Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Collaborative form of performing art}} [1] => {{Hatnote group| [2] => {{Other uses}} [3] => {{Redirect|Theatrical|the racehorse|Theatrical (horse)}} [4] => }} [5] => {{pp-move|small=yes}} [6] => {{Use mdy dates|date=February 2019}} [7] => {{multiple image [8] => |perrow = 2 [9] => |total_width=325 [10] => | image1 = Bernhardt Hamlet2.jpg [11] => | image3 = Sun Wukong at Beijing opera - Journey to the West.jpg [12] => | image4 = Kovalan.jpg [13] => | footer = Clockwise, from left to right: [14] => * [[Sarah Bernhardt]] in 1899 as [[Prince Hamlet|Hamlet]] in [[Shakespeare]]'s [[Hamlet|eponymous tragedy]] [15] => * The character [[Sun Wukong]] at the [[Peking opera]] from ''[[Journey to the West]]'' [16] => * [[Koothu]], an ancient Indian form of performing art that originated in early [[Tamilakam]] [17] => }} [18] => {{Performing arts}} [19] => [20] => '''Theatre''' or '''theater'''{{efn|Originally spelled ''theatre'' and ''teatre''. From around 1550 to 1700 or later, the most common spelling was ''theater''. Between 1720 and 1750, ''theater'' was dropped in [[British English]], but was either retained or revived in [[American English]] (''Oxford English Dictionary'', 2nd ed., 2009, CD-ROM: {{ISBN|978-0-19-956383-8}}). Recent dictionaries of American English list ''theatre'' as a less common variant, e.g., ''Random House Webster's College Dictionary'' (1991); ''The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language'', 4th edition (2006); ''New Oxford American Dictionary'', third edition (2010); [http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/theater ''Merriam-Webster Dictionary'' (2011)].}} is a collaborative form of [[performing arts|performing art]] that uses live performers, usually [[actor|actors or actresses]], to present the experience of a real or imagined event before a live audience in a specific place, often a stage. The performers may communicate this experience to the audience through combinations of [[gesture]], speech, song, [[music]], and [[dance]]. It is the oldest form of [[drama]], though live theatre has now been joined by modern recorded forms. Elements of art, such as painted scenery and [[stagecraft]] such as [[lighting]] are used to enhance the physicality, presence and immediacy of the experience.{{sfn|Carlson|1986|p=36}} Places, normally buildings, where performances regularly take place are also called "theatres" (or "theaters"), as derived from the [[Ancient Greek]] θέατρον (théatron, "a place for viewing"), itself from θεάομαι (theáomai, "to see", "to watch", "to observe").In [[British English]] always "theatre", in [[American English]] normally "theater". [21] => [22] => Modern Western theatre comes, in large measure, from the [[theatre of ancient Greece]], from which it borrows technical terminology, classification into [[genre]]s, and many of its [[theme (narrative)|theme]]s, [[stock character]]s, and plot elements. Theatre artist [[Patrice Pavis]] defines theatricality, [[Theatre language|theatrical language]], stage writing and the [[Medium specificity|specificity]] of theatre as synonymous expressions that differentiate theatre from the other [[performing arts]], [[literature]] and the arts in general.{{sfn|Pavis|1998|pp=345–346}}{{efn|Drawing on the "[[semiotic]]s" of [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], Pavis goes on to suggest that "the specificity of theatrical signs may lie in their ability to use [[Semiotic theory of Charles Sanders Peirce#II. Icon, index, symbol|the three possible functions of signs]]: as [[Iconicity|icon]] ([[Mimesis|mimetically]]), as [[Indexicality|index]] (in the situation of [[enunciation]]), or as symbol (as a [[Semiotics|semiological system]] in the fictional mode). In effect, theatre makes the sources of the words visual and concrete: it indicates {{em|and}} incarnates a fictional world by means of signs, such that by the end of the process of signification and symbolization the spectator has reconstructed a theoretical and aesthetic model that accounts for the dramatic universe."{{sfn|Pavis|1998|pp=345–346}}}} [23] => [24] => A '''theatre company''' is an organisation that produces theatrical performances,{{cite web | title=Theatre company definition and meaning | website=Collins English Dictionary | url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/theatre-company | access-date=14 December 2021}} as distinct from a [[theatre troupe]] (or acting company), which is a group of theatrical performers working together.{{Cite web|title=Definition of Troupe|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/troupe|access-date=2020-06-15|website=www.merriam-webster.com|language=en}}{{cite web | title=Troupe definition and meaning | website=Collins English Dictionary | url=https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/troupe | access-date=14 December 2021}} [25] => [26] => Modern theatre includes performances of [[play (theatre)|plays]] and [[musical theatre]]. The art forms of [[ballet]] and [[opera]] are also theatre and use many conventions such as [[acting]], costumes and staging. They were influential in the development of [[musical theatre]]. [27] => [28] => ==History of theatre== [29] => {{Main|History of theatre}} [30] => [31] => ===Classical and Hellenistic Greece=== [32] => [[File:Taormina BW 2012-10-05 16-05-05.jpg|thumb|[[Ancient theatre of Taormina|Greek theatre of Taormina]], [[Sicily]], Italy]] [33] => {{Main|Theatre of ancient Greece}} [34] => [[File:Phlyax scene Louvre CA7249.jpg|thumb|upright=0.9|A depiction of actors playing the roles of a master (right) and his slave (left) in a [[Ancient Greece|Greek]] [[phlyax play]], {{circa|350}}/340 BCE]] [35] => The [[Polis|city-state]] of [[Classical Athens|Athens]] is where Western theatre originated.{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=441}}{{sfn|Cartledge|1997|pp=3–5}}{{sfn|Goldhill|1997|p=54}}{{efn|Brown writes that [[Theatre of ancient Greece|ancient Greek drama]] "was essentially the creation of [[classical Athens]]: all the dramatists who were later regarded as classics were active at Athens in the 5th and 4th centuries BCE (the time of the [[Athenian democracy]]), and all the surviving plays date from this period".{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=441}} "The dominant culture of [[Classical Athens|Athens in the fifth century]]", Goldhill writes, "can be said to have invented theatre".{{sfn|Goldhill|1997|p=54}}}} It was part of a broader [[culture]] of theatricality and performance in [[classical Greece]] that included [[Athenian festivals|festivals]], [[Religion in ancient Greece|religious rituals]], [[Ancient Greece#Political structure|politics]], [[Ancient Greek law|law]], athletics and gymnastics, [[Music of ancient Greece|music]], [[Ancient Greek literature#Classical and Pre-Classical Antiquity|poetry]], weddings, funerals, and ''[[Symposium|symposia]]''.{{sfn|Cartledge|1997|pp=3, 6}}{{sfn|Goldhill|1997|p=54}}{{sfn|Goldhill|2004|pp=20–xx}}{{sfn|Rehm|1992|p=3}}{{efn|Goldhill argues that although activities that form "an integral part of the exercise of citizenship" (such as when "the Athenian citizen speaks in the Assembly, exercises in the gymnasium, sings at the symposium, or courts a boy") each have their "own regime of display and regulation", nevertheless the term "performance" provides "a useful heuristic category to explore the connections and overlaps between these different areas of activity".{{sfn|Goldhill|2004|p=1}}}} [36] => [37] => Participation in the city-state's many festivals—and mandatory attendance at the [[Dionysia#City Dionysia|City Dionysia]] as an audience member (or even as a participant in the theatrical productions) in particular—was an important part of [[citizenship]].{{sfn|Pelling|2005|p=83}} Civic participation also involved the evaluation of the [[rhetoric]] of [[orators]] evidenced in performances in the [[Athenian law court (classical period)|law-court]] or [[Ecclesia (ancient Athens)|political assembly]], both of which were understood as analogous to the theatre and increasingly came to absorb its dramatic vocabulary.{{sfn|Goldhill|2004|p=25}}{{sfn|Pelling|2005|pp=83–84}} The Greeks also developed the concepts of [[dramatic criticism]] and theatre architecture.{{sfn|Dukore|1974|p=31}}{{sfn|Janko|1987|p=ix}}{{sfn|Ward|2007|p=1}}{{failed verification|date=April 2024|reason=These citations only support "criticism" - need others for professional actors and architecture}} Actors were either amateur or at best semi-professional.{{Cite web|url=https://novaonline.nvcc.edu/eli/spd130et/ancientgreek.htm|title=Introduction to Theatre – Ancient Greek Theatre|website=novaonline.nvcc.edu}} The [[theatre of ancient Greece]] consisted of three types of [[drama]]: [[tragedy]], [[Comedy (drama)|comedy]], and the [[satyr play]].{{sfn|Brockett|Hildy|2003|pp=15–19}} [38] => [39] => The origins of theatre in ancient Greece, according to [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE), the first theoretician of theatre, are to be found in the festivals that honoured Dionysus. The performances were given in semi-circular auditoria cut into hillsides, capable of seating 10,000–20,000 people. The stage consisted of a dancing floor (orchestra), dressing room and scene-building area (skene). Since the words were the most important part, good acoustics and clear delivery were paramount. The actors (always men) wore masks appropriate to the characters they represented, and each might play several parts.{{Cite web|url=https://search.credoreference.com/content/entry/chambdictwh/theatre/0|title=Theatre | Chambers Dictionary of World History – Credo Reference|website=search.credoreference.com}} [40] => [41] => Athenian tragedy—the oldest surviving form of tragedy—is a type of [[dance]]-drama that formed an important part of the theatrical culture of the city-state.{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=441}}{{sfn|Cartledge|1997|pp=3–5}}{{sfn|Goldhill|1997|p=54}}{{sfn|Ley|2007|p=206}}{{sfn|Styan|2000|p=140}}{{efn|Taxidou notes that "most scholars now call 'Greek' tragedy 'Athenian' tragedy, which is historically correct".{{sfn|Taxidou|2004|p=104}}}} Having emerged sometime during the 6th century BCE, it flowered during the 5th century BCE (from the end of which it began to spread throughout the Greek world), and continued to be popular until the beginning of the [[Hellenistic civilization|Hellenistic period]].{{sfn|Brockett|Hildy|2003|pp=32–33}}{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=444}}{{sfn|Cartledge|1997|pp=3–5}}{{efn|Cartledge writes that although [[Classical Athens|Athenians]] of the 4th century judged [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]] "as the nonpareils of the [[genre]], and regularly honoured their plays with revivals, tragedy itself was not merely a 5th-century phenomenon, the product of a short-lived [[Fifth-century Athens|golden age]]. If not attaining the quality and stature of the fifth-century 'classics', original tragedies nonetheless continued to be written and produced and competed with in large numbers throughout the remaining life of the [[Athenian democracy|democracy]]—and beyond it".{{sfn|Cartledge|1997|p=33}}}} [42] => [43] => No tragedies from the 6th century BCE and only 32 of the more than a thousand that were performed in during the 5th century BCE have survived.