioner (GP). [89] => [90] => ==Organizations== [91] => The world's first society of nephrology was the French 'Societe de Pathologie Renale'. Its first president was Jean Hamburger, and its first meeting was in Paris in February 1949. In 1959, Hamburger also founded the 'Société de Néphrologie', as a continuation of the older society. It is now called Francophone Society of Nephrology, Dialysis and Transplantation (SFNDT). The second society of nephrologists, the [[UK Kidney Association]] (UKKA) was founded in 1950, originally named the Renal Association. Its first president was Arthur Osman and met for the first time, in [[London]], on 30 March 1950. The Società di Nefrologia Italiana was founded in 1957 and was the first national society to incorporate the phrase nephrologia (or nephrology) into its name. [92] => [93] => The word 'nephrology' appeared for the first time in a conference, on 1–4 September 1960 at the "Premier Congrès International de Néphrologie" in Evian and Geneva, the first meeting of the International Society of Nephrology (ISN, [[International Society of Nephrology]]). The first day (1.9.60) was in Geneva and the next three (2–4.9.60) were in Evian, France. The early history of the ISN is described by Robinson and Richet{{Cite web |url=http://www.nature.com/ki/journal/v59/n79s/full/4492365a.html |title=Kidney International - A Forty Year History 1960-2000 |access-date=2015-05-05 |archive-date=2011-08-10 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110810065153/http://www.nature.com/ki/journal/v59/n79s/full/4492365a.html |url-status=dead }} in 2005 and the later history by Barsoum[http://www.nature.com/ki/journal/v79/n9/abs/ki20117a.html] {{dead link|date=June 2022}} in 2011. The ISN is the largest global society representing medical professionals engaged in advancing kidney care worldwide.{{Fact|date=March 2024}} It has an international office in Brussels, Belgium.{{Cite journal |date=2003-07-01 |title=International Society of Nephrology |url=https://www.kidney-international.org/article/S0085-2538(15)49342-1/abstract |journal=Kidney International |language=English |volume=64 |issue=1 |pages=387–389 |doi=10.1046/j.1523-1755.2003.t01-7-00001.x |issn=0085-2538 |doi-access=free}} [94] => [95] => In the US, founded in 1964, the [[National Kidney Foundation]] is a national organization representing patients and professionals who treat kidney diseases. Founded in 1966, the [[American Society of Nephrology]] (ASN) is the world's largest professional society devoted to the study of kidney disease. The [[American Nephrology Nurses' Association]] (ANNA), founded in 1969, promotes excellence in and appreciation of nephrology nursing to make a positive difference for patients with kidney disease. The [[American Association of Kidney Patients]] (AAKP) is a non-profit, patient-centric group focused on improving the health and well-being of CKD and [[Kidney dialysis|dialysis]] patients. The [[National Renal Administrators Association]] (NRAA), founded in 1977, is a national organization that represents and supports the independent and community-based dialysis providers. The [[American Kidney Fund]] directly provides financial support to patients in need, as well as participating in health education and prevention efforts. ASDIN (American Society of Diagnostic and Interventional Nephrology) is the main organization of interventional nephrologists. Other organizations include CIDA, VASA etc. which deal with dialysis vascular access. The [[Renal Support Network]] (RSN) is a nonprofit, patient-focused, patient-run organization that provides non-medical services to those affected by chronic kidney disease (CKD). [96] => [97] => In the United Kingdom, [[UK National Kidney Federation]] and Kidney Care UK (previously known as British Kidney Patient Association, BKPA){{Cite web|url=http://www.britishkidney-pa.co.uk/|title=Homepage|website=Kidney Care UK|language=en|access-date=2017-12-12}} represent patients, and the UK Kidney Association used to represent renal physicians and worked closely with a previous NHS policy directive called a [[National Service Framework]] for kidney disease. [98] => [99] => ==References== [100] => {{reflist}} [101] => [102] => ==External links== [103] => * [http://www.theisn.org International Society of Nephrology (ISN)] [104] => * [https://nephromap.com/ Nephromap] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220814222449/https://nephromap.com/ |date=2022-08-14 }} [105] => [106] => {{Nephrology}} [107] => {{Glomerular disease}} [108] => {{Urinary system symptoms and signs}} [109] => {{Urologic procedures}} [110] => [111] => {{Medicine}} [112] => [113] => {{Authority control}} [114] => [115] => [[Category:Nephrology| ]] [] => )
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Nephrology

Nephrology is a medical specialty that focuses on the diagnosis and treatment of kidney diseases. This article on Wikipedia provides a comprehensive overview of nephrology, covering various aspects such as the history of the specialty, the functions of the kidneys, common kidney diseases, diagnostic techniques, treatment options, and the role of a nephrologist.

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This article on Wikipedia provides a comprehensive overview of nephrology, covering various aspects such as the history of the specialty, the functions of the kidneys, common kidney diseases, diagnostic techniques, treatment options, and the role of a nephrologist. The article begins by explaining the importance of the kidneys in maintaining overall health and describes their functions in filtering waste materials and excess fluid from the blood to produce urine. It then delves into the origins of nephrology as a distinct medical specialty, highlighting key figures and milestones in its development. The main section of the article discusses various kidney diseases and conditions that nephrologists deal with, including acute kidney injury, chronic kidney disease, kidney stones, urinary tract infections, and glomerular diseases. It provides detailed information on the causes, symptoms, diagnosis, and treatment options for each condition. Furthermore, the article explores the diagnostic techniques used in nephrology, such as blood and urine tests, kidney biopsies, imaging studies, and renal function tests. It also discusses the importance of early detection and prevention strategies in managing kidney diseases. The treatment section covers pharmacological interventions, dialysis (both hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis), kidney transplantation, and conservative (non-dialysis) management options. It emphasizes the multidisciplinary approach taken by nephrologists in coordinating care with other healthcare professionals to provide comprehensive and personalized treatment plans. Additionally, the article highlights the essential qualities and skills of a nephrologist, including knowledge of internal medicine, physiology, and nephrology-specific procedures. It also mentions the training and certification requirements to become a nephrologist. Throughout the article, there are references to notable studies, research findings, and key organizations involved in advancing nephrology. The page also offers links to related topics like urology, renal physiology, and specific kidney diseases for readers seeking further information. In conclusion, this Wikipedia article serves as a comprehensive resource for anyone seeking an introduction to nephrology. It provides valuable insights into the specialty's history, functions of the kidney, common kidney diseases, diagnostic methods, treatment options, and the role of nephrologists in managing kidney health.

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