Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Public health conditions related to clean water and proper excreta and sewage disposal}} [1] => {{Distinguish|Sanitization (disambiguation){{!}}Sanitization}} [2] => [3] => [[File:Sanitation Value Chain.jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|The sanitation system: collection, transport, treatment, disposal or [[Reuse of excreta|reuse]].]] [4] => {{Public health sidebar}} [5] => '''Sanitation''' refers to [[public health]] conditions related to clean [[drinking water]] and treatment and disposal of [[Human waste|human excreta]] and [[sewage]].{{Cite web|url=https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sanitation|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171117175208/https://en.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/sanitation|url-status=dead|archive-date=November 17, 2017|title=sanitation {{!}} Definition of sanitation in English by Oxford Dictionaries|website=Oxford Dictionaries {{!}} English|access-date=2017-11-17}} [[Risk management|Preventing]] human contact with [[feces]] is part of sanitation, as is [[hand washing]] with soap. Sanitation systems aim to protect human health by providing a clean environment that will stop the [[Transmission (medicine)|transmission of disease]], especially through the [[fecal–oral route]].SuSanA (2008). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/267 Towards more sustainable sanitation solutions ] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171012191700/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/267 |date=2017-10-12 }}. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) For example, [[diarrhea]], a main cause of [[Undernutrition in children|malnutrition]] and [[stunted growth]] in children, can be reduced through adequate sanitation.{{Cite web|url=https://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/|title=Diarrhoeal disease|website=World Health Organization|language=en-GB|access-date=2017-11-17|archive-date=2014-04-01|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140401193648/http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets/fs330/en/|url-status=live}} There are many other diseases which are easily transmitted in communities that have low levels of sanitation, such as [[ascariasis]] (a type of intestinal worm infection or [[helminthiasis]]), [[cholera]], [[hepatitis]], [[polio]], [[schistosomiasis]], and [[trachoma]], to name just a few. [6] => [7] => A range of sanitation technologies and approaches exists. Some examples are [[community-led total sanitation]], [[container-based sanitation]], [[ecological sanitation]], [[emergency sanitation]], environmental sanitation, [[#Onsite sanitation|onsite sanitation]] and [[sustainable sanitation]]. A sanitation system includes the capture, storage, transport, treatment and disposal or [[Reuse of excreta|reuse of human excreta and wastewater]].{{Cite web|url=https://docs.gatesfoundation.org/documents/water-sanitation-hygiene-fact-sheet-2010.pdf|title=Water Sanitation Hygiene Fact Sheet 2010|last=Gates Foundation|date=2010|website=Gates Foundation|access-date=2017-11-17|archive-date=2020-10-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201021134815/https://docs.gatesfoundation.org/documents/water-sanitation-hygiene-fact-sheet-2010.pdf|url-status=live}} Reuse activities within the sanitation system may focus on the [[Nutrient|nutrients]], water, energy or organic matter contained in [[Excretion|excreta]] and wastewater. This is referred to as the "sanitation value chain" or "sanitation economy".{{Cite web|url=https://news.trust.org/item/20170919145350-bovq7|title=The rise of the sanitation economy: how business can help solve a global crisis|last=Paranipe|first=Nitin|date=19 September 2017|website=Thomson Reuters Foundation News|access-date=November 13, 2017|archive-date=29 December 2019|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20191229085853/http://news.trust.org/item/20170919145350-bovq7/|url-status=live}}{{Cite book|url=http://www.toiletboard.org/media/30-Sanitation_Economy_Final.pdf|title=Introducing the Sanitation Economy|publisher=Toilet Board Coalition|year=2017|access-date=2017-12-19|archive-date=2018-07-31|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180731222035/http://www.toiletboard.org/media/30-Sanitation_Economy_Final.pdf|url-status=live}} The people responsible for cleaning, maintaining, operating, or emptying a sanitation technology at any step of the sanitation chain are called "[[sanitation worker]]s".World Bank, ILO, WaterAid, and WHO (2019). [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3719 Health, Safety and Dignity of Sanitation Workers: An Initial Assessment] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211030327/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/3719 |date=2022-12-11 }}. World Bank, Washington, DC.{{rp|2}} [8] => [9] => Several sanitation "levels" are being used to compare sanitation service levels within countries or across countries.{{Cite web|url=https://washdata.org/monitoring/sanitation|title=Sanitation {{!}} JMP|website=washdata.org|language=en|access-date=2017-11-17|archive-date=2021-07-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721181243/https://washdata.org/monitoring/sanitation|url-status=live}} The sanitation ladder defined by the [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|Joint Monitoring Programme]] in 2016 starts at [[open defecation]] and moves upwards using the terms "unimproved", "limited", "basic", with the highest level being "[[Improved sanitation|safely managed]]". This is particularly applicable to [[Developing country|developing countries]]. [10] => [11] => The [[Human right to water and sanitation|Human Right to Water and Sanitation]] was recognized by the [[United Nations General Assembly|United Nations (UN) General Assembly]] in 2010. Sanitation is a [[International development|global development]] priority and the subject of [[Sustainable Development Goal 6]].WHO and UNICEF (2017) [https://washdata.org/reports Progress on Drinking Water, Sanitation and Hygiene: 2017 Update and SDG Baselines] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190725020452/https://washdata.org/reports |date=2019-07-25 }}. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO) and the United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF), 2017 The estimate in 2017 by [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] states that 4.5 billion people currently do not have [[Improved sanitation|safely managed sanitation]]. Lack of access to sanitation has an impact not only on [[public health]] but also on human [[dignity]] and personal safety. [12] => [13] => {{TOC limit|3}} [14] => [15] => == Definitions == [16] => [[File:2011 07-Internal ReinventTheToilet Animation.webm|thumb|Animated video to underline the importance of sanitation (here with a focus on [[toilet]]s) on [[public health]] in [[developing countries]]]] [17] => [[File:Urban sanitation facilities vs. rural sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|upright=1.6|Urban improved sanitation facilities versus rural improved sanitation facilities, 2015.