{{sfn|Brockett|Hildy|2003|p=5}}{{sfn|Kovacs|2005|p=379}}{{efn|We have seven by Aeschylus, seven by Sophocles, and eighteen by Euripides. In addition, we also have the ''[[Cyclops (play)|Cyclops]]'', a satyr play by Euripides. Some critics since the 17th century have argued that one of the tragedies that the classical tradition gives as Euripides'—''[[Rhesus (play)|Rhesus]]''—is a 4th-century play by an unknown author; modern scholarship agrees with the classical authorities and ascribes the play to Euripides; see Walton (1997, viii, xix). (This uncertainty accounts for Brockett and Hildy's figure of 31 tragedies.)}} We have complete texts [[Extant literature|extant]] by [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]], and [[Euripides]].{{sfn|Brockett|Hildy|2003|p=15}}{{efn|The theory that ''[[Prometheus Bound]]'' was not written by [[Aeschylus]] adds a fourth, anonymous playwright to those whose work survives.}} The origins of tragedy remain obscure, though by the 5th century BCE it was [[institution|institutionalized]] in competitions (''[[agon]]'') held as part of festivities celebrating [[Dionysus]] (the [[Family tree of the Greek gods|god]] of [[wine]] and [[fertility]]).{{sfn|Brockett|Hildy|2003|pp=13–15}}{{sfn|Brown|1998|pp=441–447}} As contestants in the City Dionysia's competition (the most prestigious of the festivals to stage drama) playwrights were required to present a [[tetralogy]] of plays (though the individual works were not necessarily connected by story or theme), which usually consisted of three tragedies and one satyr play.{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=442}}{{sfn|Brockett|Hildy|2003|pp=15–17}}{{efn|Exceptions to this pattern were made, as with [[Euripides]]' ''[[Alcestis (play)|Alcestis]]'' in 438 BCE. There were also separate competitions at the [[Dionysia#City Dionysia|City Dionysia]] for the performance of [[dithyramb]]s and, after 488–87 BCE, [[Ancient Greek comedy|comedies]].}} The performance of tragedies at the City Dionysia may have begun as early as 534 BCE; official records (''didaskaliai'') begin from 501 BCE, when the satyr play was introduced.{{sfn|Brockett|Hildy|2003|pp=13, 15}}{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=442}}{{efn|[[Rush Rehm]] offers the following argument as evidence that tragedy was not institutionalised until 501 BCE: "The specific cult honoured at the [[Dionysia#City Dionysia|City Dionysia]] was that of Dionysus Eleuthereus, the god 'having to do with [[Eleutherae]]', a town on the border between [[Boeotia]] and [[Attica]] that had a sanctuary to Dionysus. At some point [[Classical Athens|Athens]] annexed Eleutherae—most likely after the overthrow of the [[Peisistratos (Athens)|Peisistratid]] tyranny in 510 and the democratic reforms of [[Cleisthenes]] in 508–07 BCE—and the cult-image of Dionysus Eleuthereus was moved to its new home. Athenians re-enacted the incorporation of the god's cult every year in a preliminary rite to the City Dionysia. On the day before the festival proper, the cult-statue was removed from the [[Greek temple|temple]] near the [[theatre of Dionysus]] and taken to a temple on the road to Eleutherae. That evening, after [[Animal sacrifice|sacrifice]] and [[hymn]]s, a torchlight procession carried the statue back to the temple, a symbolic re-creation of the god's arrival into Athens, as well as a reminder of the inclusion of the Boeotian town into Attica. As the name Eleutherae is extremely close to eleutheria, 'freedom', Athenians probably felt that the new cult was particularly appropriate for celebrating their own political liberation and democratic reforms."{{sfn|Rehm|1992|p=15}}}} [44] => [45] => Most Athenian tragedies dramatize events from [[Greek mythology]], though ''[[The Persians]]''—which stages the [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian]] response to news of their military defeat at the [[Battle of Salamis]] in 480 BCE—is the notable exception in the surviving drama.{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=442}}{{efn|[[Jean-Pierre Vernant]] argues that in ''[[The Persians]]'' [[Aeschylus]] substitutes for the usual temporal distance between the audience and the [[Greek Heroic Age|age of heroes]] a spatial distance between the Western audience and the Eastern [[Achaemenid Empire|Persian culture]]. This substitution, he suggests, produces a similar effect: "The 'historic' events evoked by the chorus, recounted by the messenger and interpreted by Darius' ghost are presented on stage in a legendary atmosphere. The light that the tragedy sheds upon them is not that in which the political happenings of the day are normally seen; it reaches the Athenian theatre refracted from a distant world of elsewhere, making what is absent seem present and visible on the stage"; Vernant and Vidal-Naquet (1988, 245).}} When Aeschylus won first prize for it at the City Dionysia in 472 BCE, he had been writing tragedies for more than 25 years, yet its tragic treatment of recent history is the earliest example of [[drama]] to survive.{{sfn|Brown|1998|p=442}}{{sfn|Brockett|Hildy|2003|pp=15–16}} More than 130 years later, the philosopher [[Aristotle]] analysed 5th-century Athenian tragedy in the oldest surviving work of [[dramatic theory]]—his ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' ({{Circa|335 BCE}}). [46] => [47] => [[Ancient Greek comedy|Athenian comedy]] is conventionally divided into three periods, "Old Comedy", "Middle Comedy", and "New Comedy". Old Comedy survives today largely in the form of the eleven surviving plays of [[Aristophanes]], while Middle Comedy is largely lost (preserved only in relatively short fragments in authors such as [[Athenaeus of Naucratis]]). New Comedy is known primarily from the substantial papyrus fragments of [[Menander]]. Aristotle defined comedy as a representation of laughable people that involves some kind of blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster.{{efn|1=Aristotle, ''Poetics'', [https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Aristot.+Poet.+1449a line 1449a]: "Comedy, as we have said, is a representation of inferior people, not indeed in the full sense of the word bad, but the laughable is a species of the base or ugly. It consists in some blunder or ugliness that does not cause pain or disaster, an obvious example being the comic mask which is ugly and distorted but not painful'."}} [48] => [49] => In addition to the categories of comedy and tragedy at the City Dionysia, the festival also included the [[Satyr play|Satyr Play]]. Finding its origins in rural, agricultural rituals dedicated to Dionysus, the satyr play eventually found its way to Athens in its most well-known form. Satyr's themselves were tied to the god Dionysus as his loyal woodland companions, often engaging in drunken revelry and mischief at his side. The satyr play itself was classified as tragicomedy, erring on the side of the more modern burlesque traditions of the early twentieth century. The plotlines of the plays were typically concerned with the dealings of the pantheon of Gods and their involvement in human affairs, backed by the chorus of [[Satyrs]]. However, according to [[T. B. L. Webster|Webster]], satyr actors did not always perform typical satyr actions and would break from the acting traditions assigned to the character type of a mythical forest creature.{{sfn|Webster|1967}} [50] => [51] => ===Roman theatre=== [52] => {{Main|Theatre of ancient Rome}} [53] => [[File:Choregos actors MAN Napoli Inv9986.jpg|thumb|Roman mosaic depicting actors and an ''[[aulos]]'' player (House of the Tragic Poet, [[Pompeii]]).]] [54] => [55] => Western theatre developed and expanded considerably under the [[Ancient Rome|Romans]]. The Roman historian [[Livy]] wrote that the Romans first experienced theatre in the 4th century BCE, with a performance by [[Etruscan civilization|Etruscan]] [[actor]]s.{{sfn|Beacham|1996|p=2}} Beacham argues that they had been familiar with "pre-theatrical practices" for some time before that recorded contact.{{sfn|Beacham|1996|p=3}} The [[theatre of ancient Rome]] was a thriving and diverse art form, ranging from [[Roman festival|festival]] performances of [[street theatre]], nude dancing, and [[acrobatics]], to the staging of [[Plautus]]'s broadly appealing situation [[Comedy (drama)|comedies]], to the [[high culture|high-style]], verbally elaborate [[Tragedy|tragedies]] of [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]]. Although Rome had a native tradition of performance, the [[Hellenization]] of [[Culture of ancient Rome|Roman culture]] in the 3rd century BCE had a profound and energizing effect on Roman theatre and encouraged the development of [[Latin literature]] of the highest quality for the stage. The only surviving plays from the Roman Empire are ten dramas attributed to [[Lucius Annaeus Seneca]] (4 BCE–65 CE), the Corduba-born Stoic philosopher and tutor of Nero.{{sfn|Gassner|Allen|1992|p=93}} [56] => [57] => ===Indian theatre=== [58] => {{Main|Theatre of India|Indian classical drama|}} [59] => {{See also|Koothu|Koodiyattam}} [60] => [[File:Demon Yakshagana.jpg|thumb|upright|''[[Rakshasa]]'' or the demon as depicted in [[Yakshagana]], a form of musical [[dance]]-[[drama]] from [[Theatre of India|India]]]] [61] => [62] => The first form of [[Theatre of India|Indian theatre]] was the [[Sanskrit drama|Sanskrit theatre]],{{sfn|Richmond|Swann|Zarrilli|1993|p=12}} earliest-surviving fragments of which date from the 1st century CE.{{sfn|Brandon|1993|p=xvii}}{{sfn|Brandon|1997|pp=516–517}} It began after the development of [[Theatre of ancient Greece|Greek]] and [[Theatre of ancient Rome|Roman theatre]] and before the development of theatre in other parts of Asia.{{sfn|Richmond|Swann|Zarrilli|1993|p=12}} It emerged sometime between the 2nd century BCE and the 1st century CE and flourished between the 1st century CE and the 10th, which was a period of relative peace in the [[history of India]] during which hundreds of plays were written.{{sfn|Brandon|1997|p=70}}{{sfn|Richmond|1998|p=516}} The wealth of archeological evidence from earlier periods offers no indication of the existence of a tradition of theatre.{{sfn|Richmond|1998|p=516}} The ancient ''[[Vedas]]'' ([[hymn]]s from between 1500 and 1000 BCE that are among the earliest examples of [[History of literature#India|literature]] in the world) contain no hint of it (although a small number are composed in a form of [[dialogue]]) and the [[ritual]]s of the [[Vedic period]] do not appear to have developed into theatre.{{sfn|Richmond|1998|p=516}} The ''[[Mahābhāṣya]]'' by [[Patañjali]] contains the earliest reference to what may have been the seeds of Sanskrit drama.{{sfn|Richmond|1998|p=517}} This treatise on [[grammar]] from 140 BCE provides a feasible date for the beginnings of [[theatre in India]].{{sfn|Richmond|1998|p=517}} [63] => [64] => The major source of evidence for Sanskrit theatre is ''[[Natyashastra|A Treatise on Theatre]]'' (''Nātyaśāstra''), a compendium whose date of composition is uncertain (estimates range from 200 BCE to 200 CE) and whose authorship is attributed to [[Bharata Muni]]. The ''Treatise'' is the most complete work of dramaturgy in the ancient world. It addresses [[acting]], [[dance]], [[music]], [[Dramaturgy|dramatic construction]], [[Theater (structure)|architecture]], [[Costume design|costuming]], [[Theatrical makeup|make-up]], [[Theatrical properties|props]], the organisation of companies, the audience, competitions, and offers a [[Hindu mythology|mythological]] account of the origin of theatre.{{sfn|Richmond|1998|p=517}} In doing so, it provides indications about the nature of actual theatrical practices. Sanskrit theatre was performed on sacred ground by priests who had been trained in the necessary skills (dance, music, and recitation) in a [hereditary process]. Its aim was both to educate and to entertain. [65] => [66] => [[File:കൂടിയാട്ടത്തിലെസുഗ്രീവൻ.jpg|thumb|right|upright=0.9|Performer playing [[Sugriva]] in the [[Koodiyattam]] form of [[Sanskrit drama|Sanskrit theatre]]]] [67] => [68] => Under the patronage of royal courts, performers belonged to professional companies that were directed by a stage manager (''sutradhara''), who may also have acted.{{sfn|Brandon|1993|p=xvii}}{{sfn|Richmond|1998|p=517}} This task was thought of as being analogous to that of a [[Puppetry|puppeteer]]—the literal meaning of "''sutradhara''" is "holder of the strings or threads".{{sfn|Richmond|1998|p=517}} The performers were trained rigorously in vocal and physical technique.{{sfn|Richmond|1998|p=518}} There were no prohibitions against female performers; companies were all-male, all-female, and of mixed gender. Certain sentiments were considered inappropriate for men to enact, however, and were thought better suited to women. Some performers played characters their own age, while others played ages different from their own (whether younger or older). Of all the elements of theatre, the ''Treatise'' gives most attention to acting (''abhinaya''), which consists of two styles: realistic (''lokadharmi'') and conventional (''natyadharmi''), though the major focus is on the latter.{{sfn|Richmond|1998|p=518}}{{efn|The literal meaning of ''abhinaya'' is "to carry forwards".}} [69] => [70] => Its drama is regarded as the highest achievement of [[Sanskrit literature]].{{sfn|Brandon|1993|p=xvii}} It utilised [[stock character]]s, such as the hero (''nayaka''), heroine (''nayika''), or clown (''vidusaka''). Actors may have specialized in a particular type. [[Kālidāsa]] in the 1st century BCE, is arguably considered to be ancient [[India]]'s greatest Sanskrit dramatist. Three famous romantic plays written by Kālidāsa are the ''[[Mālavikāgnimitram]]'' (''Mālavikā and Agnimitra''), ''[[Vikramuurvashiiya]]'' (''Pertaining to Vikrama and Urvashi''), and ''[[The Recognition of Sakuntala|Abhijñānaśākuntala]]'' (''The Recognition of Shakuntala''). The last was inspired by a story in the ''Mahabharata'' and is the most famous. It was the first to be translated into [[English language|English]] and [[German language|German]]. ''[[Abhijñānaśākuntalam|Śakuntalā]]'' (in English translation) influenced [[Johann Wolfgang von Goethe|Goethe's]] ''[[Goethe's Faust|Faust]]'' (1808–1832).{{sfn|Brandon|1993|p=xvii}} [71] => [72] => The next great Indian dramatist was [[Bhavabhuti]] ({{Circa|7th century CE}}). He is said to have written the following three plays: ''Malati-Madhava'', ''Mahaviracharita'' and ''Uttar Ramacharita''. Among these three, the last two cover between them the entire epic of ''Ramayana''. The powerful Indian emperor [[Harsha]] (606–648) is credited with having written three plays: the comedy ''[[Ratnavali]]'', ''[[Priyadarsika]]'', and the [[Buddhist]] drama ''[[Nagananda]]''. [73] => [74] => ===East Asian theatre=== [75] => {{main|Theatre of China|Theatre of Japan|Theater in Korea|Theatre of Vietnam}} [76] => {{refimprove|date=January 2024}} [77] => [[File:Lijiang Yunnan China-Naxi-people-carrying-baskets-01.jpg|thumb|Public performance in Jade Dragon Snow Mountain Open Air Theatre]] [78] => The [[Tang dynasty]] is sometimes known as "The Age of 1000 Entertainments". During this era, Ming Huang formed an acting school known as The [[Pear Garden]] to produce a form of drama that was primarily musical. That is why actors are commonly called "Children of the Pear Garden". During the dynasty of Empress Ling, [[Shadow play|shadow puppetry]] first emerged as a recognized form of theatre in China. There were two distinct forms of shadow puppetry, Pekingese (northern) and Cantonese (southern). The two styles were differentiated by the method of making the puppets and the positioning of the rods on the [[puppet]]s, as opposed to the type of [[Play (theatre)|play]] performed by the puppets. Both styles generally performed plays depicting great adventure and fantasy, rarely was this very stylized form of theatre used for political propaganda. [79] => [80] => Japanese forms of [[Kabuki]], [[Noh|Nō]], and [[Kyōgen]] developed in the 17th century CE.{{sfn|Deal|2007|p=276}} [81] => [82] => Cantonese shadow puppets were the larger of the two. They were built using thick leather which created more substantial shadows. Symbolic colour was also very prevalent; a black face represented honesty, a red one bravery. The rods used to control Cantonese puppets were attached perpendicular to the puppets' heads. Thus, they were not seen by the audience when the shadow was created. Pekingese puppets were more delicate and smaller. They were created out of thin, translucent leather (usually taken from the belly of a donkey). They were painted with vibrant paints, thus they cast a very colourful shadow. The thin rods which controlled their movements were attached to a leather collar at the neck of the puppet. The rods ran parallel to the bodies of the puppet and then turned at a ninety degree angle to connect to the neck. While these rods were visible when the shadow was cast, they laid outside the shadow of the puppet; thus they did not interfere with the appearance of the figure. The rods are attached at the necks to facilitate the use of multiple heads with one body. When the heads were not being used, they were stored in a muslin book or fabric-lined box. The heads were always removed at night. This was in keeping with the old superstition that if left intact, the puppets would come to life at night. Some puppeteers went so far as to store the heads in one book and the bodies in another, to further reduce the possibility of reanimating puppets. Shadow puppetry is said to have reached its highest point of artistic development in the eleventh century before becoming a tool of the government. [83] => [84] => In the [[Song dynasty]], there were many popular plays involving acrobatics and music. These developed in the [[Yuan dynasty]] into a more sophisticated form known as ''[[zaju]]'', with a four- or five-act structure. Yuan drama spread across China and diversified into numerous regional forms, one of the best known of which is [[Peking Opera]] which is still popular today. [85] => [86] => [[Xiangsheng]] is a certain traditional Chinese comedic performance in the forms of monologue or dialogue. [87] => [88] => ===Indonesian theatre=== [89] => {{Main|Theatre of Indonesia|Balinese theatre}} [90] => [[File:Ramawijaya dan Shinta pada Sendratari Ramayana Prambanan.jpg|thumb|upright|Rama and Shinta in [[Wayang Wong]] performance near [[Prambanan]] temple complex]] [91] => In [[Indonesia]], theatre performances have become an important part of local culture, theatre performances in Indonesia have been developed for thousands of years. Most of [[Theatre of Indonesia|Indonesia's]] oldest theatre forms are linked directly to local literary traditions (oral and written). The prominent [[puppet theatre]]s—[[wayang golek]] (wooden rod-puppet play) of the [[Sundanese people#culture|Sundanese]] and [[wayang kulit]] (leather shadow-puppet play) of the [[Javanese culture|Javanese]] and [[Balinese culture|Balinese]]—draw much of their repertoire from indigenized versions of the [[Ramayana]] and [[Mahabharata]]. These tales also provide source material for the wayang wong (human theatre) of [[Java]] and [[Bali]], which uses actors. Some wayang golek performances, however, also present Muslim stories, called ''menak''.{{cite book|author1=Don Rubin|author2=Chua Soo Pong|author3=Ravi Chaturvedi|display-authors=etal|title=The World Encyclopedia of Contemporary Theatre: Asia/Pacific|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=maGU4ziPQJQC&pg=PA184 |year=2001|publisher=Taylor & Francis|isbn=978-0-415-26087-9|pages=184–186}}{{cite web|url= http://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/10550/1/Pengetahuan%20Teater%201%20sejarah%20dan%20unsur%201.pdf |title= Pengetahuan Teater|work=Kemdikbud|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210603101413/http://repositori.kemdikbud.go.id/10550/1/Pengetahuan%20Teater%201%20sejarah%20dan%20unsur%201.pdf|archive-date=June 3, 2021|url-status=live}} [[Wayang]] is an ancient form of storytelling that renowned for its elaborate puppet/human and complex musical styles.{{cite web|title="Wayang puppet theatre", Inscribed in 2008 (3.COM) on the Representative List of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity (originally proclaimed in 2003) |url=http://www.unesco.org/culture/ich/index.php?lg=en&pg=00011&RL=00063 |publisher= UNESCO |access-date=10 October 2014}} The earliest evidence is from the late 1st millennium CE, in medieval-era texts and archeological sites.{{cite book|author=James R. Brandon|title=Theatre in Southeast Asia|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=g-tAlBV5_LkC |year=2009|publisher=Harvard University Press|isbn=978-0-674-02874-6|pages=143–145, 352–353}} The oldest known record that concerns wayang is from the 9th century. Around 840 AD an Old Javanese (Kawi) inscriptions called Jaha Inscriptions issued by Maharaja Sri Lokapala from [[Mataram Kingdom]] in [[Central Java]] mentions three sorts of performers: atapukan, aringgit, and abanol. Aringgit means Wayang puppet show, Atapukan means Mask dance show, and abanwal means joke art. Ringgit is described in an 11th-century Javanese poem as a leather shadow figure. [92] => [93] => ===Medieval Islamic traditions=== [94] => Theatre in the [[Islamic Golden Age|medieval Islamic world]] included [[puppet]] theatre (which included hand puppets, [[shadow play]]s and [[marionette]] productions) and live passion plays known as ''[[Ta'zieh|ta'ziyeh]]'', where actors re-enact episodes from [[Muslim history]]. In particular, [[Shia Islam]]ic plays revolved around the ''[[Shahid|istishhād]]'' (martyrdom) of [[Ali]]'s sons [[Hasan ibn Ali]] and [[Husayn ibn Ali]]. Secular plays were known as ''akhraja'', recorded in medieval ''[[Adab (behavior)|adab]]'' literature, though they were less common than puppetry and ''ta'ziya'' theatre.{{sfn|Moreh|1986|pp=565–601}} [95] => [96] => [97] => ===Early modern and modern theatre in the West=== [98] => [[File:Statue in legno e porcellana coi personaggi della commedia dell'arte, 01 pantalone e arlecchino.jpg|thumb|upright|Statues of [[Pantalone]] and [[Harlequin]], two stock characters from the ''[[commedia dell'arte]]'', in the [[Museo Teatrale alla Scala]], Milan, Italy]] [99] => [100] => Theatre took on many alternative forms in the West between the 15th and 19th centuries, including ''[[commedia dell'arte]]'' from [[Italian theatre]], and [[melodrama]]. The general trend was away from the poetic drama of the Greeks and the [[Renaissance]] and toward a more naturalistic prose style of dialogue, especially following the [[Industrial Revolution]].{{sfn|Kuritz|1988|p=305}} [101] => [102] => Theatre took a big pause during 1642 and 1660 in England because of the [[Puritans|Puritan]] Interregnum. The rising anti-theatrical sentiment among Puritans saw [[William Prynne]] write ''[[Histriomastix]]'' (1633), the most notorious attack on theatre prior to the ban.