{{cite web |title=Urban sanitation facilities vs. rural sanitation facilities |url=https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/urban-sanitation-facilities-vs-rural-sanitation-facilities |website=Our World in Data |access-date=6 March 2020 |archive-date=19 September 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200919224224/https://ourworldindata.org/grapher/urban-sanitation-facilities-vs-rural-sanitation-facilities |url-status=live }}]] [18] => There are some variations on the use of the term "sanitation" between countries and organizations. The [[World Health Organization]] defines the term "sanitation" as follows: [19] => {{quote|"Sanitation generally refers to the provision of facilities and services for the safe disposal of human urine and faeces. The word 'sanitation' also refers to the maintenance of hygienic conditions, through services such as garbage collection and wastewater disposal."{{cite web |url=https://www.who.int/topics/sanitation/en/ |publisher=World Health Organization |work=Health topics |title=Sanitation |access-date=2020-10-05 |archive-date=2020-06-06 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200606233031/https://www.who.int/topics/sanitation/en/ |url-status=live }}}} [20] => [21] => Sanitation includes all four of these technical and non-technical systems: Excreta management systems, wastewater management systems (included here are [[wastewater treatment plants]]), [[Waste management|solid waste management]] systems as well as drainage systems for rainwater, also called [[Storm drain|stormwater drainage]].{{citation needed|date=April 2020}} However, many in the [[WASH]] sector only include excreta management in their definition of sanitation. [22] => [23] => Another example of what is included in sanitation is found in the handbook by [[Sphere (organization)|Sphere]] on "Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response" which describes minimum standards in four "key response sectors" in [[Humanitarian aid|humanitarian response]] situations. One of them is "Water Supply, Sanitation and Hygiene Promotion" ([[WASH]]) and it includes the following areas: [[Hygiene]] promotion, [[water supply]], excreta management, [[vector control]], solid waste management and WASH in [[disease outbreak]]s and [[Health care|healthcare]] settings.Sphere Association (2018) [https://www.spherestandards.org/handbook/ The Sphere Handbook: Humanitarian Charter and Minimum Standards in Humanitarian Response] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190512070558/https://www.spherestandards.org/handbook/ |date=2019-05-12 }}, fourth edition, Geneva, Switzerland, 2018.{{rp|91}} [24] => [25] => [[Hygiene]] promotion is seen by many as an integral part of sanitation. The [[Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council]] defines sanitation as "The collection, transport, treatment and disposal or [[Reuse of excreta|reuse of human excreta]], domestic wastewater and solid waste, and associated hygiene promotion."Evans, B., van der Voorden, C., Peal, A. (2009). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2010 Public Funding for Sanitation - The many faces of sanitation subsidies] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171011220914/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/2010 |date=2017-10-11 }}. Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC), Geneva, Switzerland, p. 35 [26] => [27] => Despite the fact that sanitation includes wastewater treatment, the two terms are often used side by side as "sanitation and wastewater management". [28] => [29] => Another definition is in the [[Department for International Development|DFID]] guidance manual on water supply and sanitation programmes from 1998:WELL (1998) [https://www.lboro.ac.uk/orgs/well/resources/Publications/guidance-manual/chapter-1.pdf DFID guidance manual on water supply and sanitation programmes] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120043854/https://www.lboro.ac.uk/orgs/well/resources/Publications/guidance-manual/chapter-1.pdf |date=2022-01-20 }} WELL Loughborough University UK [30] => [31] => {{quote|"For the purposes of this manual, the word 'sanitation' alone is taken to mean the safe management of human excreta. It therefore includes both the 'hardware' (e.g. latrines and sewers) and the 'software' (regulation, hygiene promotion) needed to reduce faecal-oral disease transmission. It encompasses too the re-use and ultimate disposal of human excreta. The term environmental sanitation is used to cover the wider concept of controlling all the factors in the physical environment which may have deleterious impacts on human health and well-being. In developing countries, it normally includes drainage, solid waste management, and vector control, in addition to the activities covered by the definition of sanitation."|author=|title=|source=}} [32] => [33] => Sanitation can include personal sanitation and public hygiene. Personal sanitation work can include handling [[Feminine hygiene|menstrual waste]], cleaning household [[toilet]]s, and managing household [[garbage]]. Public sanitation work can involve garbage collection, transfer and treatment ([[Municipal solid waste|municipal solid waste management]]), cleaning drains, streets, schools, trains, [[public space]]s, community toilets and [[public toilet]]s, [[Sewerage|sewers]], operating [[sewage treatment plants]], etc.PRIA (2019): [https://pria.org/knowledge_resource/1560777260_Occasional%20Paper%204%20(2019)%20(Lived%20Realities%20of%20Women%20Sanitation%20Workers%20i....pdf Lived Realities of Women Sanitation Workers in India: Insights from a Participatory Research Conducted in Three Cities of India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211030322/https://pria.org/knowledge_resource/1560777260_Occasional%20Paper%204%20%282019%29%20%28Lived%20Realities%20of%20Women%20Sanitation%20Workers%20i....pdf |date=2022-12-11 }}. Participatory Research in Asia, New Delhi, India{{rp|4}} Workers who provide these services for other people are called [[sanitation workers]]. [34] => [35] => == Purposes == [36] => [[File:2016 EPI Environmental Health Objective - Water and Sanitation (26170609358).jpg|thumb|upright=1.6|Access to safe drinking water and sanitation (2016)]] [37] => The overall purposes of sanitation are to provide a healthy living environment for everyone, to protect the natural resources (such as [[surface water]], [[groundwater]], [[soil]]), and to provide safety, security and [[dignity]] for people when they [[defecate]] or [[urinate]]. [38] => [39] => The [[Human right to water and sanitation|Human Right to Water and Sanitation]] was recognized by the [[United Nations General Assembly|United Nations (UN) General Assembly]] in 2010.