{{cite book |last1=Beushausen |first1=Katrin |title=Theatre, Theatricality and the People before the Civil Wars |chapter=From Audience to Public: Theatre, Theatricality and the People before the Civil Wars |date=2018 |pages=80–112 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |doi=10.1017/9781316850411.004 |isbn=9781107181458 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/theatre-and-the-english-public-from-reformation-to-revolution/from-audience-to-public/CBFEBC6C5501B79892F88E82511769B4}} Viewing theatre as sinful, the Puritans ordered the [[London theatre closure 1642|closure of London theatres in 1642]].{{cite news|title=From pandemics to puritans: when theatre shut down through history and how it recovered |url=https://www.thestage.co.uk/long-reads/from-pandemics-to-puritans-when-theatre-shut-down-through-history-and-how-it-recovered |access-date=17 December 2020|newspaper=[[The Stage]]}} On 24 January 1643, the actors protested against the ban by writing a pamphlet titled ''The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing of their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses''.{{Cite book|url=https://quod.lib.umich.edu/e/eebo/A69501.0001.001/1:2?rgn=div1;view=fulltext|title=The Actors remonstrance or complaint for the silencing for their profession, and banishment from their severall play-houses|last=|first=|date=24 January 1643|via=Early English Books Online – [[University of Michigan Library]]}} This stagnant period ended once Charles II came back to the throne in 1660 in the [[Restoration (England)|Restoration]]. Theatre (among other arts) exploded, with influence from French culture, since Charles had been exiled in France in the years previous to his reign. [103] => [104] => [[File:Theatre Royal 20130408 023.JPG|thumb|upright|left|[[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]] in the [[West End theatre|West End]]. Opened in May 1663, it is the oldest theatre in London.{{cite news |title= London's 10 oldest theatres|url=https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/england/london/galleries/Londons-oldest-theatres/ |archive-url=https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220111/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/travel/destinations/europe/united-kingdom/england/london/galleries/Londons-oldest-theatres/ |archive-date=January 11, 2022 |url-access=subscription |url-status=live|access-date=6 April 2020|newspaper=[[The Daily Telegraph|The Telegraph]]}}{{cbignore}}]] [105] => [106] => In 1660, two companies were licensed to perform, the [[Duke's Company]] and the [[King's Company]]. Performances were held in converted buildings, such as [[Lisle's Tennis Court]]. The first [[West End theatre]], known as Theatre Royal in [[Covent Garden]], London, was designed by [[Thomas Killigrew]] and built on the site of the present [[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]]. [107] => [108] => One of the big changes was the new theatre house. Instead of the type of the Elizabethan era, such as the [[Globe Theatre]], round with no place for the actors to prepare for the next act and with no "theatre manners", the theatre house became transformed into a place of refinement, with a stage in front and stadium seating facing it. Since seating was no longer all the way around the stage, it became prioritized—some seats were obviously better than others. The king would have the best seat in the house: the very middle of the theatre, which got the widest view of the stage as well as the best way to see the point of view and vanishing point that the stage was constructed around. [[Philippe Jacques de Loutherbourg]] was one of the most influential set designers of the time because of his use of floor space and scenery. [109] => [110] => Because of the turmoil before this time, there was still some controversy about what should and should not be put on the stage. [[Jeremy Collier]], a preacher, was one of the heads in this movement through his piece ''A Short View of the Immorality and Profaneness of the English Stage''. The beliefs in this paper were mainly held by non-theatre goers and the remainder of the Puritans and very religious of the time. The main question was if seeing something immoral on stage affects behaviour in the lives of those who watch it, a controversy that is still playing out today.{{cite web|last=Robinson|first=Scott R.|title=The English Theatre, 1642–1800|url=http://www.cwu.edu/~robinsos/ppages/resources/Theatre_History/Theahis_10.html|work=Scott R. Robinson Home|publisher=CWU Department of Theatre Arts|access-date=August 6, 2012|url-status=dead|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120502135648/http://www.cwu.edu/~robinsos/ppages/resources/Theatre_History/Theahis_10.html|archive-date=May 2, 2012}} [111] => [112] => The seventeenth century had also introduced women to the stage, which was considered inappropriate earlier. These women were regarded as celebrities (also a newer concept, thanks to ideas on individualism that arose in the wake of [[Renaissance Humanism]]), but on the other hand, it was still very new and revolutionary that they were on the stage, and some said they were unladylike, and looked down on them. Charles II did not like young men playing the parts of young women, so he asked that women play their own parts.{{cite web|title=Women's Lives Surrounding Late 18th Century Theatre|url=http://engl3621mgc.tripod.com/|work=English 3621 Writing by Women|access-date=August 7, 2012}} Because women were allowed on the stage, playwrights had more leeway with plot twists, like women dressing as men, and having narrow escapes from morally sticky situations as forms of comedy. [113] => [[File:Charles XII High Life below Stairs Mr. Macready 1829.jpg|thumb|upright|Billing for a British theatre in 1829]] [114] => [115] => Comedies were full of the young and very much in vogue, with the storyline following their love lives: commonly a young roguish hero professing his love to the chaste and free minded heroine near the end of the play, much like [[Richard Brinsley Sheridan|Sheridan's]] ''[[The School for Scandal]]''. Many of the comedies were fashioned after the French tradition, mainly Molière, again hailing back to the French influence brought back by the King and the Royals after their exile. [[Molière]] was one of the top comedic playwrights of the time, revolutionizing the way comedy was written and performed by combining Italian [[commedia dell'arte]] and [[Neoclassicism|neoclassical]] French comedy to create some of the longest lasting and most influential satiric comedies.{{cite web|last=Bermel|first=Albert|title=Moliere – French Dramatist|url=http://www.discoverfrance.net/France/Theatre/Moliere/moliere.shtml|work=Discover France|publisher=Grolier Multimedia Encyclopedia|access-date=August 7, 2012}} Tragedies were similarly victorious in their sense of righting political power, especially poignant because of the recent Restoration of the Crown.{{sfn|Black|2010|pp=533–535}} They were also imitations of French tragedy, although the French had a larger distinction between comedy and tragedy, whereas the English fudged the lines occasionally and put some comedic parts in their tragedies. Common forms of non-comedic plays were sentimental comedies as well as something that would later be called ''tragédie bourgeoise'', or [[domestic tragedy]]—that is, the tragedy of common life—were more popular in England because they appealed more to English sensibilities.{{cite web|last=Matthew|first=Brander|title=The Drama in the 18th Century|url=http://www.imagi-nation.com/moonstruck/clsc20w1.html|work=Moonstruch Drama Bookstore|access-date=August 7, 2012}} [116] => [117] => While [[theatre troupe]]s were formerly often travelling, the idea of the national theatre gained support in the 18th century, inspired by [[Ludvig Holberg]]. The major promoter of the idea of the national theatre in Germany, and also of the ''[[Sturm und Drang]]'' poets, was [[Abel Seyler]], the owner of the [[Hamburgische Entreprise]] and the [[Seyler Theatre Company]].[[Wilhelm Kosch]], "Seyler, Abel", in ''Dictionary of German Biography'', eds. [[Walther Killy]] and [[Rudolf Vierhaus]], Vol. 9, [[Walter de Gruyter]] editor, 2005, {{ISBN|3-11-096629-8}}, {{p.|308}}. [118] => [[File:Tartu asv2022-04 img27 Vanemuine small building.jpg|thumb|upright|right|The "Little House" of the [[Vanemuine|Vanemuine Theatre]] from 1918 in [[Tartu]], [[Estonia]]{{cite news |title= 7028 end. Tartu Saksa Teatrihoone Vanemuise 45a, 1914–1918.a.|url=https://register.muinas.ee/public.php?menuID=monument&action=view&id=7028|access-date=23 June 2020 |work=Kultuurimälestiste register |language=et}}]] [119] => [120] => Through the [[Nineteenth-century theatre|19th century]], the popular theatrical forms of [[Romanticism]], [[melodrama]], [[Victorian burlesque]] and the [[well-made play]]s of [[Eugène Scribe|Scribe]] and [[Victorien Sardou|Sardou]] gave way to the [[problem play]]s of [[Naturalism (theatre)|Naturalism]] and [[Realism (theatre)|Realism]]; the [[farce]]s of [[Georges Feydeau|Feydeau]]; [[Richard Wagner|Wagner's]] [[opera]]tic ''[[Gesamtkunstwerk]]''; [[musical theatre]] (including [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]'s operas); [[F. C. Burnand]]'s, [[W. S. Gilbert]]'s and [[Oscar Wilde]]'s drawing-room comedies; [[Symbolism (arts)|Symbolism]]; proto-[[Expressionism]] in the late works of [[August Strindberg]] and [[Henrik Ibsen]];{{sfn|Brockett|Hildy|2003|pp=293–426}} and [[Edwardian musical comedy]]. [121] => [122] => These trends continued through the [[Twentieth-century theatre|20th century]] in the [[Realism (theatre)|realism]] of [[Konstantin Stanislavski|Stanislavski]] and [[Lee Strasberg]], the political theatre of [[Erwin Piscator]] and [[Bertolt Brecht]], the so-called [[Theatre of the Absurd]] of [[Samuel Beckett]] and [[Eugène Ionesco]], American and British musicals, the collective creations of companies of actors and directors such as [[Joan Littlewood]]'s [[Theatre Workshop]], experimental and [[postmodern theatre]] of [[Robert Wilson (director)|Robert Wilson]] and [[Robert Lepage]], the [[Postcolonialism|postcolonial]] theatre of [[August Wilson]] or [[Tomson Highway]], and [[Augusto Boal]]'s [[Theatre of the Oppressed]]. [123] => [124] => ==Types== [125] => [126] => ===Drama=== [127] => {{main|Drama}} [128] => [[Drama]] is the specific [[Mode (literature)|mode]] of [[fiction]] [[Mimesis|represented]] in [[performance]].{{sfn|Elam|1980|p=98}} The term comes from a [[Ancient Greek|Greek]] word meaning "[[Action (philosophy)|action]]", which is derived from the verb δράω, ''dráō'', "to do" or "to act". The enactment of drama in theatre, performed by [[actor]]s on a [[Stage (theatre)|stage]] before an [[audience]], presupposes [[Collaboration|collaborative]] modes of production and a [[collective]] form of reception. The [[Dramatic structure|structure of dramatic texts]], unlike other forms of [[literature]], is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception.{{sfn|Pfister|2000|p=11}} The [[English Renaissance theatre|early modern]] [[tragedy]] ''[[Hamlet]]'' (1601) by [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]] and the [[Theatre of ancient Greece|classical Athenian]] tragedy ''[[Oedipus Rex]]'' ({{Circa|429 BCE}}) by [[Sophocles]] are among the masterpieces of the art of drama.{{sfn|Fergusson|1968|pp=2–3}} A modern example is ''[[Long Day's Journey into Night]]'' by [[Eugene O'Neill]] (1956).{{sfn|Burt|2008|pp=30–35}} [129] => [130] => Considered as a genre of [[poetry]] in general, the dramatic mode has been contrasted with the [[Epic poetry|epic]] and the [[Lyric poetry|lyrical]] modes ever since [[Aristotle]]'s ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' ({{Circa|335 BCE}}); the earliest work of [[dramatic theory]].{{efn|[[Francis Fergusson]] writes that "a drama, as distinguished from a [[Lyric poetry|lyric]], is not primarily a composition in the verbal medium; the [[Dialogue (fiction)|words]] result, as one might put it, from the underlying [[Dramatic structure|structure of incident]] and [[Character (arts)|character]]. As [[Poetics (Aristotle)|Aristotle]] remarks, 'the poet, or "maker" should be the maker of [[Plot (narrative)|plots]] rather than of verses; since he is a poet because he [[Mimesis|imiates]], and what he imitates are [[Action (philosophy)|actions]]{{'"}} (1949, 8).}} The use of "drama" in the narrow sense to designate a specific ''type'' of [[Play (theatre)|play]] dates from the [[Nineteenth-century theatre|19th century]]. Drama in this sense refers to a play that is ''neither'' a comedy nor a tragedy—for example, [[Émile Zola|Zola's]] ''[[Thérèse Raquin]]'' (1873) or [[Anton Chekhov|Chekhov's]] ''[[Ivanov (play)|Ivanov]]'' (1887). In Ancient Greece however, the word ''drama'' encompassed all theatrical plays, tragic, comic, or anything in between. [131] => [132] => Drama is often combined with [[theatre music|music]] and [[dance]]: the drama in [[opera]] is generally sung throughout; [[Musical theatre|musicals]] generally include both spoken [[dialogue]] and [[song]]s; and some forms of drama have [[incidental music]] or musical accompaniment underscoring the dialogue ([[melodrama]] and Japanese [[Noh|Nō]], for example).{{efn|See the entries for "opera", "musical theatre, American", "melodrama" and "Nō" in {{harvnb|Banham|1998}}}} In certain periods of history (the ancient [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] and modern [[Romanticism|Romantic]]) some dramas have been written to be [[Closet drama|read]] rather than performed.{{efn|While there is some dispute among theatre historians, it is probable that the plays by the Roman [[Seneca the Younger|Seneca]] were not intended to be performed. ''[[Manfred]]'' by [[George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron|Byron]] is a good example of a "[[Verse drama and dramatic verse|dramatic poem]]". See the entries on "Seneca" and "Byron (George George)" in {{harvnb|Banham|1998}}.}} In [[Improvisational theatre|improvisation]], the drama does not pre-exist the moment of performance; performers devise a dramatic script spontaneously before an audience.{{efn|Some forms of improvisation, notably the [[Commedia dell'arte]], improvise on the basis of '[[lazzi]]' or rough outlines of scenic action (see {{harvnb|Gordon|1983}} and {{harvnb|Duchartre|1966}}). All forms of improvisation take their cue from their immediate response to one another, their characters' situations (which are sometimes established in advance), and, often, their interaction with the audience. The classic formulations of improvisation in the theatre originated with [[Joan Littlewood]] and [[Keith Johnstone]] in the UK and [[Viola Spolin]] in the US; see {{harvnb|Johnstone|2007}} and {{harvnb|Spolin|1999}}.}} [133] => [134] => ===Musical theatre=== [135] => {{Main|Musical theatre}} [136] => [[File:Palladium Theatre (16427934069).jpg|thumb|right|''[[Cats (musical)|Cats]]'' at the [[London Palladium]]]] [137] => [[Music]] and theatre have had a close relationship since ancient times—[[Classical Athens|Athenian]] [[tragedy]], for example, was a form of [[dance]]-[[drama]] that employed a [[Greek chorus|chorus]] whose parts were sung (to the accompaniment of an ''[[aulos]]''—an instrument comparable to the modern [[oboe]]), as were some of the actors' responses and their 'solo songs' ([[Monody|monodies]]).{{sfn|Rehm|1992|loc=150n7}} Modern [[musical theatre]] is a form of theatre that also combines music, spoken dialogue, and dance. It emerged from [[comic opera]] (especially [[Gilbert and Sullivan]]), [[Variety show|variety]], [[vaudeville]], and [[music hall]] genres of the late [[Nineteenth-century theatre|19th]] and early [[Twentieth-century theatre|20th century]].{{sfn|Jones|2003|pp=4–11}} After the [[Edwardian musical comedy]] that began in the 1890s, the [[Princess Theatre, New York City|Princess Theatre]] musicals of the early 20th century, and comedies in the 1920s and 1930s (such as the works of [[Rodgers and Hammerstein]]), with ''[[Oklahoma!]]'' (1943), musicals moved in a more dramatic direction.{{efn|The first "[[Edwardian musical comedy]]" is usually considered to be ''[[In Town (musical)|In Town]]'' (1892), even though it was produced eight years before the beginning of the [[Edwardian era]]; see, for example, Fraser Charlton, [http://www.staff.ncl.ac.uk/fraser.charlton/edmuscom/page12/edmuscom_what.html "What are EdMusComs?"] (FrasrWeb 2007, accessed May 12, 2011).}} Famous musicals over the subsequent decades included ''[[My Fair Lady]]'' (1956), ''[[West Side Story]]'' (1957), ''[[The Fantasticks]]'' (1960), ''[[Hair (musical)|Hair]]'' (1967), ''[[A Chorus Line]]'' (1975), ''[[Les Misérables (musical)|Les Misérables]]'' (1980), ''[[Cats (musical)|Cats]]'' (1981), ''[[Into the Woods]]'' (1986), and ''[[The Phantom of the Opera (1986 musical)|The Phantom of the Opera]]'' (1986),{{cite web| first = John| last = Kenrick | title = History of Stage Musicals| url = http://www.musicals101.com/erastage.htm| year = 2003| access-date = May 26, 2009}} as well as more contemporary hits including ''[[Rent (musical)|Rent]]'' (1994), ''[[The Lion King (musical)|The Lion King]]'' (1997), ''[[Wicked (musical)|Wicked]]'' (2003), ''[[Hamilton (musical)|Hamilton]]'' (2015) and ''[[Frozen (musical)|Frozen]]'' (2018). [138] => [139] => Musical theatre may be produced on an intimate scale [[Off-Broadway]], in [[Community theatre|regional theatres]], and elsewhere, but it often includes spectacle. For instance, [[Broadway theatre|Broadway]] and [[West End theatre|West End]] musicals often include lavish costumes and sets supported by multimillion-dollar budgets. [140] => [141] => [[File:Roman masks.png|thumb|Theatrical masks of Tragedy and Comedy. Mosaic, [[Roman art]]work, 2nd century CE. [[Capitoline Museums]], Rome]] [142] => [143] => ===Comedy=== [144] => {{Main|Comedy}} [145] => [146] => Theatre productions that use [[humour]] as a vehicle to tell a story qualify as comedies. This may include a modern [[farce]] such as ''[[Boeing-Boeing (play)|Boeing Boeing]]'' or a classical play such as ''[[As You Like It]]''. Theatre expressing bleak, controversial or taboo subject matter in a deliberately humorous way is referred to as [[black comedy]]. Black Comedy can have several genres like slapstick humour, dark and sarcastic comedy. [147] => [148] => ===Tragedy=== [149] => {{Main|Tragedy}} [150] => {{blockquote|Tragedy, then, is an imitation of an action that is serious, complete, and of a certain magnitude: in language embellished with each kind of artistic ornament, the several kinds being found in separate parts of the play; in the form of action, not of narrative; through pity and fear effecting the proper purgation of these emotions.|[[Aristotle]]|''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]''S. H. Butcher, [https://web.archive.org/web/20071026123828/http://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/a/aristotle/poetics/complete.html], 2011{{dead link|date=November 2023}}}} [151] => [152] => Aristotle's phrase "several kinds being found in separate parts of the play" is a reference to the structural origins of drama. In it the spoken parts were written in the [[Attic dialect]] whereas the choral (recited or sung) ones in the [[Doric Greek|Doric dialect]], these discrepancies reflecting the differing religious origins and [[Metre (poetry)|poetic metres]] of the parts that were fused into a new entity, the theatrical ''drama''. [153] => [154] => [[Tragedy]] refers to a specific [[Poetic tradition|tradition]] of [[drama]] that has played a unique and important role historically in the self-definition of [[Western culture|Western civilisation]].{{sfn|Banham|1998|p=1118}}{{sfn|Williams|1966|pp=14–16}} That tradition has been multiple and discontinuous, yet the term has often been used to invoke a powerful effect of [[cultural identity]] and historical continuity—"the [[Classical Athens|Greeks]] and the [[Elizabethan era|Elizabethans]], in one cultural form; [[Hellenistic period|Hellenes]] and [[Christians]], in a common activity", as [[Raymond Williams]] puts it.{{sfn|Williams|1966|p=16}} From its obscure origins in the [[Theatre of ancient Greece|theatres of Athens]] 2,500 years ago, from which there survives only a fraction of the work of [[Aeschylus]], [[Sophocles]] and [[Euripides]], through its singular articulations in the works of [[William Shakespeare|Shakespeare]], [[Lope de Vega]], [[Jean Racine|Racine]], and [[Friedrich Schiller|Schiller]], to the more recent [[Naturalism (theatre)|naturalistic]] tragedy of [[August Strindberg|Strindberg]], [[Samuel Beckett|Beckett's]] [[Modernism|modernist]] meditations on death, loss and suffering, and [[Heiner Müller|Müller's]] [[Postmodernism|postmodernist]] reworkings of the tragic canon, tragedy has remained an important site of cultural experimentation, negotiation, struggle, and change.{{sfn|Williams|1966|pp=13–84}}{{sfn|Taxidou|2004|pp=193–209}} In the wake of Aristotle's ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' (335 BCE), tragedy has been used to make [[genre]] distinctions, whether at the scale of [[poetry]] in general (where the tragic divides against [[Epic poetry|epic]] and [[Lyric poetry|lyric]]) or at the scale of the drama (where tragedy is opposed to [[Comedy (drama)|comedy]]). In the [[Modernity|modern]] era, tragedy has also been defined against drama, [[melodrama]], [[Tragicomedy|the tragicomic]], and [[epic theatre]].{{efn|See {{harvnb|Carlson|1993}}, {{harvnb|Pfister|2000}}, {{harvnb|Elam|1980}}, and {{harvnb|Taxidou|2004}}. [[Drama]], in the narrow sense, cuts across the traditional division between comedy and tragedy in an anti- or a-[[Genre|generic]] [[deterritorialization]] from the [[Nineteenth century theatre|mid-19th century]] onwards. Both [[Bertolt Brecht]] and [[Augusto Boal]] define their [[epic theatre]] projects ([[Non-Aristotelian drama]] and [[Theatre of the Oppressed]] respectively) against models of [[tragedy]]. Taxidou, however, reads epic theatre as an incorporation of tragic functions and its treatments of mourning and speculation.{{sfn|Taxidou|2004|pp=193–209}}}} [155] => [156] => ===Improvisation=== [157] => {{Main|Improvisational theatre}} [158] => [[File:Dario.fo.writer.jpg|thumb|upright|[[Dario Fo]]]] [159] => Improvisation has been a consistent feature of theatre, with the Commedia dell'arte in the sixteenth century being recognized as the first improvisation form. Popularized by [[1997 Nobel Prize in Literature]] winner [[Dario Fo]] and troupes such as the [[Upright Citizens Brigade]] improvisational theatre continues to evolve with many different streams and philosophies. [160] => [161] => [[Keith Johnstone]] and [[Viola Spolin]] are recognized as the first teachers of improvisation in modern times, with Johnstone exploring improvisation as an alternative to scripted theatre and Spolin and her successors exploring improvisation principally as a tool for developing dramatic work or skills or as a form for situational comedy. Spolin also became interested in how the process of learning improvisation was applicable to the development of human potential.{{sfn|Gordon|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FmAue-VUMmYC&lpg=PA194&pg=PA194 194]}} [162] => [163] => Spolin's son, [[Paul Sills]] popularized improvisational theatre as a theatrical art form when he founded, as its first director, [[The Second City]] in Chicago. [164] => [165] => ==Theories== [166] => {{Main|Dramatic theory}} [167] => [[File:Kirmestheater1.JPG|thumb|Village feast with theatre performance {{Circa|1600}}]] [168] => Having been an important part of human culture for more than 2,500 years, theatre has evolved a wide range of different [[Dramatic theory|theories]] and practices. Some are related to political or spiritual ideologies, while others are based purely on "artistic" concerns. Some processes focus on a story, some on theatre as event, and some on theatre as catalyst for social change. The [[Ancient Greek philosophy|classical Greek philosopher]] [[Aristotle]], in his seminal treatise, ''[[Poetics (Aristotle)|Poetics]]'' ({{Circa|335 BCE}}) is the earliest-surviving example and its arguments have influenced theories of theatre ever since.{{sfn|Dukore|1974|p=31}}{{sfn|Janko|1987|p=ix}} In it, he offers an account of what he calls "poetry" (a term which in Greek literally means "making" and in this context includes [[drama]]—[[Comedy (drama)|comedy]], [[tragedy]], and the [[satyr play]]—as well as [[lyric poetry]], [[epic poetry]], and the [[dithyramb]]). He examines its "first principles" and identifies its [[genre]]s and basic elements; his analysis of [[tragedy]] constitutes the core of the discussion.Aristotle ''Poetics'' 1447a13 (1987, 1).{{full citation needed|date=November 2023}} [169] => [170] => Aristotle argues that tragedy consists of six qualitative parts, which are (in order of importance) ''[[Mythos (Aristotle)|mythos]]'' or "plot", ''[[ethos]]'' or "character", ''[[dianoia]]'' or "thought", ''[[Lexis (Aristotle)|lexis]]'' or "diction", ''[[wikt:melos|melos]]'' or "song", and ''[[opsis]]'' or "spectacle".{{sfn|Carlson|1993|p=19}}{{sfn|Janko|1987|pp=xx, 7–10}} "Although Aristotle's ''Poetics'' is universally acknowledged in the [[Western culture|Western]] critical tradition", [[Marvin Carlson]] explains, "almost every detail about his seminal work has aroused divergent opinions."{{sfn|Carlson|1993|p=16}} Important [[theatre practitioner]]s of the [[Twentieth-century theatre|20th century]] include [[Konstantin Stanislavski]], [[Vsevolod Meyerhold]], [[Jacques Copeau]], [[Edward Gordon Craig]], [[Bertolt Brecht]], [[Antonin Artaud]], [[Joan Littlewood]], [[Peter Brook]], [[Jerzy Grotowski]], [[Augusto Boal]], [[Eugenio Barba]], [[Dario Fo]], [[Viola Spolin]], [[Keith Johnstone]] and [[Robert Wilson (director)]]. [171] => [172] => Stanislavski treated the theatre as an [[The arts|art-form]] that is [[Medium specificity|autonomous]] from [[literature]] and one in which the [[playwright]]'s contribution should be respected as that of only one of an ensemble of creative artists.{{sfn|Benedetti|1999|pp=124, 202}}{{sfn|Benedetti|2008|p=6}}{{sfn|Carnicke|1998|p=162}}{{sfn|Gauss|1999|p=2}}{{efn|In 1902, Stanislavski wrote that "the author writes on paper. The actor writes with his body on the stage" and that the "score of an opera is not the opera itself and the script of a play is not drama until both are made flesh and blood on stage"; quoted by Benedetti (1999a, 124).}} His innovative contribution to modern acting theory has remained at the core of mainstream [[Western culture|western]] performance training for much of the last century.{{sfn|Banham|1998|p=1032}}{{sfn|Carnicke|1998|p=1}}{{sfn|Counsell|1996|pp=24–25}}{{sfn|Gordon|2006|pp=37–40}}{{sfn|Leach|2004|p=29}} That many of the precepts of his [[Stanislavski's system|system of actor training]] seem to be common sense and self-evident testifies to its hegemonic success.{{sfn|Counsell|1996|p=25}} Actors frequently employ his basic concepts without knowing they do so.{{sfn|Counsell|1996|p=25}} Thanks to its promotion and elaboration by acting teachers who were former students and the many translations of his theoretical writings, Stanislavski's 'system' acquired an unprecedented ability to cross cultural boundaries and developed an international reach, dominating debates about acting in Europe and the United States.{{sfn|Banham|1998|p=1032}}{{sfn|Carnicke|1998|pp=1, 167}}{{sfn|Counsell|1996|p=24}}{{sfn|Milling|Ley|2001|p=1}} Many actors routinely equate his 'system' with the North American [[Method acting|Method]], although the latter's exclusively psychological techniques contrast sharply with Stanislavski's multivariant, holistic and [[Psychophysiology|psychophysical]] approach, which explores character and action both from the 'inside out' and the 'outside in' and treats the actor's mind and body as parts of a continuum.{{sfn|Benedetti|2005|pp=147–148}}{{sfn|Carnicke|1998|pp=1, 8}} [173] => [174] => ==Technical aspects== [175] => [[File:Vienna - Vienna Opera Backstage - 9729.jpg|thumb|A theatre stage building in the backstage of [[Vienna State Opera]]]] [176] => {{Main|Stagecraft}} [177] => Theatre presupposes [[Collaboration|collaborative]] modes of production and a [[collective]] form of reception. The [[Dramatic structure|structure of dramatic texts]], unlike other forms of [[literature]], is directly influenced by this collaborative production and collective reception.{{sfn|Pfister|2000|p=11}} The production of [[Play (theatre)|plays]] usually involves contributions from a [[playwright]], [[theatre director|director]], a [[Cast member|cast]] of [[actor]]s, and a technical [[production team]] that includes a [[set designer|scenic or set designer]], [[lighting designer]], [[costume designer]], [[sound design]]er, [[Stage management|stage manager]], [[Production manager (theatre)|production manager]] and technical director. Depending on the production, this team may also include a [[composer]], [[Dramaturge|dramaturg]], [[video design]]er or [[fight director]]. [178] => [179] => [[File:Yokatsomo.jpg|thumb|The rotating auditorium of the open air [[Pyynikki Summer Theatre]] in [[Tampere]], [[Finland]]]] [180] => Stagecraft is a generic term referring to the technical aspects of theatrical, film, and video production. It includes, but is not limited to, constructing and rigging scenery, hanging and focusing of lighting, design and procurement of costumes, makeup, procurement of props, stage management, and recording and mixing of sound. Stagecraft is distinct from the wider umbrella term of scenography. Considered a technical rather than an artistic field, it relates primarily to the practical implementation of a designer's artistic vision. [181] => [182] => In its most basic form, stagecraft is managed by a single person (often the stage manager of a smaller production) who arranges all scenery, costumes, lighting, and sound, and organizes the cast. At a more professional level, for example in modern Broadway houses, stagecraft is managed by hundreds of skilled carpenters, painters, electricians, stagehands, stitchers, wigmakers, and the like. This modern form of stagecraft is highly technical and specialized: it comprises many subdisciplines and a vast trove of history and tradition. The majority of stagecraft lies between these two extremes. Regional theatres and larger community theatres will generally have a technical director and a complement of designers, each of whom has a direct hand in their respective designs. [183] => [184] => ==Subcategories and organisation== [185] => There are many modern theatre movements which produce theatre in a variety of ways. Theatrical enterprises vary enormously in sophistication and purpose. People who are involved vary from novices and hobbyists (in community theatre) to professionals (in Broadway and similar productions). Theatre can be performed with a shoestring budget or on a grand scale with multimillion-dollar budgets. This diversity manifests in the abundance of theatre subcategories, which include: [186] => * [[Broadway theatre]] and [[West End theatre]] [187] => * [[Community theatre]] [188] => * [[Dinner theater]] [189] => * [[Fringe theatre]] [190] => * [[Immersive theater]] [191] => * [[Interactive theatre]] [192] => * [[Off-Broadway]] and [[Off West End]] [193] => * [[Off-off-Broadway]] [194] => * [[Playback theatre]] [195] => * [[Regional theater in the United States|Regional theatre in the United States]] [196] => * [[Touring theatre]] [197] => * [[Site-specific theatre]] [198] => * [[Street theatre]] [199] => * [[Summer stock theatre]] [200] => [201] => ===Repertory companies=== [202] => [[File:Cruikshank Pierce' Egan's Real Life - Drury Lane Theatre 1821.jpg|thumb|[[Theatre Royal, Drury Lane]], London, {{circa|1821}}]] [203] => While most modern theatre companies rehearse one piece of theatre at a time, perform that piece for a set "run", retire the piece, and begin rehearsing a new show, [[repertory]] companies rehearse multiple shows at one time. These companies are able to perform these various pieces upon request and often perform works for years before retiring them. Most dance companies operate on this repertory system. The [[Royal National Theatre]] in London performs on a repertory system. [204] => [205] => Repertory theatre generally involves a group of similarly accomplished actors, and relies more on the reputation of the group than on an individual star actor. It also typically relies less on strict control by a director and less on adherence to theatrical conventions, since actors who have worked together in multiple productions can respond to each other without relying as much on convention or external direction.{{sfn|Peterson|1982}} [206] => [207] => ===Other terminology=== [208] => A theatre company is an organisation that produces theatrical performances, as distinct from a [[theatre troupe]] (or acting company), which is a group of theatrical performers working together. [209] => [210] => A [[touring theatre|touring company]] is an independent theatre or dance company that travels, often internationally, being presented at a different theatre in each city.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} [211] => [212] => [[File:Panorámica interior del Teatro Colón (cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|Interior of the [[Teatro Colón]], a modern theatre]] [213] => In order to put on a piece of theatre, both a theatre company and a [[theatre (structure)|theatre venue]] are needed. When a theatre company is the sole company in residence at a theatre venue, this theatre (and its corresponding theatre company) are called a resident theatre or a producing theatre, because the venue produces its own work. Other theatre companies, as well as dance companies, who do not have their own theatre venue, perform at rental theatres or at presenting theatres. Both rental and presenting theatres have no full-time resident companies. They do, however, sometimes have one or more part-time resident companies, in addition to other independent partner companies who arrange to use the space when available. A rental theatre allows the independent companies to seek out the space, while a presenting theatre seeks out the independent companies to support their work by presenting them on their stage.{{citation needed|date=January 2023}} [214] => [215] => Some performance groups perform in non-theatrical spaces. Such performances can take place outside or inside, in a non-traditional performance space, and include [[street theatre]], and [[site-specific theatre]]. Non-traditional venues can be used to create more immersive or meaningful environments for audiences. They can sometimes be modified more heavily than traditional theatre venues, or can accommodate different kinds of equipment, lighting and sets.Alice T. Carter, "[http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/s_575857.html Non-traditional venues can inspire art, or just great performances] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100903150133/http://www.pittsburghlive.com/x/pittsburghtrib/s_575857.html |date=2010-09-03 }}", ''[[Pittsburgh Tribune-Review]]'', July 7, 2008. Retrieved February 12, 2011. [216] => [217] => ==Unions== [218] => There are many theatre [[trade union|unions]], including: [219] => * [[Actors' Equity Association]] (AEA), for actors and stage managers in the U.S.) [220] => * [[Canadian Actors' Equity Association]], for actors in Canada [221] => * [[Equity (British trade union)|Equity]], for many kind of performing artists as well as designers, directors, and stage managers in the UK{{cite web | title=About | website=Equity | url=https://www.equity.org.uk/about/ | access-date=8 January 2023}} [222] => * [[International Alliance of Theatrical Stage Employees]] (IATSE), for designers and technicians).{{cite web |url=https://www.actorsequity.org/news/PR/AEMIPolicyInitiative/ |access-date=29 May 2022 |title=Actors' Equity Association joins other arts, entertainment and media industry unions To Announce Legislative Push To Advance Diversity, Equity and Inclusion |publisher=[[Actors' Equity Association]] |date=February 11, 2021 }} [223] => * [[Media, Entertainment and Arts Alliance]], an Australian union created in 1992 as a merger of the unions covering actors, journalists and entertainment industry employees{{cite web | title=About Us | website=MEAA | url=https://www.meaa.org/about-us/ | access-date=25 February 2021}} [224] => * [[Stage Directors and Choreographers Society]] (SDC) [225] => [226] => ==See also== [227] => {{div col|colwidth=20em}} [228] => * [[Acting]] [229] => * [[Antitheatricality]] [230] => * [[Black light theatre]] [231] => * [[Culinary theatre]] [232] => * [[Illusionistic tradition]] [233] => * [[List of awards in theatre]] [234] => * [[List of playwrights]] [235] => * [[List of theatre personnel]] [236] => * [[List of theatre festivals]] [237] => * [[List of theatre directors]] [238] => * [[Lists of theatres]] [239] => * [[Performance art]] [240] => * [[Puppetry]] [241] => * [[Reader's theatre]] [242] => * [[Site-specific theatre]] [243] => * [[Theatre consultant]] [244] => * [[Theatre for development]] [245] => * [[Theater (structure)]] [246] => * [[Theatre technique]] [247] => * [[Theatrical style]] [248] => * [[Theatrical troupe]] [249] => * [[World Theatre Day]] [250] => {{div col end}} [251] => {{Main|Outline of theatre}} [252] => {{Portal|Theatre|Society}} [253] => [254] => ==Explanatory notes== [255] => {{Notelist}} [256] => [257] => == Citations == [258] => {{Reflist|22em}} [259] => [260] => == General sources == [261] => {{Div col|colwidth=30em}} [262] => * {{cite book |editor-last=Banham |editor-first=Martin |year=1998 |orig-year=1995 |title=The Cambridge Guide to Theatre |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-43437-8 |url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh }} [263] => * {{cite book |last=Beacham |first=Richard C. |year=1996 |title=The Roman Theatre and Its Audience |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-77914-3 }} [264] => * {{cite book |last=Benedetti |first=Jean |year=1999 |title=Stanislavski: His Life and Art |edition=Rev. |orig-year=1988 |location=London |publisher=Methuen |isbn=0-413-52520-1 }} [265] => * {{cite book |last=Benedetti |first=Jean |year=2005 |title=The Art of the Actor: The Essential History of Acting, From Classical Times to the Present Day |location=London |publisher=Methuen |isbn=0-413-77336-1 }} [266] => * {{cite book |last=Benedetti |first=Jean |year=2008 |pages=6–9 |editor-last1=Dacre |editor-first1=Kathy |editor-first2=Paul |editor-last2=Fryer |title=Stanislavski on Stage |location=Sidcup, Kent |publisher=Stanislavski Centre Rose Bruford College |isbn=978-1-903454-01-5 }} [267] => * {{cite book |editor-last=Black |editor-first=Joseph |title=The Broadview Anthology of British Literature: Volume 3: The Restoration and the Eighteenth Century |year=2010 |orig-year=2006 |publisher=Broadview Press |location=Canada |isbn=978-1-55111-611-2 |display-authors=etal }} [268] => * {{cite book |last=Brandon |first=James R. |chapter=Introduction |pages=xvii–xx |editor-last1=Baumer |editor-first1=Rachel Van M. |editor-first2=James R. |editor-last2=Brandon |title=Sanskrit Theatre in Performance |location=Delhi |publisher=Motilal Banarsidass |year=1993 |orig-year=1981 |isbn=978-81-208-0772-3 }} [269] => * {{cite book |editor-last=Brandon |editor-first=James R. |year=1997 |title=The Cambridge Guide to Asian Theatre |edition=2nd, rev. |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-58822-5 }} [270] => * {{cite book |last1=Brockett |first1=Oscar G. |first2=Franklin J. |last2=Hildy |year=2003 |title=History of the Theatre |edition=Ninth, International |location=Boston |publisher=Allyn and Bacon |isbn=0-205-41050-2 |name-list-style=amp }} [271] => * {{cite book |last=Brown |first=Andrew |chapter=Greece, Ancient |editor-last=Banham |editor-first=Martin |year=1998 |title=The Cambridge Guide to Theatre |edition=Rev. |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-43437-8 |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh/page/441 441–447] |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh/page/441 }} [272] => * {{cite book |last=Burt |first=Daniel S. |year=2008 |title=The Drama 100: A Ranking of the Greatest Plays of All Time |location=New York |publisher=Facts on File |isbn=978-0-8160-6073-3 |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/drama100rankingo0000burt }} [273] => * {{cite journal |first=Marvin |last=Carlson |author-link=Marvin Carlson |url=https://journals.ku.edu/index.php/jdtc/article/view/1642/1606 |title=Psychic Polyphony |pages=35–47 |journal=Journal of Dramatic Theory and Criticism |date=Fall 1986 }} [274] => * {{cite book |last=Carlson |first=Marvin |year=1993 |title=Theories of the Theatre: A Historical and Critical Survey from the Greeks to the Present |edition=Expanded |location=Ithaca and London |publisher=Cornell University Press |isbn=0-8014-8154-6 }} [275] => * {{cite book |last=Carnicke |first=Sharon Marie |year=1998 |title=Stanislavsky in Focus |series=Russian Theatre Archive series |location=London |publisher=Harwood Academic Publishers |isbn=90-5755-070-9 }} [276] => * {{cite book |last=Cartledge |first=Paul |year=1997 |chapter='Deep Plays': Theatre as Process in Greek Civic Life |editor-last=Easterling |editor-first=P. E. |title=The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy |series=Cambridge Companions to Literature series |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-42351-1 |pages=3–35 }} [277] => * {{cite book |last=Counsell |first=Colin |year=1996 |title=Signs of Performance: An Introduction to Twentieth-Century Theatre |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-10643-6 }} [278] => * {{cite book |last=Deal |first=William E. |year=2007 |title=Handbook to Life in Medieval and Early Modern Japan |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-533126-4 }} [279] => * {{cite book |title=The Italian Comedy: The Improvisation Scenarios Lives Attributes Portraits and Masks of the Illustrious Characters of the Commedia dell'Arte |last=Duchartre |first=Pierre Louis |publisher=Dover Publications |year=1966 |orig-year=1929 |translator=Randolph T. Weaver |isbn=0-486-21679-9 |location=New York |url-access=registration |url=https://archive.org/details/italiancomedyimp0000duch }} [280] => * {{cite book |editor-last=Dukore |editor-first=Bernard F. |year=1974 |title=Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to Grotowski |location=Florence, Kentucky|publisher=Heinle & Heinle |isbn=978-0-03-091152-1 |url=https://archive.org/details/dramatictheorycr00duko }} [281] => * {{cite book |last=Elam |first=Keir |year=1980 |title=The Semiotics of Theatre and Drama |series=New Accents series |location=London and New York |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-03984-0 |url=https://archive.org/details/semioticsoftheat0000elam_y4s7 }} [282] => * {{cite book |last=Fergusson |first=Francis |author-link=Francis Fergusson |orig-year=1949 |title=The Idea of a Theater: A Study of Ten Plays, The Art of Drama in a Changing Perspective |url=https://archive.org/details/ideaoftheaterstu0000ferg |url-access=registration |location=Princeton, New Jersey|publisher=Princeton University Press |year=1968 |isbn=0-691-01288-1 }} [283] => * {{cite book |first1=John |last1=Gassner |last2=Allen |first2=Ralph G. |title=Theatre and Drama in the Making |location=New York |publisher=Applause Books |year=1992 |orig-year=1964 |isbn=1-55783-073-8 |name-list-style=amp |url=https://archive.org/details/theatredramainma0000unse }} [284] => * {{cite book|last=Gauss|first=Rebecca B.|year=1999|title=Lear's Daughters: The Studios of the Moscow Art Theatre 1905–1927|series=American University Studies, Ser. 26 Theatre Arts|volume=29|location=New York|publisher=Peter Lang|isbn=978-0-8204-4155-9}} [285] => * {{cite book |last=Goldhill |first=Simon |year=1997 |chapter=The Audience of Athenian Tragedy |editor-last=Easterling |editor-first=P. E. |title=The Cambridge Companion to Greek Tragedy |series=Cambridge Companions to Literature series |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-42351-1 |pages=54–68 }} [286] => * {{cite book |last=Goldhill |first=Simon |chapter=Programme Notes |pages=1–29 |editor-last1=Goldhill |editor-first1=Simon |editor-first2=Robin |editor-last2=Osborne |year=2004 |title=Performance Culture and Athenian Democracy |edition=New |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-60431-4 }} [287] => * {{cite book |last=Gordon |first=Mel |year=1983 |title=Lazzi: The Comic Routines of the Commedia dell'Arte |location=New York |publisher=Performing Arts Journal |isbn=0-933826-69-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/lazzicomicroutin00gord }} [288] => * {{cite book |last=Gordon |first=Robert |year=2006 |title=The Purpose of Playing: Modern Acting Theories in Perspective |location=Ann Arbor |publisher=University of Michigan Press |isbn=978-0-472-06887-6 }} [289] => * {{cite book|translator=Janko, Richard|year=1987|title=Poetics with Tractatus Coislinianus, Reconstruction of Poetics II and the Fragments of the On Poets|author=[[Aristotle]]|location=Cambridge|publisher=Hackett|isbn=978-0-87220-033-3|ref={{SfnRef|Janko|1987}}}} [290] => * {{cite book|last=Johnstone|first=Keith|author-link=Keith Johnstone|orig-year=1981|title=Impro: Improvisation and the Theatre|edition=Rev.|location=London|publisher=Methuen|year=2007|isbn=978-0-7136-8701-9}} [291] => * {{cite book|last=Jones|first=John Bush|year=2003|title=Our Musicals, Ourselves: A Social History of the American Musical Theatre|location=Hanover|publisher=Brandeis University Press|isbn=1-58465-311-6|url=https://archive.org/details/ourmusicalsourse00jone}} [292] => * {{cite book |last=Kovacs |first=David |year=2005 |chapter=Text and Transmission |pages=379–393 |editor-last=Gregory |editor-first=Justina |title=A Companion to Greek Tragedy |series=Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World series |location=Malden, MA and Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=1-4051-7549-4 }} [293] => * {{cite book |last=Kuritz |first=Paul |year=1988 |title=The Making of Theatre History |location=Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey|publisher=Prentice Hall |isbn=978-0-13-547861-5 }} [294] => * {{cite book |last=Leach |first=Robert |year=2004 |title=Makers of Modern Theatre: An Introduction |location=London |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-31241-7 }} [295] => * {{cite book |last=Ley |first=Graham |year=2007 |title=The Theatricality of Greek Tragedy: Playing Space and Chorus |location=Chicago and London |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-47757-2 }} [296] => * {{cite book|last1=Milling|first1=Jane|last2=Ley|first2=Graham|year=2001|title=Modern Theories of Performance: From Stanislavski to Boal|location=Basingstoke, Hampshire, and New York|publisher=Palgrave|isbn=978-0-333-77542-4}} [297] => * {{cite book |last=Moreh |first=Shmuel |year=1986 |chapter=Live Theater in Medieval Islam |title=Studies in Islamic History and Civilization in Honour of Professor David Ayalon |editor-first=Moshe |editor-last=Sharon |author-link=Moshe Sharon |location=Cana, Leiden |publisher=Brill |pages=565–601 |isbn=965-264-014-X }} [298] => * {{cite book |last=Pavis|first=Patrice|author-link=Patrice Pavis|year=1998|title=Dictionary of the Theatre: Terms, Concepts, and Analysis|url=https://archive.org/details/dictionaryofthea0000pavi|url-access=registration|translator=Christine Shantz|location=Toronto and Buffalo|publisher=University of Toronto Press|isbn=978-0-8020-8163-6}} [299] => * {{cite book |last=Pelling |first=Christopher |year=2005 |chapter=Tragedy, Rhetoric, and Performance Culture |pages=83–102 |editor-last=Gregory |editor-first=Justina |title=A Companion to Greek Tragedy |series=Blackwell Companions to the Ancient World series |location=Malden, MA and Oxford |publisher=Blackwell |isbn=1-4051-7549-4 }} [300] => * {{cite journal|last=Peterson|first=Richard A.|year=1982|title=Five Constraints on the Production of Culture: Law, Technology, Market, Organizational Structure and Occupational Careers|journal=[[The Journal of Popular Culture]]|volume=16 |issue=2|pages=143–153|doi=10.1111/j.0022-3840.1982.1451443.x }} [301] => * {{cite book |last=Pfister |first=Manfred |orig-year=1977 |title=The Theory and Analysis of Drama |translator=John Halliday |series=European Studies in English Literature series |location=Cambridige |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2000 |isbn=978-0-521-42383-0 }} [302] => * {{cite book|last=Rehm|first=Rusj|author-link=Rush Rehm|year=1992|title=Greek Tragic Theatre|series=Theatre Production Studies|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=0-415-11894-8}} [303] => * {{cite book |last=Richmond |first=Farley |chapter=India |pages=[https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh/page/516 516–525] |editor-last=Banham |editor-first=Martin |year=1998 |orig-year=1995 |title=The Cambridge Guide to Theatre |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=0-521-43437-8 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/details/cambridgeguideto0000banh/page/516 }} [304] => * {{cite book |editor-last1=Richmond |editor-first1=Farley P. |editor-first2=Darius L. |editor-last2=Swann |editor-first3=Phillip B. |editor-last3=Zarrilli |year=1993 |title=Indian Theatre: Traditions of Performance |publisher=University of Hawaii Press |isbn=978-0-8248-1322-2 |name-list-style=amp }} [305] => * {{cite book |last=Spolin |first=Viola |author-link=Viola Spolin |year=1999 |orig-year=1963 |title=Improvisation for the Theater |url=https://archive.org/details/improvisationfor0000spol |url-access=registration |edition=3rd |location=Evanston, Il |publisher=Northwestern University Press |isbn=0-8101-4008-X }} [306] => * {{cite book |last=Styan |first=J. L. |year=2000 |title=Drama: A Guide to the Study of Plays |location=New York |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-0-8204-4489-5 }} [307] => * {{cite book |last=Taxidou |first=Olga |year=2004 |title=Tragedy, Modernity and Mourning|location=Edinburgh|publisher=Edinburgh University Press|isbn=0-7486-1987-9}} [308] => * {{cite book |last=Ward |first=A.C |orig-year=1945 |title=Specimens of English Dramatic Criticism XVII–XX Centuries |series=The World's Classics series |location=Oxford |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2007 |isbn=978-1-4086-3115-7 }} [309] => * {{cite journal|last=Webster|first=T. B. L.|author-link=T. B. L. Webster|title=Monuments Illustrating Tragedy and Satyr Play|edition=2nd|type=Supplement, with appendix|journal=[[Bulletin of the Institute of Classical Studies]]|publisher=University of London|number=20|year=1967|pages=iii–190}} [310] => * {{cite book |last=Williams |first=Raymond |author-link=Raymond Williams|year=1966|title=Modern Tragedy|location=London|publisher=Chatto & Windus|isbn=0-7011-1260-3}} [311] => {{div col end}} [312] => [313] => ==Further reading== [314] => {{Div col|colwidth=30em}} [315] => * Aston, Elaine, and George Savona. 1991. ''Theatre as Sign-System: A Semiotics of Text and Performance''. London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-04932-0}}. [316] => * [[Walter Benjamin|Benjamin, Walter]]. 1928. ''The Origin of German Tragic Drama.'' Trans. John Osborne. London and New York: Verso, 1998. {{ISBN|1-85984-899-0}}. [317] => * Brown, John Russell. 1997. ''What is Theatre?: An Introduction and Exploration.'' Boston and Oxford: Focal P. {{ISBN|978-0-240-80232-9}}. [318] => * Bryant, Jye (2018).'' Writing & Staging A New Musical: A Handbook''. Kindle Direct Publishing. {{ISBN|9781730897412}}. [319] => * {{cite book|last=Carnicke|first=Sharon Marie|date=2000|chapter=Stanislavsky's System: Pathways for the Actor|pages=11–36|editor-last=Hodge|editor-first=Alison|title=Twentieth-Century Actor Training|location=London and New York|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-19452-5|ref=none}} [320] => * Dacre, Kathy, and Paul Fryer, eds. 2008. ''Stanislavski on Stage.'' Sidcup, Kent: Stanislavski Centre Rose Bruford College. {{ISBN|1-903454-01-8}}. [321] => * [[Gilles Deleuze|Deleuze, Gilles]] and [[Félix Guattari]]. 1972. ''[[Anti-Œdipus]]''. Trans. Robert Hurley, Mark Seem and Helen R. Lane. London and New York: Continuum, 2004. Vol. 1. New Accents Ser. London and New York: Methuen. {{ISBN|0-416-72060-9}}. [322] => * [[Rita Felski|Felski, Rita]], ed. 2008. ''Rethinking Tragedy.'' Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. {{ISBN|0-8018-8740-2}}. [323] => * Harrison, Martin. 1998. ''The Language of Theatre''. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0878300877}}. [324] => * [[Phyllis Hartnoll|Hartnoll, Phyllis]], ed. 1983. ''The Oxford Companion to the Theatre''. 4th ed. Oxford: Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-19-211546-1}}. [325] => * {{cite book |last=Leach |first=Robert |year=1989 |title=Vsevolod Meyerhold |series=Directors in Perspective series |location=Cambridge |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-31843-3|ref=none}} [326] => * Leach, Robert, and Victor Borovsky, eds. 1999. ''A History of Russian Theatre.'' Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|978-0-521-03435-7}}. [327] => * Meyer-Dinkgräfe, Daniel. 2001. ''Approaches to Acting: Past and Present.'' London and New York: Continuum. {{ISBN|978-0-8264-7879-5}}. [328] => * [[Vsevolod Meyerhold|Meyerhold, Vsevolod]]. 1991. ''Meyerhold on Theatre''. Ed. and trans. Edward Braun. Rev. ed., London: Methuen. {{ISBN|978-0-413-38790-5}}. [329] => * Mitter, Shomit. 1992. ''Systems of Rehearsal: Stanislavsky, Brecht, Grotowski and Brook.'' London and New York: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-06784-3}}. [330] => * O'Brien, Nick. 2010. ''Stanislavski In Practise''. London: Routledge. {{ISBN|978-0-415-56843-2}}. [331] => * Rayner, Alice. 1994. ''To Act, To Do, To Perform: Drama and the Phenomenology of Action.'' Theater: Theory/Text/Performance Ser. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN|978-0-472-10537-3}}. [332] => * Roach, Joseph R. 1985. ''The Player's Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting''. Theater: Theory/Text/Performance Series. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. {{ISBN|978-0-472-08244-5}}. [333] => * Speirs, Ronald, trans. 1999. ''The Birth of Tragedy and Other Writings.'' By [[Friedrich Nietzsche]]. Ed. Raymond Geuss and Ronald Speirs. Cambridge Texts in the History of Philosophy ser. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. {{ISBN|0-521-63987-5}}. [334] => * {{cite news |last=Teachout|first=Terry|author-link=Terry Teachout|title=The Best Theater of 2021: The Curtain Goes Up Again |url=https://www.wsj.com/articles/stephen-sondheim-assassins-lackawanna-blues-the-lehman-trilogy-clyde's-trouble-in-mind-11639424305 |newspaper=[[The Wall Street Journal]]|date=December 13, 2021|access-date=3 March 2022|ref=none}} [335] => {{div col end}} [336] => [337] => ==External links== [338] => {{Library resources box [339] => |by=no [340] => |onlinebooks=no [341] => |others=no [342] => |about=yes [343] => |label=Theatre [344] => }} [345] => [347] => * [http://sounds.bl.uk/Arts-literature-and-performance/Theatre-Archive-Project Theatre Archive Project (UK)] British Library & University of Sheffield. [348] => * [http://www.bris.ac.uk/theatrecollection/ University of Bristol Theatre Collection] [349] => * [http://www.arthurlloyd.co.uk Music Hall and Theatre History of Britain and Ireland] [350] => [351] => {{Theatre}} [352] => {{Humanities}} [353] => {{Authority control}} [354] => {{Subject bar [355] => | commons = y [356] => | q = y [357] => | v = Theatre [358] => | b = y [359] => | b-search = Subject:Theatre [360] => }} [361] => [362] => [[Category:Theatre| ]] [363] => [[Category:Stage terminology]] [364] => [[Category:Performing arts]] [] => )
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Theatre

The Wikipedia page for "Theatre" provides an in-depth overview of the art form and its history. It covers the various elements and components that make up theatre, including acting, set design, costumes, lighting, and sound.

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It covers the various elements and components that make up theatre, including acting, set design, costumes, lighting, and sound. The page explores the origins of theatre, tracing its roots back to ancient civilizations such as Greece and Rome, and delves into the development of theatre in different cultures and time periods. It discusses the different genres and styles of theatre, such as tragedy, comedy, musical theatre, and experimental theatre, and provides examples of influential playwrights, actors, and directors throughout history. The page also addresses the social, cultural, and political aspects of theatre, highlighting its role as a form of protest, entertainment, and education. Additionally, it touches on popular theatre movements and innovations, such as avant-garde theatre and immersive theatre. The page is rich in information, providing a comprehensive resource for anyone interested in learning about the history and significance of theatre.

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