{{Cite web|url=https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/100308UNARES64292.pdf|title=General Assembly|access-date=2019-11-25|archive-date=2017-03-19|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170319023103/https://s3.amazonaws.com/berkley-center/100308UNARES64292.pdf|url-status=live}}Human Rights Council resolution 15/9, ''Human rights and access to safe drinking water and sanitation'', (6 October 2010), available from http://www.right2water.eu/sites/water/files/UNHRC%20Resolution%2015-9.pdf {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170517121015/http://www.right2water.eu/sites/water/files/UNHRC |date=2017-05-17 }}{{Cite web|url=http://www.endwaterpoverty.org/sites/endwaterpoverty.org/files/The%20Human%20Rights%20To%20Water%20And%20Sanitation%20UN%20resolution.pdf|title=The human rights to safe drinking water and sanitation|access-date=2019-11-25|archive-date=2017-08-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170825141743/http://www.endwaterpoverty.org/sites/endwaterpoverty.org/files/The|url-status=dead}} It has been recognized in [[international law]] through [[International human rights law|human rights treaties]], declarations and other standards. It is derived from the [[Human rights|human right]] to an adequate [[standard of living]].Right to water and sanitation derive from the right to an adequate standard of living. http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10403&LangID=E {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220306080254/http://www.ohchr.org/EN/NewsEvents/Pages/DisplayNews.aspx?NewsID=10403&LangID=E |date=2022-03-06 }} [40] => [41] => Effective sanitation systems provide barriers between excreta and humans in such a way as to break the [[disease transmission]] cycle (for example in the case of fecal-borne diseases).Thor Axel Stenström (2005) [http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/stenstrom.pdf Breaking the sanitation barriers; WHO Guidelines for excreta use as a baseline for environmental health] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20081122002145/http://conference2005.ecosan.org/papers/stenstrom.pdf |date=2008-11-22 }}, Ecosan Conference, Durban, South Africa This aspect is visualised with the F-diagram where all major routes of [[fecal-oral route|fecal-oral disease transmission]] begin with the letter F: feces, fingers, flies, fields, fluids, food.{{cite book|last1=Conant|first1=Jeff|title=Sanitation and Cleanliness for a Healthy Environment|date=2005|publisher=The Hesperian Foundation in collaboration with the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), Sida|location=Berkeley, California, USA|page=6|url=http://www.unwater.org/downloads/EHB_Sanitation_EN_lowres.pdf|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141021110930/http://www.unwater.org/downloads/EHB_Sanitation_EN_lowres.pdf|archive-date=2014-10-21}} [42] => [43] => Sanitation infrastructure has to be adapted to several specific contexts including consumers' expectations and local resources available. [44] => [45] => Sanitation technologies may involve centralized [[civil engineering]] structures like [[sewerage|sewer systems]], [[sewage treatment]], [[surface runoff]] treatment and solid waste [[landfill]]s. These structures are designed to treat [[wastewater]] and [[municipal solid waste]]. Sanitation technologies may also take the form of relatively simple onsite sanitation systems. This can in some cases consist of a simple [[pit latrine]] or other type of [[Dry toilet|non-flush toilet]] for the [[Human excreta|excreta]] management part. [46] => [47] => Providing sanitation to people requires attention to the entire system, not just focusing on technical aspects such as the [[toilet]], [[fecal sludge management]] or the [[wastewater treatment]] plant.Tilley, E., Ulrich, L., Lüthi, C., Reymond, Ph. and Zurbrügg, C. (2014). [http://www.sandec.ch/compendium Compendium of Sanitation Systems and Technologies. 2nd Revised Edition] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210828225257/https://www.eawag.ch/en/department/sandec/publications/compendium/ |date=2021-08-28 }}. Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology (Eawag), Duebendorf, Switzerland The "sanitation chain" involves the experience of the user, excreta and wastewater collection methods, transporting and treatment of waste, and [[Reuse of excreta|reuse]] or disposal. All need to be thoroughly considered. [48] => [49] => === Economic impacts === [50] => The benefits to society of managing human excreta are considerable, for public health as well as for the environment. As a rough estimate: For every US$1 spent on sanitation, the return to society is US$5.50.{{Cite book|last=WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme)|url=http://www.unwater.org/publications/publications-detail/en/c/853650/|title=The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource|year=2017|isbn=978-92-3-100201-4|location=Paris|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408061139/http://www.unwater.org/publications/publications-detail/en/c/853650/|archive-date=2017-04-08|url-status=dead}}{{rp|2}} [51] => [52] => For developing countries, the economic costs of inadequate sanitation is a huge concern. For example, according to a World Bank study, economic losses due to inadequate sanitation to The Indian economy are equivalent to 6.4% of its GDP.{{Cite book|last=WSP|title=The economic Impacts of Inadequate Sanitation in India.|publisher=Water and Sanitation Programme, The World Bank|year=2011}} Most of these are due to premature mortality, time lost in accessing, loss of productivity, additional costs for healthcare among others. Inadequate sanitation also leads to loss from potential tourism revenue. This study also found that impacts are disproportionately higher for the poor, women and children. Availability of toilet at home on the other hand, positively contributes to economic well-being of women as it leads to an increase in literacy and participation in labor force.{{Cite journal|last1=Gius|first1=Mark|last2=Subramanian|first2=Ramesh|date=2015|title=The Relationship between Inadequate Sanitation Facilities and the Economic Well-Being of Women in India|journal=Journal of Economics and Development Studies|volume=3|issue=1|doi=10.15640/jeds.v3n1a2|issn=2334-2382|doi-access=free}} [53] => [54] => == Types and concepts (for excreta management) == [55] => [[File:Percentage of population served by different types of sanitation systems.png|thumb|upright=1.4|Percentage of population served by different types of sanitation systems{{Cite book|url=http://www.unwater.org/publications/publications-detail/en/c/853650/|title=The United Nations World Water Development Report 2017. Wastewater: The Untapped Resource|last=WWAP (United Nations World Water Assessment Programme)|year=2017|isbn=978-92-3-100201-4|location=Paris|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170408061139/http://www.unwater.org/publications/publications-detail/en/c/853650/|archive-date=2017-04-08}}]] [56] => [[File:Shower, double-vault urine-diverting dry toilet (UDDT) and waterless urinal in Lima, Peru.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|Example of sanitation infrastructure: Shower, double-vault [[urine-diverting dry toilet]] (UDDT) and waterless [[urinal]] in [[Lima]], Peru]] [57] => The term sanitation is connected with various descriptors or adjectives to signify certain types of sanitation systems (which may deal only with [[human excreta]] management or with the entire sanitation system, i.e. also greywater, stormwater and solid waste management) – in alphabetical order: [58] => [59] => ===Basic sanitation=== [60] => [61] => In 2017, [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] defined a new term: "basic sanitation service". This is defined as the use of [[improved sanitation]] facilities that are not shared with other households. A lower level of service is now called "limited sanitation service" which refers to use of improved sanitation facilities that are shared between two or more households. [62] => [63] => === Container-based sanitation === [64] => [65] => {{excerpt|Container-based sanitation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} [66] => [67] => === Community-based sanitation === [68] => Community-based sanitation is related to [[decentralized wastewater system|decentralized wastewater treatment]] (DEWATS). [69] => [70] => === Community-led total sanitation === [71] => {{excerpt|Community-led total sanitation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} [72] => [73] => === Dry sanitation === [74] => [75] => The term "dry sanitation" is not in widespread use and is not very well defined. It usually refers to a system that uses a type of [[dry toilet]] and no sewers to transport excreta. Often when people speak of "dry sanitation" they mean a sanitation system that uses [[urine-diverting dry toilet]] (UDDTs).Platzer, C., Hoffmann, H., Ticona, E. (2008). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/961 Alternatives to waterborne sanitation – a comparative study – limits and potentials] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171009041929/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/961 |date=2017-10-09 }}. IRC Symposium: Sanitation for the urban poor – partnerships and governance, Delft, The NetherlandsFlores, A. (2010). [http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1172 ''Towards sustainable sanitation: evaluating the sustainability of resource-oriented sanitation''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170629180540/http://www.susana.org/en/resources/library/details/1172 |date=2017-06-29 }}. PhD Thesis, University of Cambridge, UK [76] => [77] => === Ecological sanitation === [78] => {{excerpt|Ecological sanitation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} [79] => [80] => [[File:Emergency pit lining kits by Evenproducts (6619616945).jpg|thumb|Emergency pit lining kits by Evenproducts]] [81] => [82] => === Emergency sanitation === [83] => {{Excerpt|Emergency sanitation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} [84] => [85] => === Environmental sanitation === [86] => Environmental sanitation encompasses the control of environmental factors that are connected to [[disease transmission]]. Subsets of this category are solid waste management, water and [[wastewater]] treatment, [[industrial waste]] treatment and [[noise pollution]] control. According to World health organization (WHO) Environmental sanitation was defined as the control of all those factors in the physical environment which exercise a harmful effect on human being physical development, [[health]] and [[survival]]. One of the primary function of environmental sanitation is to protect [[public health]]. [87] => [88] => === Fecal sludge management === [89] => {{Excerpt|Fecal sludge management|paragraphs=1|file=no}} [90] => [91] => === Improved and unimproved sanitation === [92] => {{Excerpt|Improved sanitation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} [93] => [94] => === Lack of sanitation === [95] => [96] => Lack of sanitation refers to the absence of sanitation. In practical terms it usually means lack of toilets or lack of hygienic toilets that anybody would want to use voluntarily. The result of lack of sanitation is usually [[open defecation]] (and open urination but this is of less concern) with associated serious public health issues.{{Cite journal|last=Mara|first=Duncan|date=2017|title=The elimination of open defecation and its adverse health effects: a moral imperative for governments and development professionals|url=http://washdev.iwaponline.com/content/7/1/1|journal=Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development|language=en|volume=7|issue=1|pages=1–12|doi=10.2166/washdev.2017.027|issn=2043-9083|doi-access=free|access-date=2017-08-17|archive-date=2018-06-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180621085738/http://washdev.iwaponline.com/content/7/1/1|url-status=live}} It is estimated that 2.4 billion people still lacked [[improved sanitation]] facilities including 660 million people who lack access to safe drinking water as of 2015.WHO and UNICEF ''[http://www.washdata.org/reports Progress on Sanitation and Drinking-water: 2015 Update] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210212123015/https://washdata.org/reports |date=2021-02-12 }}'', WHO, Geneva and UNICEF, New York{{Cite book|title=On Water|url=https://www.eib.org/en/publications/eib-big-ideas-on-water|access-date=2020-12-07|website=European Investment Bank|year=2019|doi=10.2867/509830|language=en|author1=European Investment Bank|publisher=Publications Office |isbn=9789286143199|archive-date=2020-11-29|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201129051604/https://www.eib.org/en/publications/eib-big-ideas-on-water|url-status=live}} [97] => [98] => === Onsite sanitation or non-sewered sanitation system === [99] => [100] => Onsite sanitation (or on-site sanitation) is defined as "a sanitation system in which excreta and wastewater are collected and stored or treated on the plot where they are generated".{{rp|173}} Another term that is used for the same system is non-sewered sanitation systems (NSSS), which are prevalent in many countries.{{Cite journal |last1=Cheng |first1=Shikun |last2=Long |first2=Jinyun |last3=Evans |first3=Barbara |last4=Zhan |first4=Zhe |last5=Li |first5=Tianxin |last6=Chen |first6=Cong |last7=Mang |first7=Heinz-Peter |last8=Li |first8=Zifu |date=2022 |title=Non-negligible greenhouse gas emissions from non-sewered sanitation systems: A meta-analysis |journal=Environmental Research |language=en |volume=212 |issue=Pt D |pages=113468 |doi=10.1016/j.envres.2022.113468 |pmc=9227720 |pmid=35597295|bibcode=2022ER....212k3468C |doi-access=free}} [[File:CC-BY icon.svg|50px]] Text was copied from this source, which is available under a [https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171016050101/https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ |date=2017-10-16 }} NSSS play a vital role in the safe management of fecal sludge, accounting for approximately half of all existing sanitation provisions. The degree of treatment may be variable, from none to advanced. Examples are pit [[latrine]]s (no treatment) and [[septic tank]]s ([[primary treatment]] of wastewater). On-site sanitation systems are often connected to [[fecal sludge management]] (FSM) systems where the fecal sludge that is generated onsite is treated at an offsite location. Wastewater ([[sewage]]) is only generated when piped [[water supply]] is available within the buildings or close to them. [101] => [102] => A related term is a [[decentralized wastewater system]] which refers in particular to the wastewater part of on-site sanitation. Similarly, an [[onsite sewage facility]] can treat the wastewater generated locally. [103] => [104] => The global methane emissions from NSSS in 2020 was estimated to as 377 Mt [[CO2e]] per year or 4.7% of global anthropogenic methane emissions, which are comparable to the greenhouse gas emissions from wastewater treatment plants. This means that the GHG emissions from the NSSS as a non-negligible source. [105] => [106] => ===Safely managed sanitation=== [107] => [[File:Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities, OWID.svg|thumb|Share of population using safely managed sanitation facilities in 2015Ritchie, Roser, Mispy, Ortiz-Ospina (2018) [https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation "Measuring progress towards the Sustainable Development Goals." (SDG 6)] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201101050352/https://sdg-tracker.org/water-and-sanitation |date=2020-11-01 }} ''SDG-Tracker.org, website'']] [108] => [[File:Proportion of population with basic handwashing facilities on premises, OWID.svg|thumb|256x256px|Number of Handwashing Facilities in the world, 2017|alt=]] [109] => Safely managed sanitation is the highest level of household sanitation envisioned by the [[Sustainable Development Goal 6|Sustainable Development Goal Number 6]].{{cite web |publisher=Joint Monitoring Programme of UNICEF and WHO |title=JMP - Sanitation |url=https://washdata.org/monitoring/sanitation |access-date=25 February 2021 |website=washdata.org |archive-date=21 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210721181243/https://washdata.org/monitoring/sanitation |url-status=live }} It is measured under the Sustainable Development Goal 6.2, Indicator 6.2.1, as the "Proportion of population using (a) safely managed sanitation services and (b) a hand-washing facility with soap and water".{{cite web |title=Indicator 6.2.1 - Proportion of population using safely managed sanitation services, including a handwashing facility with soap and water |url=https://www.sdg6monitoring.org/indicator-621/ |website=sdg6monitoring.org |publisher=UN Water |access-date=25 February 2021 |archive-date=3 March 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210303212826/https://www.sdg6monitoring.org/indicator-621/ |url-status=live }} The current value in the 2017 baseline estimate by [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation|JMP]] is that 4.5 billion people currently do not have safely managed sanitation. [110] => [111] => Safely managed sanitation is defined as an [[improved sanitation]] facility which is not shared with other households, and where the excreta produced is either treated and disposed in situ, stored temporarily and then emptied and transported to treatment off-site, or transported through a sewer with wastewater and then treated off-site. In other words, safely managed sanitation is a basic sanitation service where in addition excreta are safely disposed of in situ or transported and treated offsite. [112] => [113] => === Sustainable sanitation === [114] => {{Excerpt|Sustainable sanitation|paragraphs=1|file=no}} [115] => [116] => == Other types, concepts and systems == [117] => [118] => === Wastewater management === [119] => {{Main|Wastewater|Wastewater treatment}} [120] => [[File:Wonga wetlands sewage plant.jpg|thumb|[[Sewage treatment]] plant, [[Australia]].]] [121] => Wastewater management consists of collection, [[wastewater treatment]] (be it municipal or [[industrial wastewater]]), disposal or reuse of treated wastewater. The latter is also referred to as [[Reclaimed water|water reclamation]]. [122] => [123] => Sanitation systems in urban areas of developed countries usually consist of the collection of [[wastewater]] in gravity driven sewers, its treatment in [[Sewage treatment|wastewater treatment plants]] for [[reuse]] or disposal in rivers, lakes or the sea. [124] => [125] => In [[developing countries]] most wastewater is still discharged untreated into the environment. Alternatives to centralized sewer systems include [[onsite sanitation]], [[decentralized wastewater system]]s, [[dry toilet]]s connected to [[fecal sludge management]]. [126] => [127] => === Stormwater drainage === [128] => {{Main|Storm drain}} [129] => Sewers are either combined with [[storm drain]]s or separated from them as [[sanitary sewer]]s. [[Combined sewer]]s are usually found in the central, older parts or urban areas. Heavy [[stormwater|rainfall]] and inadequate maintenance can lead to combined sewer overflows or [[sanitary sewer overflow]]s, i.e., more or less diluted raw [[sewage]] being discharged into the environment. Industries often discharge wastewater into municipal sewers, which can complicate wastewater treatment unless industries pre-treat their discharges.''Environmental [[Biotechnology]]: Advancement in Water And Wastewater Application'', edited by Z. Ujang, IWA Proceedings, [[Malaysia]] (2003) [130] => [131] => ===Solid waste disposal=== [132] => {{Main|Waste management}} [133] => [[File:Israel hiriya.jpg|thumb|left|[[Hiriya|Hiriya Landfill]], [[Israel]].]] [134] => Disposal of [[solid waste]] is most commonly conducted in [[landfill]]s, but incineration, [[recycling]], [[compost]]ing and conversion to [[biofuel]]s are also avenues. In the case of landfills, [[advanced countries]] typically have rigid protocols for [[daily cover]] with topsoil, where [[underdeveloped countries]] customarily rely upon less stringent protocols.[[George Tchobanoglous]] and [[Frank Kreith]] ''Handbook of Solid Waste Management'', McGraw Hill (2002) The importance of daily cover lies in the reduction of vector contact and spreading of [[pathogen]]s. Daily cover also minimizes odor emissions and reduces windblown litter. Likewise, developed countries typically have requirements for perimeter sealing of the landfill with clay-type soils to minimize migration of [[leachate]] that could contaminate [[groundwater]] (and hence jeopardize some [[drinking water]] supplies). [135] => [136] => For incineration options, the release of [[air pollutant]]s, including certain [[toxic]] components is an attendant adverse outcome. Recycling and biofuel conversion are the [[sustainable]] options that generally have superior lifecycle costs, particularly when total [[ecological]] consequences are considered.William D. Robinson, ''The Solid Waste [[Handbook]]: A Practical Guide'', John Wiley and sons (1986) Composting value will ultimately be limited by the market demand for compost product. [137] => [138] => ===Food safety=== [139] => [[File:Canteen kitchen.jpg|thumb|left|Modern [[restaurant]] food preparation area.]] [140] => {{Main|Food safety}} [141] => Sanitation within the food industry means the adequate treatment of food-contact surfaces by a process that is effective in destroying vegetative cells of [[microorganism]]s of [[public health]] significance, and in substantially reducing numbers of other undesirable microorganisms, but without adversely affecting the food or its safety for the consumer ([[U.S. Food and Drug Administration]], [[Code of Federal Regulations]], 21CFR110, USA). [[Sanitation Standard Operating Procedures]] are mandatory for food industries in [[United States]]. Similarly, in Japan, food hygiene has to be achieved through compliance with food sanitation law.{{cite web|url=http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/market/regulations/pdf/food-e.pdf|title=Food Sanitation Law in Japan|last=Japan External Trade Organization|author-link=Japan External Trade Organization|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080409155125/http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/market/regulations/pdf/food-e.pdf|archive-date=9 April 2008|access-date=1 March 2008}} [142] => [143] => In the food and [[biopharmaceutical]] industries, the term "sanitary equipment" means equipment that is fully cleanable using [[clean-in-place]] (CIP) and sterilization-in-place (SIP) procedures: that is fully drainable from cleaning solutions and other [[liquid]]s. The design should have a minimum amount of deadleg, or areas where the [[turbulence]] during cleaning is insufficient to remove product deposits.[http://scitation.aip.org/getabs/servlet/GetabsServlet?prog=normal&id=JFEGA4000127000001000124000001&idtype=cvips&gifs=yes Treatment of deadleg plumbing areas] In general, to improve cleanability, this equipment is made from [[Stainless Steel]] 316L, (an [[alloy]] containing small amounts of [[molybdenum]]). The surface is usually [[electropolish]]ed to an effective surface roughness of less than 0.5 [[micrometre]] to reduce the possibility of [[bacteria]]l adhesion. [144] => [145] => === Hygiene promotion === [146] => {{Further|Hygiene}} [147] => [[File:Hygiene education.jpg|thumb|left|Hygiene education (on proper [[handwashing]]) in [[Afghanistan]]]] [148] => In many settings, provision of sanitation facilities alone does not guarantee good health of the population. Studies have suggested that the impact of hygiene practices have as great an impact on sanitation related diseases as the actual provision of sanitation facilities. Hygiene promotion is therefore an important part of sanitation and is usually key in maintaining good health.{{Cite book|last1=Reed|first1=Brian|title=Managing hygiene promotion in WASH programmes|last2=Bevan|first2=Jane|publisher=Water, Engineering and Development Centre (WEDC), Loughborough University|year=2014|isbn=978-1-84380-168-9|location=Leicestershire, UK}} [149] => [150] => Hygiene promotion is a planned approach of enabling people to act and change their behavior in an order to reduce and/or prevent incidences of [[WASH|water, sanitation and hygiene]] ([[WASH]]){{Cite web|date=2021|title=2021 water, sanitation and hygiene barometer|url=https://www.solidarites.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/water-barometer-2021.pdf|website=SOLIDARITÉS INTERNATIONAL|access-date=2021-04-13|archive-date=2021-03-25|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210325000242/https://www.solidarites.org/wp-content/uploads/2018/05/water-barometer-2021.pdf|url-status=live}} related diseases. It usually involves a participatory approach of engaging people to take responsibility of WASH services and infrastructure including its operation and maintenance. The three key elements of promoting hygiene are; mutual sharing of information and knowledge, the mobilization of affected communities and the provision of essential material and facilities. [151] => [152] => == Health aspects == [153] => [[File:F-diagram-01.jpg|thumb|upright=1.3|The "F-diagram" ([[feces]], fingers, flies, fields, fluids, food), showing pathways of [[fecal-oral route|fecal-oral disease transmission]]. The vertical blue lines show barriers: [[toilet]]s, [[water supply|safe water]], [[hygiene]] and [[handwashing]].]] [154] => [[File:Dalberg Water Week Final.webm|thumb|A video shedding light on the unsafe and undignified working conditions of many [[sanitation workers]] in India]] [155] => [156] => {{Main|WASH#Health aspects}} [157] => [158] => {{excerpt|WASH#WASH-attributable burden of diseases and injuries|paragraphs=1-2|file=no}} [159] => [160] => == Environmental aspects == [161] => [162] => === Indicator organisms === [163] => When analyzing environmental samples, various types of [[indicator organism]]s are used to check for fecal pollution of the sample. Commonly used indicators for [[bacteriological water analysis]] include the bacterium ''[[Escherichia coli]]'' (abbreviated as ''E. coli)'' and non-specific fecal [[coliforms]]''.'' With regards to samples of [[soil]], [[sewage sludge]], [[biosolids]] or fecal matter from [[dry toilet]]s, [[helminth]] eggs are a commonly used indicator. With helminth egg analysis, eggs are extracted from the sample after which a viability test is done to distinguish between viable and non viable eggs. The viable fraction of the helminth eggs in the sample is then counted. [164] => [165] => == Climate change == [166] => [167] => {{Main|WASH#Climate change aspects}} [168] => == Global mechanisms == [169] => [170] => === Sustainable Development Goal Number 6 === [171] => {{Further|Sustainable Development Goal 6}} [172] => [[File:Sustainable Development Goal 6.png|thumb|left|United Nations SDG 6 Logo]] In the year 2016, the [[Sustainable Development Goals]] replaced the Millennium Development Goals. Sanitation is a [[International development|global development]] priority and included [[Sustainable Development Goal 6]] (SDG 6). The target is about "clean water and sanitation for all" by 2030.{{Cite web|url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/|title=Goal 6: Ensure access to water and sanitation for all|access-date=2017-11-17|archive-date=2019-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416212832/https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/|url-status=live}} It is estimated that 660 million people still lacked access to safe drinking water as of 2015. [173] => [174] => Since the [[COVID-19 pandemic]] in 2020, the fight for clean water and sanitation is more important than ever. Handwashing is one of the most common prevention methods for Coronavirus, yet two out of five people do not have access to a hand-washing station.{{Cite web|last=UN|title=Water and Sanitation|url=https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/|access-date=2021-01-04|website=United Nations Sustainable Development|language=en-US|archive-date=2019-04-16|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190416212832/https://www.un.org/sustainabledevelopment/water-and-sanitation/|url-status=live}} [175] => [176] => ==== Millennium Development Goal Number 7 until 2015 ==== [177] => [178] => [[File:Ring-slab latrine in Kalibari community in Mymensingh, Bangladesh.jpg|thumb|Example for lack of sanitation: Unhygienic pit latrine with ring slab in Kalibari community in Mymensingh, Bangladesh]] [179] => The [[United Nations]], during the Millennium Summit in New York in 2000 and the 2002 [[World Summit on Sustainable Development]] in Johannesburg, developed the [[Millennium Development Goals]] (MDGs) aimed at poverty eradication and sustainable development. The specific sanitation goal for the year 2015 was to reduce by half the number of people who had no access to [[drinking water|potable water]] and sanitation in the baseline year of 1990. As the JMP and the [[United Nations Development Programme]] (UNDP) Human Development Report in 2006 has shown, progress meeting the MDG sanitation target is slow, with a large gap between the target coverage and the current reality.[[File:Drive to 2015 campaign logo (6765627649).jpg|thumb|Modified logo of [[International Year of Sanitation]], used in the UN Drive to 2015 campaign logo]] In December 2006, the [[United Nations General Assembly]] declared 2008 "The [[International Year of Sanitation]]", in recognition of the slow progress being made towards the MDGs sanitation target.{{cite book|url=https://www.springer.com/978-90-481-9424-7|title=Peri-urban Water and Sanitation Services|publisher=[[Springer Science+Business Media|Springer]]|year=2010|doi=10.1007/978-90-481-9425-4 |isbn=978-90-481-9424-7|access-date=2017-09-11|archive-date=2022-12-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221211030321/https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-90-481-9425-4|url-status=live |editor-last1=Kurian |editor-last2=McCarney |editor-first1=Mathew |editor-first2=Patricia }} The year aimed to develop awareness and more actions to meet the target. [180] => [181] => There are numerous reasons for this gap. A major one is that sanitation is rarely given political attention received by other topics despite its key importance. Sanitation is not high on the international development agenda, and projects such as those relating to [[water supply]] projects are emphasised.{{Cite journal|last1=Abellán|first1=Javier|last2=Alonso|first2=José Antonio|date=2022|title=Promoting global access to water and sanitation: A supply and demand perspective|url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/358066020|journal=Water Resources and Economics|language=en|volume=38|issue=|pages=100194|doi=10.1016/j.wre.2022.100194|s2cid=246261266|doi-access=}} [182] => [183] => The [[Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation]] of [[WHO]] and [[UNICEF]] (JMP) has been publishing reports of updated estimates every two years on the use of various types of drinking-water sources and sanitation facilities at the national, regional and global levels. The JMP report for 2015 stated that: [184] => [185] => * Between 1990 and 2015, [[open defecation]] rates have decreased from 38% to 25% globally. Just under one billion people (946 million) still practise open defecation worldwide in 2015. [186] => * 82% of the global urban population, and 51% of the rural population is using improved sanitation facilities in 2015, as per the JMP definition of "[[improved sanitation]]".WHO and UNICEF [https://web.archive.org/web/20110101043215/http://www.wssinfo.org/definitions-methods/watsan-categories/ types of improved drinking-water source on the JMP website], WHO, Geneva and UNICEF, New York, accessed on June 10, 2012 [187] => [188] => === Initiatives to promote sanitation === [189] => In 2011 the [[Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation]] launched the "Reinvent the Toilet Challenge" to promote safer, more effective ways to treat human waste.BMGF (2012). [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/1636 Reinvent the Toilet Challenge] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221111031906/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/1636 |date=2022-11-11 }} (RTTC, Round 1 and 2), Grand Challenges Explorations (Round 6 and 7) - Request for proposals, grant conditions, Seattle exhibition fair program and exhibitor guide. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, USA The program is aimed at developing technologies that might help bridge the global sanitation gap (for example the [[Omni Processor]], or technology for [[fecal sludge management]]). In 2015, the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation published their "Water, sanitation, and hygiene strategy portfolio update and overview" called "Building demand for sanitation".BMGF (2015). [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2317 Building demand for sanitation - a 2015 portfolio update and overview - Water, sanitation, and hygiene strategy] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221112103636/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/2317 |date=2022-11-12 }}, June 2015. Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation, Seattle, Washington, USA [190] => [191] => The latest innovations in the field of public health sanitation, currently in the testing phase, comprise - use of 'locally produced alcohol-based hand rub'; 'novel latrine improvement'; and 'container-based sanitation'. [[Centers for Disease Control and Prevention|Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC)]], the national public health agency of the United States has recognized the stated three initiatives. [192] => [193] => === Capacity development === [194] => [[Capacity building|Capacity development]] is regarded as an important mechanism to achieve progress in the sanitation sector.Spuhler, D., McCreary, C., Fogde, M., Jenssen, P. D. (2012). [https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/167 Capacity development for sustainable sanitation - Factsheet of Working Group 1] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220813121742/https://www.susana.org/en/knowledge-hub/resources-and-publications/library/details/167 |date=2022-08-13 }}. Sustainable Sanitation Alliance (SuSanA) For example, in India the Sanitation Capacity Building platform (SCBP) was designed to "support and build the capacity of town/cities to plan and implement decentralized sanitation solutions" with funding by the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation from 2015 to 2022.{{Cite web|title=About SCBP {{!}} SCBP|url=http://www.niua.org/scbp/?q=content/about-scbp|access-date=2021-06-09|website=www.niua.org|archive-date=2021-08-03|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210803194142/https://www.niua.org/scbp/?q=content/about-scbp|url-status=live}}Kapur, D. (2020) [http://indiawashforum.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Journey-of-Urban-Sanitation-Capacity-Development-in-India.pdf UNDERSTANDING EFFECTIVENESS OF CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT: Lessons from Sanitation Capacity Building Platform, Part 1: Journey of Urban Sanitation Capacity Development in India] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220119033254/http://indiawashforum.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Journey-of-Urban-Sanitation-Capacity-Development-in-India.pdf |date=2022-01-19 }}, National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA), India Results from this project showed that capacity development best happens on the job and in a learning organization culture.Kapur, D. (2021) UNDERSTANDING EFFECTIVENESS OF CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT : Lessons from Sanitation Capacity Building Platform (SCBP), [http://indiawashforum.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Capacity-Development-Effectiveness-Ladder-Framework.pdf Part III : Capacity Development Effectiveness Ladder (CDEL) Framework] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220120065308/http://indiawashforum.com/wp-content/uploads/2016/06/Capacity-Development-Effectiveness-Ladder-Framework.pdf |date=2022-01-20 }}, NATIONAL INSTITUTE OF URBAN AFFAIRS, India In a government capacity development initiative, it is critical to have an enabling policy and program funding to translate capacity development input into program and infrastructure outputs. Capacity development aims to empower staff and institutions, develop a learning strategy, learning content and training modules, as well as strengthened partnerships and institutions of learning. The Capacity Development Effectiveness Ladder Framework (CDEL) identifies five critical steps for capacity development interventions: Developing original learning content, partnerships for learning and outreach, learning strategy, visioning change and designing solutions, contribution to capacity development discourse.Jyoti Dash and Depinder Kapur (2021) UNDERSTANDING EFFECTIVENESS OF CAPACITY DEVELOPMENT : Lessons from Sanitation Capacity Building Platform (SCBP) [https://niua.org/scbp/sites/default/files/SCBP%20Capacity%20Development%20Experience.pdf Part II : Sanitation Capacity Building Platform: Understanding the Process and Effectiveness] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210920055213/https://niua.org/scbp/sites/default/files/SCBP%20Capacity%20Development%20Experience.pdf |date=2021-09-20 }} [195] => [196] => ==Costs== [197] => [198] => A study was carried out in 2018 to compare the lifecycle costs of full sanitation chain systems in developing cities of Africa and Asia. It found that conventional sewer systems are in most cases the most expensive sanitation options, followed, in order of cost, by sanitation systems comprising [[septic tank]]s, ventilated improved [[pit latrine]]s (VIP), [[Urine-diverting dry toilet|urine diversion dry toilets]] and pour-flush pit latrines.{{Cite journal|last=Daudey|first=Loïc|date=2018|title=The cost of urban sanitation solutions: a literature review|journal=Journal of Water Sanitation and Hygiene for Development|language=en|volume=8|issue=2|pages=176–195|doi=10.2166/washdev.2017.058|issn=2043-9083|doi-access=free}} The main determinants of urban sanitation financial costs include: Type of technology, labour, material and utility cost, density, [[topography]], level of service provided by the sanitation system, [[soil]] condition, energy cost and others (distance to [[wastewater treatment]] facility, climate, [[Reuse of excreta|end-use of treatment products]], business models, [[water table]] height). [199] => [200] => Some grassroots organizations have trialled community-managed toilet blocks whose construction and maintenance costs can be covered by households. One study of Mumbai [[Shanty town|informal settlements]] found that US$1.58 per adult would be sufficient for construction, and less than US$1/household/month would be sufficient for maintenance.{{Cite journal|last=Patel|first=Sheela|date=2015-04-01|title=The 20-year sanitation partnership of Mumbai and the Indian Alliance|journal=Environment and Urbanization|language=en|volume=27|issue=1|pages=55–72|doi=10.1177/0956247815569698|s2cid=110444813 |issn=0956-2478|doi-access=|bibcode=2015EnUrb..27...55P }} [201] => [202] => ==History== [203] => {{Further|History of water supply and sanitation|Toilet#History|History of waste management}} [204] => [205] => Major human settlements could initially develop only where fresh surface water was plentiful, such as near rivers or [[natural springs]]. Throughout history people have devised systems to get water into their communities and households, and to dispose (and later also treat) wastewater.{{Cite web|url=https://www.academia.edu/22932774|title=The Art of Plumbing as Recorded through History|website=www.academia.edu|access-date=2016-03-10|archive-date=2020-04-09|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200409140553/https://www.academia.edu/22932774|url-status=dead}} The focus of sewage treatment at that time was on conveying raw sewage to a natural body of water, e.g. a [[river]] or [[ocean]], where it would be diluted and dissipated. [206] => [207] => The [[Sanitation in the Indus Valley Civilization]] in Asia is an example of public water supply and sanitation during the [[Bronze Age]] (3300–1300 [[Common Era|BCE]]). [[Sanitation in ancient Rome]] was quite extensive. These systems consisted of stone and wooden drains to collect and remove [[wastewater]] from populated areas—see for instance the [[Cloaca Maxima]] into the [[River Tiber]] in Rome. The first sewers of ancient Rome were built between 800 and 735 BCE.Farnsworth Gray, Harold. "Sewerage in Ancient and Mediaeval Times." Sewage Works Journal Vol.12.5 (1940): 939-46 [208] => [209] => ==By country== [210] => {{world topic|Water supply and sanitation in|title=Water supply and sanitation by country|noredlinks=yes|state=expand}} [211] => [212] => ==Society and culture== [213] => [214] => There is a vast number of professions that are involved in the field of sanitation, for example on the technical and operations side: [[sanitation workers]], [[waste collector]]s, [[Sanitary engineering|sanitary engineers]]. [215] => [216] => ==See also== [217] => {{col div|colwidth=30em}} [218] => * [[List of abbreviations used in sanitation]] [219] => * [[List of countries by proportion of the population using improved sanitation facilities]] [220] => * [[List of water supply and sanitation by country]] [221] => * [[Environmental health]] [222] => * [[Water pollution]] [223] => * [[Water security]] [224] => * [[Self-supply of water and sanitation]] [225] => * [[Sustainable Sanitation Alliance]] [226] => * [[World Toilet Day]] [227] => {{colend}} [228] => [229] => ==References== [230] => {{Reflist}} [231] => [232] => ==External links== [233] => {{Wiktionary|sanitation}} [234] => *{{Commons category-inline}} [235] => [236] => *[http://www.susana.org Sustainable Sanitation Alliance] [237] => * [https://www.unep.org/resources/publication/sanitation-and-wastewater-atlas-africa Sanitation and Wastewater Atlas of Africa] [238] => [239] => {{public health|state=collapsed}} [240] => {{Authority control}} [241] => [242] => [[Category:Sanitation| ]] [243] => [[Category:Hygiene]] [244] => [[Category:Sewerage]] [245] => [[Category:Articles containing video clips]] [] => )
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Sanitation

Sanitation refers to the safe disposal of waste and the maintenance of clean and hygienic conditions. It involves various practices and systems to protect public health and promote cleanliness.

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It involves various practices and systems to protect public health and promote cleanliness. This Wikipedia page on sanitation covers a wide range of topics, including the history of sanitation, different types of sanitation systems, and their importance in preventing disease transmission. It also provides information about the global sanitation crisis, including the lack of access to basic sanitation facilities for a significant portion of the world's population. The page outlines the health and environmental consequences of poor sanitation and the efforts made by organizations and governments to improve sanitation worldwide. Additionally, the article discusses the various components of a comprehensive sanitation system, including water supply, waste collection and disposal, and the promotion of proper hygiene practices. It also delves into specific sanitation issues such as sanitation in schools and healthcare facilities, sanitation in emergencies, and the impact of sanitation on women and girls. Overall, this comprehensive Wikipedia page provides a wealth of information on sanitation, highlighting its significance for public health and the measures taken to achieve better sanitation globally.

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Recycling is the process of converting waste materials into new products to reduce the consumption of fresh raw materials, energy usage, and pollution.

Schistosomiasis

Schistosomiasis, also known as bilharzia, is a parasitic disease caused by the infection of certain species of trematodes (or flatworms) belonging to the genus Schistosoma.

Sewerage

Sewerage (or sewage system) is the infrastructure that conveys sewage or surface runoff (stormwater, meltwater, rainwater) using sewers.

Soil

Soil is a natural resource that forms the upper layer of the Earth's crust.

Toilet

The Wikipedia page for "Toilet" provides an extensive overview of this essential sanitation fixture.

UNICEF

UNICEF is an acronym for the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund.