Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Ancient port city in northern Syria}} [1] => {{Infobox ancient site [2] => |name = Ugarit [3] => |native_name = [4] => |alternate_name = Ras Shamra ({{lang-ar|رأس شمرة}}) [5] => |image = {{none}} [6] => |image_size= [7] => |alt = [8] => |caption = [9] => |map_type = Syria [10] => |map_alt = [11] => |map_size = [12] => |relief=yes [13] => |location = [[Latakia Governorate]], Syria [14] => |region = [[Fertile Crescent]] [15] => |coordinates = {{coord|35.602|35.782|display=inline}} [16] => |type = settlement [17] => |part_of = [18] => |length = [19] => |width = [20] => |area = [21] => |height = [22] => |builder = [23] => |material = [24] => |built = c. 6000 BC [25] => |abandoned = c. 1185 BC [26] => |epochs =[[Neolithic]], [[Late Bronze Age]], Hellenistic [27] => |cultures = [28] => |dependency_of = [29] => |occupants = [30] => |event = [[Bronze Age Collapse]] [31] => |excavations = 1928–1939, 1950-2008 [32] => |archaeologists = [[Claude F. A. Schaeffer]] Henri de Contenson, Jean Margueron, Marguerite Yon, Yves Calvet, Bassam Jamous [33] => |condition = ruins [34] => |ownership = Public [35] => |public_access = Yes [36] => |website = [37] => |notes = [38] => }} [39] => [40] => '''Ugarit''' ({{IPAc-en|j|uː|ˈ|g|ɑː|r|ɪ|t|,_|uː|-}}; {{lang-uga|𐎜𐎂𐎗𐎚}}, ''ʾUgarītu'') was an ancient port city in northern [[Syria]] about 10 kilometers north of modern [[Latakia]]. At its height it ruled an area roughly equivalent to the modern [[Latakia Governorate]]. It was discovered by accident in 1928 with the [[Ugaritic texts]].{{cite book |last=Huehnergard |first=John |url = https://books.google.com/books?id=IfHQx5FUZW8C&q=The+site+of+Ugarit+and+its+indigenous+language+were+discovered+by+accident+in+1928%E2%80%931929.&pg=PA1 |title = An Introduction to Ugaritic |year=2012 |publisher=Hendrickson Publishers |isbn=978-1-59856-820-2 |language=en }} Its ruins are often called Ras Shamra (also Ras Shamrah) after the headland where they lie. [41] => [42] => Ugarit saw its beginnings in the [[Neolithic]] period and continued as a settlement through the [[Chalcolithic]] and [[Bronze Age|Bronze Ages]].[https://archive.org/details/ancient-cities-the-archaeology-of-urban-life-in-the-ancient-near-east-and-egypt-]{{Cite book |last=Gates |first=Charles |title=Ancient cities: the archaeology of urban life in the ancient Near East and Egypt, Greece and Rome |date=2011 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-203-83057-4 |edition=2nd |location=London}} The city had close connections to the [[Hittite Empire]], in later times as a vassal, sent tribute to [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]] at times, and maintained trade and diplomatic connections with [[Cyprus]] (then called [[Alashiya]]),Helène Whittaker, "Mycenaean cult buildings : a study of their architecture and function in the context of the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean", Monographs from the Norwegian Institute at Athens, v. 1. Bergen: Norwegian Institute at Athens, 1997 {{ISBN|9788291626031}} documented in the archives recovered from the site and corroborated by [[Mycenaean Greece|Mycenaean]] and Cypriot pottery found there. The polity was at its height from {{Circa|1450 BC}} until its destruction in c. 1185 BC;[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/57905/978-3-030-94137-6.pdf?sequence=1#page=206]Kemp, Luke, and Eric H. Cline, "Systemic Risk and Resilience: The Bronze Age Collapse and Recovery", in: Adam Izdebski, John Haldon, and Piotr Filipkowski (eds.), Perspectives on Public Policy in Societal-Environmental Crises, Springer, pp. 207-223, 2022 this destruction was possibly caused by the purported [[Sea Peoples]], or an internal struggle. The kingdom would be one of the many dismantled during the [[Bronze Age Collapse]]. Gibala ([[Tell Tweini]]), the coastal city at the southern edge of the Ugarit kingdom was also destroyed at this time. [43] => [44] => ==History== [45] => Based on archaeological soundings, the site was occupied beginning in the eighth millennium BC. Essentially all archaeology has focused on the Late Bronze levels, so little is known about earlier occupation. Some Middle Bronze remains were found in the deep soundings including a bead inscribed with the name of Egyptian Pharaoh [[Sesostris I]] (1970–1936 BC).Yon, Marguerite, "Geography and History", in The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 9-26, 2006 [46] => [47] => ===Late Bronze Age=== [48] => [[File:Ugarit Tomba - GAR - 3-01.JPG|thumb|A tomb in the Royal palace's courtyard]] [49] => The city reached its golden age between 1500 BC and 1200 BC, when it ruled a trade-based coastal kingdom, trading with Egypt, Cyprus, the Aegean (primarily Crete), Syria, the Hittites, cities of the Levant (including [[Ashkelon]]), and much of the eastern Mediterranean.Heltzer, M., "The Metal Trade of Ugarit and the Problem of Transportation of Commercial Goods", Iraq, vol. 39, no. 2, pp. 203–11, 1977 After a period of control by Egypt and a short span of control by Mitanni, in much of the Late Bronze Age, beginning during the reign of [[Niqmaddu II]] (c. 1350–1315 BC) Ugarit was a vassal of the [[Hittite Empire]], mainly through the Hittite ruler's viceroy in [[Karkemiš]] and then, with the Hititte collapse, directly under Karkemiš.Yaron, R., "A Royal Divorce at Ugarit", Orientalia, vol. 32, no. 1, pp. 21–31, 1963van Soldt, Wilfred. H., "Ugarit as a Hittite Vassal State", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 37, no. 2, pp. 198-207, 2010[https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/284131/3/Hittites_admin_texts_ugarit.pdf]Vita Barra, Juan Pablo, "The Hittites in the administrative texts of Ugarit", KASKAL, vol. 18, pp. 111-126, 2021 The population of Ugarit in this period is estimated to be between 7,000 and 8,000 individuals.Garr, W. Randall, "A Population Estimate of Ancient Ugarit", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 266, pp. 31–43, 1987 [50] => [51] => Evidence of the earliest Ugaritic contact with Egypt (and the first chronological synchronism of Ugaritic civilization) comes from a [[carnelian]] bead identified with the [[Middle Kingdom of Egypt|Middle Kingdom]] [[pharaoh]] [[Senusret I]], 1971–1926 BC. A [[stela]] and a statuette from the Egyptian pharaohs Senusret III and [[Amenemhet III]] have also been found. However, it is unclear at what time these monuments were brought to Ugarit. [[Amarna letters]] from Ugarit (EA46, EA47, EA48, EA49) c. 1350 BC record one letter each from [[Ammittamru I]], [[Niqmaddu II]], and his queen.Moran, William L., "The Amarna Letters", Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1992 {{ISBN|0-8018-4251-4}} The kingdom of Ugarit controlled about 2,000 km2 on average.Pardee, Dennis. "Ugaritic", in ''[https://books.google.com/books?id=vTrT-bZyuPcC&pg=PA5 The Ancient Languages of Syria-Palestine and Arabia]'', Roger D. Woodard, editor. Cambridge University Press, , 2008{{ISBN|0-521-68498-6}}, {{ISBN|978-0-521-68498-9}} [52] => [53] => ===Destruction=== [54] => {{see also|Bronze Age collapse}} [55] => [[File:RasSchamraUgarit2.jpg|thumb|Ruins of Ugarit]] [56] => From the late 13th century into the early 12th century BC, the entire region, based on contemporary texts, including Hititte areas, the Levant, and the eastern Mediterranean, faced severe and widespread food shortages, potentially from [[plant disease]]s. Ugarit received a number of desperate pleas for food from other realms. The food shortage eventually reached Ugarit, previously a major supplier and transporter of food supplies. A letter from Egyptian pharaoh [[Merenptah]] referred to a missive sent by the ruler of Ugarit: [57] => {{blockquote|"So you had written to me: “Could I not have demanded my needs [from] the Great King, the king of Egypt, my lord? I demand this request: [In] the land of Ugarit there is a severe hunger (bi-ru-ú dan-niš): May my lord save [the land of Ugarit], and may the king give grain (ZÍZ.AN.MEŠ) to save my life … and to save the citizens of the land of Ugarit." [58] => }} [59] => [60] => The last king of Ugarit, [[Ammurapi]] (circa 1215 to 1180 BC), was a contemporary of the last known [[Hittites|Hittite]] king, [[Suppiluliuma II]]. The exact dates of his reign are unknown. However, a letter by the king is preserved, in which Ammurapi stresses the seriousness of [[Bronze Age collapse|the crisis]] faced by many Near Eastern states due to attacks. At this time Ugarit possessed a large army and navy and both joined with Hittite forces to try and stem the oncoming enemy, eventually having to fall back from Anatolia to the Syrian border.Astour, Michael C., "New Evidence on the Last Days of Ugarit", American Journal of Archaeology, vol. 69, no. 3, pp. 253–58, 1965Rainey, A. F., "The Military Personnel of Ugarit", Journal of Near Eastern Studies, vol. 24, no. 1/2, pp. 17–27, 1965 Ammurapi's response to an appeal for assistance from the king of [[Alashiya]] highlights the desperate situation that Ugarit and other cities faced: [61] => [62] => {{blockquote|My father, behold, the enemy's ships came (here); my cities(?) were burned, and they did evil things in my country. Does not my father know that all my troops and chariots(?) are in the Land of Hatti, and all my ships are in the Land of [[Lukka]]? ... Thus, the country is abandoned to itself. May my father know it: the seven ships of the enemy that came here inflicted much damage upon us.Nougayrol, Jean, Laroche, Emmanuel, Virolleaud, Charles and Schaeffer, Claude F.-A. (eds.), "Ugaritica V. Nouveaux textes accadiens, hourrites et ugaritiques des archives et bibliothèques privées d’Ugarit, commentaires des textes historiques", Mission de Ras Shamra 16, Paris, 1968 [63] => }} [64] => [65] => Eshuwara, the senior governor of Cyprus, responded: [66] => [67] => {{blockquote|"As for the matter concerning those enemies: (it was) the people from your country (and) your own ships (who) did this! And (it was) the people from your country (who) committed these transgression(s) ... I am writing to inform you and protect you. Be aware!"Cline, Eric H., Translation of letter RS 20.18 in "[[1177 B.C.: The Year Civilization Collapsed]]". Princeton University Press. p. 151, 2014}} [68] => [69] => At the end Ammurapi begs for forces from the Hittite viceroy at Carchemish, the enemy having captured Ugarit's other port, [[Ras Ibn Hani|Ra’šu]], and was advancing on the city. [70] => {{blockquote|"To the king, my lord say, thus Ammurapi, your servant.… I wrote you twice, thrice, [new]s regarding the enemy! … May my lord know that now the enemy forces are stationed at Ra’šu, and their avant-guard forces were sent to Ugarit. Now may my lord send me forces and chariots, and may my lord save me from the forces of this enemy!" [71] => }} [72] => [73] => The ruler of [[Carchemish]] sent troops to assist Ugarit, but Ugarit had been sacked. A letter sent after Ugarit had been destroyed said: [74] => [75] => {{blockquote|When your messenger arrived, the army was humiliated and the city was sacked. Our food in the threshing floors was burnt and the vineyards were also destroyed. Our city is sacked. May you know it! May you know it! [76] => }} [77] => [78] => [[File:Boar rhyton Louvre AO18521.jpg|thumb|Mycenaean ceramic imported to Ugarit, 14th–13th century BC]] [79] => By excavating the highest levels of the city's ruins, archaeologists have studied various attributes of Ugaritic civilization just before their destruction and compared artifacts with those of nearby cultures to help establish dates. Ugarit contained many caches of [[cuneiform]] tablets inside of libraries that contained a wealth of valuable information. The destruction levels of the ruin contained Late Helladic IIIB pottery ware, but no LH IIIC (see [[Mycenaean period]]). Therefore, the date of the destruction of Ugarit is crucial for the dating of the LH IIIC phase in [[mainland Greece]]. Since an Egyptian sword bearing the name of pharaoh [[Merneptah]] was found in the destruction levels, 1190 BC was taken as the date for the beginning of the LH IIIC. A cuneiform tablet found in 1986 shows that Ugarit was destroyed sometime after the death of Merneptah (1203 BC). It is generally agreed that Ugarit had already been destroyed by the eighth year of [[Ramesses III]] (1178 BC). Recent radiocarbon work, combined with other historical dates and the eclipse of January 21, 1192, indicates a destruction date between 1192 and 1190 BC.[http://www.plosone.org/article/info:doi/10.1371/journal.pone.0020232] Kaniewski D, Van Campo E, Van Lerberghe K, Boiy T, Vansteenhuyse K, et al., "The Sea Peoples, from Cuneiform Tablets to Carbon Dating.", PLoS ONE 6(6), 2011 [[Bay (chancellor)|Bay]], an official of the Egyptian queen [[Twosret]], in a tablet (RS 86.2230) found at Ras Shamra, was in communication with [[Ammurapi]], the last ruler of Ugarit. Bay was in office from approximately 1194–1190 BC. This sets an upper limit on the destruction date of Ugarit. It is important to remember that the [[Chronology of the ancient Near East]] and that of the ancient Egypt are not yet perfectly synchronized.[https://www.persee.fr/doc/syria_0039-7946_1988_num_65_3_7086] Freu J, "La tablette RS 86.2230 et la phase finale du Royaume d’Ugarit", Syria, vol. 65, pp.395–398, 1988 [80] => [81] => A large number of arrowheads were recovered from the destruction level in 2021. Their typology has not been published as yet.Boyes, Philip J., "The Impact and Legacy of Alphabetic Cuneiform", Script and Society: The Social Context of Writing Practices in Late Bronze Age Ugarit, Oxbow Books, pp. 261–76, 2021 [82] => [83] => ==Rulers== [84] => Early in the excavations a partial text of the Ugarit King List, in Ugaritic, was found. Later, complete renditions in Akkadian were discovered. They list twenty six rulers, all deified. Only the later rulers are supported by texts or known synchronisms. Given that Ugarit was abandoned between the Middle and Late Bronze Ages it is thought that the earliest names on the list were more on the order of tribal chiefs than kings.Vidal, Jordi, "The Origins of the Last Ugaritic Dynasty", Altorientalische Forschungen, vol. 33, no. 1, pp. 168-175, 2006Aboud, J., "Die Rolle des Königs und seiner Familie nach den Texten von Ugarit", Münster, 1994Kitchen, Κ. Α., "The King List of Ugarit", UF 9, 131-142, 1977Arnaud (D.), "Prolégomènes à la rédaction d’une histoire d’Ougarit, II: Les borderaux de rois divi-nisés", Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici 41/2, pp. 155–73, 1999Schmidt, B., "A Re-evaluation of the Ugaritic King List", in Ugarit, Reli-gion, and Culture. Edited by N. Wyatt, W. Watson, and J. Lloyd, Münster: Ugarit-Verlag, pp. 289–304, 1996 [85] => {| class="nowraplinks wikitable" [86] => |- [87] => ! Ruler !! Reigned !! Comments [88] => |- [89] => | Niqmaddu I |||| Known only from a damaged seal that mentions "Yaqarum, son of Niqmaddu, king of Ugarit".Smith, Mark S., "The Ugaritic Baal Cycle: Volume 1. Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU 1.1–1.2", Vetus Testamentum Supplements series, volume 55; Leiden: Brill, 1994 {{ISBN|9789004099951}} [90] => |- [91] => | Yaqarum ||||Known only from a damaged seal that mentions "Yaqarum, son of Niqmaddu, king of Ugarit". [92] => |- [93] => | [[Ammittamru I]] || c. 1350 BC ||Heltzer, M., "Ammistamru I of Ugarit", NABU 2001/1, 2001 [94] => |- [95] => | [[Niqmaddu II]] || c. 1350–1315 BC || Contemporary of [[Hittites|Hittite]] ruler [[Suppiluliuma I]] [96] => |- [97] => | [[Arhalba]] || c. 1315–1313 BC || Contemporary of [[Hittites|Hittite]] ruler [[Mursili II]] [98] => |- [99] => | [[Niqmepa]] || c. 1313–1260 BC || Treaty with Mursili II; Son of Niqmadu II; Queen was [[Ahatmilku]] [100] => |- [101] => | [[Ammittamru II]] || c. 1260–1235 BC || Contemporary of [[Amurru kingdom|Amurru]] ruler Bentisina; Son of Niqmepa [102] => |- [103] => | [[Ibiranu]] || c. 1235–1225 BC || Addressee of the [[letter of Piha-walwi]] [104] => |- [105] => | [[Niqmaddu III]] || c. 1225–1215 BC || [106] => |- [107] => | [[Ammurapi]] || c. 1200 BC || Contemporary of [[Chancellor Bay]] of [[Ancient Egypt|Egypt]]. Ugarit is destroyed in his reign. [108] => |} [109] => [110] => ==Archaeology== [111] => [[File:Ugarit Corbel.jpg|thumb|Entrance to the [[Royal Palace of Ugarit]]]] [112] => After its destruction in the early 12th century BC, Ugarit's location was forgotten until 1928 when a peasant accidentally opened an old tomb while plowing a field. At that time the region was part of the [[Alawite State]], not in Syria. The discovered area was the [[necropolis]] of Ugarit located in the nearby seaport of [[Minet el-Beida]]. Excavations have since revealed a city with a prehistory reaching back to c. 6000 BC.Yon, Marguerite, "Introduction: History of Excavations", The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2006, pp. 7-8, 2006 [113] => [114] => The site covers an area of about 28 hectares with a maximum height of 20 meters at the top of the acropolis. The site is surrounded by a city wall with one known fortified gate, though four gates are believed to have existed. Since the Late Bronze Age about 50 meters have been eroded from the north end of the site by the Nahr Chbayyeb river. The southern slope of the tell is covered by orange groves, preventing excavation.Calvet, Yves, "Ugarit: The Kingdom and the City—Urban Features", Ugarit at Seventy-Five, edited by K. Lawson Younger Jr., University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 101-112, 2007 {{ISBN|1-57506-143-0}} A brief investigation of a looted tomb at the necropolis of Minet el-Beida was conducted by Léon Albanèse in 1928, who then examined the main mound of Ras Shamra.Léon Albanèse, "Note sur Ras Shamra", Syria, vol. 10, pp.16–21, 1929 Beginning in 1929 excavations of Ugarit were conducted by a French team called the Mission de Ras Shamra led by archaeologist [[Claude Schaeffer]] from the [[Musée archéologique (Strasbourg)|Musée archéologique]] in [[Strasbourg]].Claude F. A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Sixième Campagne (Printemps 1934). Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 16, no. 2, pp. 141–76, 1935Claude F.-A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Septième Campagne (Printemps 1935) Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 105–49, 1936Claude F.-A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit Huitième Campagne (Printemps 1936): Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 18, no. 2, pp. 125–54, 1937Claude F.-A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit: Neuvième Campagne (Printemps 1937). Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 19, no. 4, pp. 313–34, 1938 Work continued until 1939 when it was interrupted by the outbreak of World War II.Claude F.-A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Neuvième Campagne (Printemps 1937): Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 19, no. 3, pp. 193–255, 1938Claude F.-A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Sharma-Ugarit: Dixième et Onzième Campagnes (Automne et Hiver 1938-39). Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 20, no. 4, pp. 277–95, 1939Schaeffer, C. F. A., "Nouvelles Campagnes de Fouilles à Ras Shamra-Ugarit (IX-X : 1938-1939)", Revue Archéologique, vol. 14, pp. 67–69, 1939 [115] => [116] => The French excavation, now the Mission Archeologique Frangaise de Ras Shamra-Ougarit, resumed in 1950, led again by Claude Schaeffer until 1970.Claude F.-A. Schaeffer, "Les Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ugarit. Quinzième, Seizième et Dix-Septième Campagnes (1951, 1952 et 1953). Rapport Sommaire", Syria, vol. 31, no. 1/2, pp. 14–67, 1954Schaeffer, C. F. A., "Note Additionnelle Sur Les Fouilles Dans Le Palais Nord d’Ugarit", Syria, vol. 49, no. 1/2, pp. 27–33, 1972 At that point, directorship passed to Jean Margueron. Contenson, Henri de, Jacques-Claude Courtois, Élisabeth Lagarce, Jacques Lagarce, and Rolf Stucky, "La XXXIIIe Campagne de Fouilles a Ras Shamra En 1972. Rapport Préliminaire", Syria 50, no. 3/4, pp. 283–309, 1973Contenson, Henri de, Jacques-Claude Courtois, Élisabeth Lagarce, Jacques Lagarce, and Rolf Stucky, "La XXXIVe Campagne de Fouilles a Ras Shamra En 1973 Rapport Préliminaire", Syria 51, no. 1/2, pp. 1–30, 1974Margueron, Jean, "Ras Shamra 1975 et 1976 Rapport Préliminaire Sur Les Campagnes d'Automne", Syria 54, no. 3/4, pp. 151–88, 1977Yon, Marguerite, A. Caubet, J. Mallet, and Patrick Desfarges, "Ras Shamra-Ougarit, 38, 39 et 40e Campagnes (1978, 1979 et 1980)", Syria 59, no. 3/4, pp. 169–97, 1982Yon, Marguerite, A. Caubet, J. Mallet, P. Lombard, C. Doumet, and P. Desfarges, "Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ougarit 1981-1983 (41e, 42e et 43e Campagnes)", Syria 60, no. 3/4, pp. 201–24, 1983Yon, Marguerite, J. Gachet, and P. Lombard, "Fouilles de Ras Shamra-Ougarit 1984-1987 (44e-47e Campagnes)", Syria 64, no. 3/4, pp. 171–91,1987Yon, Marguerite, J. Gachet, P. Lombard, and J. Mallet, "Fouilles de La 48e Campagne (1988) à Ras Shamra-Ougarit", Syria 67, no. 1, pp. 1–29, 1990 After 44 excavation seasons all of the numerous finds and their findspots were collated.North, Robert, "Ugarit Grid, Strata, and Find-Localizations", Zeitschrift Des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins (1953-), vol. 89, no. 2, pp. 113–60, 1973Courtois, Jacques-Claude, "Ugarit Grid, Strata, and Find-Localizations: A Re-Assessment", Zeitschrift Des Deutschen Palästina-Vereins (1953-), vol. 90, no. 2, pp. 97–114, 1974 In 2005 the excavation became a joint French and Syrian effort led by Valérie Matoïan and Khozama Al-Bahloul.Al-Maqdissi, Michel, Khozama Bahloul, Olivier Callot, Yves Calvet, Valérie Matoïan, and Caroline Sauvage, "Rapport Préliminaire Sur Les Activités De La Mission Syro-Française De Ras Shamra-Ougarit en 2005 et 2006 (65e et 66e Campagnes)", Syria 84, pp. 33–55, 2007Al-Maqdissi, Michel, Yves Calvet, Valérie Matoïan, Khozama Al-Bahloul, Christophe Benech, Jean-Claude Bessac, Éric Coqueugniot, et al., "Rapport Préliminaire Sur Les Activités De La Mission Syro-Française De Ras Shamra-Ougarit En 2007 et 2008 (67e Et 68e Campagnes)", Syria 87, pp. 21–51, 2010 These continued until being ended due to the Syrian Civil War.[https://library.oapen.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12657/52589/1/external_content.pdf]Boyes, Philip J., "Script and Society: The social context of writing practices in Late Bronze Age Ugarit", Oxbow Books, 2021 [117] => [118] => Archaeologists have defined a number of occupation strata at the site based on the excavations: [119] => *Strata 1 - 500-300 BC - Helenistic up thru Arabi [120] => *Lacuna - 900-600 BC - no occupation [121] => *Stratum 2 - 1100-900 BC - Iron Age [122] => *Stratum 3 - 1365-1200 BC - Late Bronze 2 = RS 1/3 = UR 3 [123] => *Stratum 4 - 1450-1365 BC - Late Bronze 1-2 = RS 1/2 = UR 2 [124] => *Stratum 5 - 1550-1450 BC - Late Bronze 1 = RS 1/1 = UR 1 [125] => *Lacuna - 1650-1550 BC - no occupation [126] => *Stratum 6 - 1750-1650 BC - Middle Bronze '3' = RS 2/3 = UM 2 [127] => *Stratum 7 - 1900-1750 BC - Middle Bronze '2' = RS 2/2 = UM 2 = Middle Minoan 2 [128] => *Stratum 8 - 2100-1900 BC - Middle Bronze = RS 2/1 = UM 1 [129] => *Stratum 9 - 2300-2100 BC - Early Bronze 4 = RS 3/3 or III A; = UA 3 [130] => *Stratum 10 - 2500-2300 BC - Early Bronze 3 = RS 3/2 or III A 2 + 3; = UA 2 [131] => *Stratum 11 - c. 2800 BC - Early Bronze 1 - 2 = RS 3/1 or III B-C; = UA 1 [132] => *Stratum 12 - c. 3300 BC - 'Ubayd chalcolithic = RS 4 A-B (with some RS 3) [133] => *Stratum 13 - 4000 - 3400 BC - Halaf chalcolithic = RS 4-C (4 A-B) [134] => *Stratum 14 - c. 4000 BC - Neolithic with pottery = RS 5 A-B [135] => *Stratum 15 - c. 4500 BC - Pre-Pottery Neolithic = RS 5-C [136] => [137] => A number of areas lay within the fortifications of Ugarit. In the northwest section was an acropolis with the temples of [[Dagon]] and [[Baal]]. In the west was the Royal Zone, including the [[Royal Palace of Ugarit|Royal Palace]]. A fortress protecting the latter area was excavated, with the earliest elements dating back to the Middle Bronze Age. To the west of that lies the modern village of Ras Shamra. There were densely populated residential areas to the east of the Royal Zone and on the southern slope of the tell.Yon, Marguerite, "Ugarit: The Urban Habitat The Present State of the Archaeological Picture", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, no. 286, pp. 19–34, 1992Yon, Marguerite, "Description of the Tell", The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 27-122, 2006 [138] => [139] => ===Cuneiform tablets=== [140] => {{Main|Ugarit texts}} [141] => [[File:Text of Law in Akkadian by King Niqmepa with dynastic seal Ras Shamra Louvre Museum.jpg|thumb|Text of Law in Akkadian by King Niqmepa with dynastic seal Ras Shamra Louvre Museum]] [142] => Numerous cuneiform tablets have been found.Charles Virolleaud, "Les Inscriptions Cunéiformes de Ras Shamra", Syria, vol. 10, pp. 304–310, 1929Claude F. A. Schaeffer, "The Cuneiform Texts of Ras Shamra-Ugarit", 1939Claude F. A. Schaeffer, The Cuneiform Texts of Ras Shamra-Ugarit: The Schweich Lectures of the British Academy 1937, Periodicals Service Co., 1986. {{ISBN|3-601-00536-0}}.Claude F. A. Schaeffer et al., Le Palais Royal D'Ugarit III: Textes Accadiens et Hourrites Des Archives Est, Ouest et Centrales, Two Volumes (Mission De Ras Shamra Tome VI), Imprimerie Nationale, 1955.Sauvage, Caroline, and Christine Lorre, ed., "À la découverte du royaume d'Ougarit (Syrie du IIe millénaire). Les fouilles de C.F.A. Schaeffer à Minet el-Beida et Ras Shamra (1929‒1937)", Austrian Academy of Sciences Press (Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 7, 2023 By the Late Bronze age Ugarit had a thriving dual-scribal system. Primarily it used the West Semitic [[Akkadian language]] which acted as the lingua franca throughout the region for diplomacy, business, and administrative purposes. In parallel, there was scribal activity in the local Northwest Semitic [[Ugaritic]] language.Hawley, Robert, Pardee, Dennis and Roche-Hawley, Carole, "The Scribal Culture of Ugarit", Journal of Ancient Near Eastern History, vol. 2, no. 2, pp. 229-267, 2016 A few scribes are known to have worked in both writing systems. A number of archives were found, the largest being that of the household of Urtēnu, a merchant with trading ties as far afield as [[Emar]].Atwood, Roger, "The Ugarit Archives", Archaeology, vol. 74, no. 4, pp. 24–31, 2021 This area of the tell was under military control at the time and about 100 tablets were found in the rubble from military construction. Later excavation found several hundred tablets in the actual home. One tablet mentions the enthronement of Kassite ruler [[Kadashman-Harbe II]] (c. 1223 BC) whose rule lasted less than a year, allowing a tight synchronism. The latest datable text was from the reign of Kassite ruler [[Meli-Shipak II]] (c. 1186–1172 BC) about the time of the destruction of Ugarit.Cohen, Yoram, et al., "The “Hunger Years” and the “Sea Peoples”: preliminary observations on the recently published letters from the “house of Urtenu” Archive at Ugarit", Ve-‘Ed Ya’aleh (Gen 2: 6): Essays in Biblical and Ancient Near Eastern Studies Presented to Edward L, pp. 47-61, 2021 An example of the archive involving one ton of copper: [143] => {{blockquote|"Thus Kušmešuša, king of Alašiya, say to Niqmaddu, king of Ugarit, my son. All is well with me, my households, my countries, my wives, my sons, my troops, my horses and my chariots.… In exchange of the gift which you had sent me, I sent to you thirty-three (ingots of) copper; their weight is thirty talents and six-thousand and five-hundred shekels."Lackenbacher, S./F. Malbran-Labat, "Lettres en akkadien de la “Maison d’Urtēnu”: fouilles de 1994 (RSOu. 23)", Leuven, 2016 [144] => }} [145] => [146] => One small tablet written in [[Cypro-Minoan syllabary|Cypro-Minoan]] was found on the surface of the tell.Schaeffer C. F. A., "Nouvelles découvertes à Ras Shamra-Ugarit et à Enkomi-Alasia (Chypre) en 1953", CRAI, pp. 97‑106, 1954Yon, Marguerite, "Artifacts Illustrating Official and Everyday Life", The City of Ugarit at Tell Ras Shamra, University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, pp. 123-172, 2006 While it traditionally has been assumed that syllabic texts are in the Akkadian language and alphabetic texts are in Ugaritic it has been suggested that much of the syllabic writing, especially in administrative documents, is actually in "a jargon where an Akkadian dialect is hard to detect given the great amount of Ugaritic elements it contained".[https://digital.csic.es/bitstream/10261/243915/5/Administrative_Texts_in_Ugarit.pdf]Kottsieper, Ingo; Neumann, Hans (ed.), Literaturkontakte Ugarits, Wurzeln und Entfaltungen, Zaphon, pp. 189-198, 2021[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/saoc62.pdf]Robert Hawley, "On the Alphabetic Scribal Curriculum at Ugarit", Robert D. Biggs, Jennie Myers, and Martha T. Roth, eds., in Proceedings of the 51st Rencontre Assyriologique Internationale, Held at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago, July 18–22, 2005, Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 62, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, pp. 57-68, 2008 {{ISBN|978-1-885923-54-7}} [147] => [148] => === Royal palace === [149] => {{Main|Royal Palace of Ugarit}} [150] => [151] => [[File:Ugarit Royal Palace archives space 3912.jpg|thumb|Ugarit Royal Palace archives space]] [152] => The Royal Palace was constructed over several major phases between the 15th and 13th centuries BC. It comprised rooms arranged around courtyards, encompassing 6,500 square meters before the city's destruction in the early 12th century BC. A tablet from the 14th century BC found in the [[Amarna letters|Amarna archives]], EA 89, [[Rib-Hadda]] of [[Byblos]] likening the palace at [[Tyre, Lebanon|Tyre]] to the grandeur found in the palace within Ugarit's walls.Albright, W. F., and William L. Moran, "Rib-Adda of Byblos and the Affairs of Tyre (EA 89)", Journal of Cuneiform Studies, vol. 4, no. 3, pp. 163–68, 1950 The palace was well constructed, predominantly crafted from stone, with preserved ashlar blocks reaching heights of up to 4 meters. Wooden crossbeams were also incorporated, inserted into slots within the stone masonry. A thick layer of plain plaster covered the walls. To the west of the palace was a set aside 10,000 square meter Royal Zone. [153] => [154] => [[File:5.9 Ugarit.jpg|thumb|Ugarit Royal Palace reception hall]] [155] => Archaeological findings within the ruins have included a variety of artifacts including ivory carvings, stone stele, figurines, and numerous tablets. These tablets were discovered in archives located across the palace; their contents encompass reports on outlying regions, judicial records—particularly from the south-central archives of the palace—and examples of practice writing by young scribes. Below ground, beneath two northern rooms, lay family tombs—three large chambers constructed with corbelled vaults—found devoid of any contents.Pitard, Wayne T., "The ‘Libation Installations’ of the Tombs at Ugarit", The Biblical Archaeologist, vol. 57, no. 1, pp. 20–37, 1994 The vanished upper floor likely accommodated the private quarters of the royal family, accessed via twelve staircases. [156] => [157] => === Acropolis === [158] => [[File:5.6 Ugarit.jpg|thumb|Ugarit]] [159] => The Acropolis, positioned in the Ugarit's northeastern section, housed the city's primary temples dedicated to Baal and his father, Dagan. Though the existing remnants date to the Late Bronze Age, these temples might have their origins in the Middle Bronze Age. Stelai discovered in this area portray or name these gods, affirming their identification for the respective cults. Within the Temple of Baal, discoveries include the [[Baal with Thunderbolt]] depicting Baal holding a club aloft, portrayed in a typical Near Eastern and Egyptian artistic style as well as a stela bearing a dedication to Baal of Sapan. Numerous statues, stelai—some offered by Egyptians—and sixteen stone anchors were found as votive offerings in this vicinity. [160] => [161] => [[File:Ugarit Dagan aka Dagon temple 3971.jpg|thumb|Dagon temple]] [162] => Both temples are composed of a pronaos (porch) and a naos (sanctuary proper), aligned from north-northeast to south-southwest. The Temple of Dagan has 4–5-meter-thick foundation walls. Remnants of the Temple of Baal encompass sections of an enclosing wall, a likely courtyard altar, monumental steps leading to the elevated pronaos and naos, and another presumed altar within the naos. The temple was destroyed, possibly by an earthquake, in the mid 13th century and not rebuilt. The Temple of Dagan was also destroyed at that time but was rebuilt.Boyes, Philip J., "Social Change in Late Bronze Age Ugarit", Script and Society: The Social Context of Writing Practices in Late Bronze Age Ugarit, Oxbow Books, pp. 225–44, 2021 {{ISBN|978-1789255836}} [163] => [164] => Another significant structure within the Acropolis was the House of the High Priest, situated west of the Temple of Dagan. This large, two-story residence, largely well-constructed, contained tablets containing mythological poems. Some tablets demonstrated writing exercises and included syllabic and bilingual lexicons, implying the building's use as a center for scribe training. Its proximity to the primary temples and the discovery of bronze tools, particularly four small adzes and a dedicated hoe, hints at its potential role as the residence of the city's chief priest. Among a cache of seventy-four bronze items uncovered beneath a doorway threshold inside the house, was an elegant tripod adorned with pomegranate-shaped pendants. [165] => [166] => ===[[Ras Ibn Hani]] and Minet el Beida=== [167] => [[File:RasIbnHani,tomb1.jpg|thumb| Ras Ibn Hani. Tomb in north palace]] [168] => Two nearby areas, Ras Ibn Hani and Minet el Beida, parts of the city of Ugarit, have also been excavated. Ras Ibn Hani, on a promontory overlooking the Mediterranean 5 kilometers south of the city, was discovered during commercial construction in 1977. Salvage excavation occurred in 1977 followed by regular excavation which has continued to the present by a Syrian-French team led by A. Bounni and J. Lagarce.Bounni (A.) and Lagarce (E. and J.), "Ras Ibn Hani I: Le Palais Nord du Bronze Récent", BAH, Beirut, 1998 Occupation began in the mid-13th century BC. Abandoned along with Ugarit, it was re-occupied in the Hellenistic period, including the construction of a defensive fortress. A "royal palace", elite housing, and tombs were found. About 169 cuneiform tablets, most in the Ugaritic language, were also found.[https://journals.openedition.org/syria/14920]Vita, Juan-Pablo,Pierre Bordreuil, Dennis Pardee et Carole Roche-Hawley, "Ras Ibn Hani II. Les textes en écritures cunéiformes de l’âge du Bronze récent (fouilles 1977 à 2022)" Syria. Archéologie, art et histoire, 2023 {{ISBN|978-2-35159-756-9}} [169] => [170] => [[File:Sceau Minet el Beida AO15771.jpg|thumb| Cylinder seal, steatite, representing a warrior holding a head stuck on a pike, and various figures: winged disc, lioness, twist, bust of a man, globules, caprids around a tree, hand, etc. From Minet el-Beida]] [171] => One of the two ports of ancient Ugarit (the other, Ra’šu, is unlocated but suggested to be Ras Ibn Hani) was located 1.5 kilometers west of the main city, at the natural harbor of Minet el Beida (Arabic for "White Harbor"). The 28 hectare site was excavated between 1929 and 1935 by Claude Schaeffer. The site is currently a military port and unavailable for excavation.Morton, W. H., "Ras Shamra-Ugarit and Old Testament Exegesis", "Review & Expositor", 45(1), pp. 63-80, 1948Schaeffer, F. A., "The French Excavations at Minet el Beida and Ras Shamra in Syria", Antiquity, 4(16), pp. 460-466, 1930 Its name in the Late Bronze Age is believed to have been Maʾḫadu.Astour, Michael C., "Maʾḫadu, the Harbor of Ugarit", Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient, vol. 13, no. 2, pp. 113–27, 1970 Archaeological excavations carried out on the southern side of the bay, now reduced in size due to alluvial fill, unveiled remnants of a settlement established in the 14th century BC, and perhaps earlier, in the late 15th century.Curtis, A. H., "Ras Shamra, Minet el-Beida and Ras Ibn Hani: The Material Sources", In Wilfred G. E. Watson and Nicolas Wyatt (ed) Handbook of Ugaritic studies, Brill, pp. 5-27, 1999 {{ISBN|90-04-10988-9}} This port town, featuring an urban layout akin to the city of Ugarit, displays irregular street formations. Dwellings were structured around courtyards with adjacent rooms, including provisions like wells, ovens, and occasionally subterranean tombs. Besides residential spaces and shrines, warehouses were present for storing diverse goods earmarked for import or export. One of them was discovered still housing eighty shipping jars that remain remarkably intact.Sauvage, Caroline, "Nouvelle réflexion sur le "dépôt aux 80 jarres" de Minet el-Beida", De l'île d'Aphrodite au Paradis perdu, itinéraire d'un gentilhomme lyonnais. En hommage à Yves Calvet, hrsg. v. Bernard Geyer, Valérie Matoïan (Ras Shamra - Ougarit 22)., pp. 63-76, 2015Yon (M.), "Ougarit et le port de Mahadou–Minet el-Beida", in Res Maritimae, ed. S. Swiny, R. Hoh-felder, and L. Swiny, Atlanta, pp. 357–69, 1997 [172] => [173] => Artifacts discovered in the port indicate the predominance of native Ugaritians within the local populace, accompanied by a significant presence of various foreign communities such as [[Ancient Egypt|Egyptians]], [[Ancient history of Cyprus|Cypriots]], [[Hittites]], [[Hurrians]], and [[Aegean civilization|Aegean]] peoples. Among the discoveries were [[Pottery of ancient Cyprus|Cypriot pottery]] (both imported and locally crafted), [[Mycenaean pottery]], ivory cosmetic containers from Egypt, a terracotta depiction of [[Hathor]], bronze tools and weaponry, cylinder seals, stone weights, remnants of [[Hexaplex trunculus|banded dye-murex shells]] used in the production of [[Tyrian purple|purple dye]], and inscribed tablets.Barber, E. J.W., "Dyes", in Prehistoric Textiles: The Development of Cloth in the Neolithic and Bronze Ages with Special Reference to the Aegean, Princeton: Princeton University Press, pp. 223-244, 1991Schaeffer, C. F. A., "Les fouilles de Minet-el-Beida et de Ras Shamra. Troisieme campagne (printemps 1931). Rapport sommaire", Syria 13, pp. 1-27, 1932 [174] => [175] => The site is thought to have been largely evacuated before it was burned (resulting in a thick ash layer) and destroyed as few valuables were found in the residences or in the southern palace. About 130 cuneiform tablets were found in the northern palace. After the destruction the site was occupied by simple residences, termed a village by the excavators. Aegean style pottery and loom weights were found in this Iron Age I level.[https://biblio.ugent.be/publication/8705278/file/8705282]Bretschneider, Joachim, Jan Driessen, and Athanasia Kanta, "Cyprus and Ugarit at the end of the Late Bronze Age: insights from Pyla-Kokkinokremos", Ougarit, un anniversaire: bilans et recherches en cours, Vol. 28. Peeters, pp. 607-638, 2021 [176] => [177] => ==Language and literature== [178] => {{Ugarit}} [179] => [180] => ===Alphabet=== [181] => {{Main|Ugaritic alphabet}} [182] => [183] => Scribes in Ugarit appear to have originated the "[[Ugaritic alphabet]]" around 1400 BC: 30 letters, corresponding to sounds, were inscribed on clay tablets. Although they are [[cuneiform script|cuneiform]] in appearance, the letters bear no relation to Mesopotamian cuneiform signs; instead, they appear to be somehow related to the [[Egyptian hieroglyphs|Egyptian]]-derived [[Phoenician alphabet]]. While the letters show little or no formal similarity to the Phoenician, the standard letter order (seen in the [[Phoenician alphabet]] as ʔ, B, G, D, H, W, Z, Ḥ, Ṭ, Y, K, L, M, N, S, ʕ, P, Ṣ, Q, R, Š, T) shows strong similarities between the two, suggesting that the Phoenician and Ugaritic systems were not wholly independent inventions.[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/saoc60.pdf]Dennis Pardee, "The Ugaritic Alphabetic Cuneiform Writing System in the Context of Other Alphabetic Systems", Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization, Oriental Institute, vol. 60, pp. 181–200, 2007 A [[Ugaritic (Unicode block)|Unicode block]] for Ugaritic has been defined.[https://unicode.org/charts/PDF/U10380.pdf], Ugaritic [184] => Range: 10380–1039F, The Unicode Standard, Version 15.1 [185] => [186] => ===Ugaritic language=== [187] => {{Main|Ugaritic language|Ugaritic grammar}} [188] => [189] => The existence of the [[Ugaritic language]] is attested to in texts from the 14th through the 12th century BC. Ugaritic is usually classified as a [[Northwest Semitic languages|Northwest Semitic language]] and therefore related to [[Hebrew]], [[Aramaic]], and [[Phoenician language|Phoenician]], among others. Its [[grammar|grammatical]] features are highly similar to those found in [[Arabic|Classical Arabic]] and [[Akkadian language|Akkadian]]. It possesses two [[genders]] (masculine and feminine), three [[grammatical case|cases]] for [[nouns]] and [[adjectives]] ([[nominative]], [[accusative]], and [[genitive]]); three numbers: ([[singulative number|singular]], [[dual (grammatical number)|dual]], and [[plural]]); and [[verb]] [[grammatical aspect|aspects]] similar to those found in other Northwest Semitic languages. The word order in Ugaritic is [[verb–subject–object]], [[subject-object-verb]] (VSO)&(SOV); [[possession (linguistics)|possessed–possessor]] (NG) (first element dependent on the function and second always in genitive case); and [[noun]]–[[adjective]] (NA) (both in the same case (i.e. congruent)).[https://archive.org/details/segert-a-basic-grammar-of-the-ugaritic-language-1984]Stanislav Segert, "A basic Grammar of the Ugaritic Language: with selected texts and glossary", 1984 {{ISBN|9780520039995}} [190] => [191] => ===Ugaritic literature=== [192] => [[File:Baal Ugarit Louvre AO17330.jpg|thumb|130px|right|A [[Baal]] statuette from Ugarit]] [193] => [194] => Apart from royal correspondence with neighboring Bronze Age monarchs, Ugaritic literature from tablets found in the city's libraries include mythological texts written in a poetic narrative, letters, legal documents such as land transfers, a few international treaties, and a number of administrative lists. Fragments of several poetic works have been identified: the "[[Legend of Keret]]", the "Legend of [[Danel]]", the [[Baal cycle|Ba'al tales]] that detail [[Baal]]-[[Hadad]]'s conflicts with [[Yam (god)|Yam]] and [[Mot (Semitic god)|Mot]], among other fragments.Wyatt, Nicolas, "Religious texts from Ugarit: the worlds of Ilimilku and his colleagues", The Biblical Seminar, volume 53. Sheffield, England: Sheffield Academic Press, 1998Bordreuil, Pierre and Pardee, Dennis, "A Manual of Ugaritic", University Park, USA: Penn State University Press, 2009 [195] => [196] => == See also == [197] => {{Commons category|Ugarit}} [198] => * [[Asherah]] [199] => * [[Cities of the ancient Near East]] [200] => * [[Short chronology timeline]] [201] => * [[List of Ugaritic deities]] [202] => *[[Ugaritic Vintage Rites]] [203] => [204] => ==References== [205] => {{Reflist}} [206] => [207] => ==Further reading== [208] => {{refbegin}} [209] => *Bourdreuil, P., "Une bibliothèque au sud de la ville : Les textes de la 34e campagne (1973)", in Ras Shamra-Ougarit, 7, Paris, 1991 [210] => *[https://knowledge.uchicago.edu/record/286/files/Buck_uchicago_0330D_14194.pdf]Buck, Mary Ellen, "The Amorite dynasty of Ugarit: The historical origins of the Bronze age polity of Ugarit based upon linguistic, literary, and archaeological evidence", Disertation, The University of Chicago, 2018 [211] => *[[André Caquot|Caquot, André]] & [[Maurice Sznycer|Sznycer, Maurice]], "Ugaritic Religion", Iconography of Religions, Section XV: Mesopotamia and the Near East; Fascicle 8; Institute of Religious Iconography, State University Groningen; Leiden: E.J. Brill, 1980. [212] => *Cornelius, Izak & Niehr, Herbert, "Götter und Kulte in Ugarit", Mainz: Philipp von Zabern, 2004, {{ISBN|3-8053-3281-5}}. [213] => *[[Robert Drews|Drews, Robert]], "The End of the Bronze Age: Changes in Warfare and the Catastrophe ca. 1200 BC", (Princeton University Press), 1995 {{ISBN|0-691-02591-6}} [214] => *Gordon, Cyrus H., "The Poetic Literature of Ugarit", Orientalia, vol. 12, pp. 31–75, 1943 [215] => *Gregorio Del Olmo Lete, "Canaanite Religion: According to the Liturgical Texts of Ugarit", 2004 [216] => *[https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/Publications/SAOC/saoc73.pdf]H. H. Hardy II, Joseph Lam, and Eric D. Reymond, eds, "'Like 'Ilu Are You Wise': Studies in Northwest Semitic Languages and Literatures in Honor of Dennis G. Pardee", Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 73, Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2022 {{ISBN|978-1-61491-075-6}} [217] => *Kinet, Dirk, "Ugarit – Geschichte und Kultur einer Stadt in der Umwelt des Alten Testaments", Stuttgarter Bibelstudien vol. 104. Stuttgart: Verlag Katholisches Bibelwerk, 1981, {{ISBN|3-460-04041-6}}. [218] => *Loretz, Oswald, "Ugarit und die Bibel. Kanaanäische Götter und Religion im Alten Testament", Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft, 1990 {{ISBN|3-534-08778-X}}. [219] => *Owen, David, "An Akkadian Letter from Ugarit at Tel Aphek", Tel Aviv 8: 1–17, 1981 [220] => *Dennis Pardee, "Ritual and Cult at Ugarit", (Writings from the Ancient World), Society of Biblical Literature, 2002 {{ISBN|1-58983-026-1}} [221] => *Saadé, Gabriel, "Ougarit et son royaume. Des origines à sa destruction", Bibliothèque archéologique et historique, vol. 193. Beyrouth: IFPO, 2011 {{ISBN|978-2-35159-180-2}}. [222] => *Sauvage, Caroline, and Christine Lorre, ed., "Discovering the kingdom of Ugarit (Syria of the 2nd millennium). C.F.A. Schaeffer's excavations at Minet el-Beida and Ras Shamra (1929‒1937)", (Austrian Academy of Sciences Press (Contributions to the Archaeology of Egypt, Nubia and the Levant 7), 2023 {{ISBN|978-3-7001-7998-6}} [223] => *[[William M. Schniedewind]], Joel H. Hunt, "A primer on Ugaritic: language, culture, and literature", 2007 {{ISBN|0-521-87933-7}} [224] => *Smith, Mark S. and Wayne Pitard, "The Ugaritic Baal Cycle: Volume 2. Introduction with Text, Translation and Commentary of KTU 1.3–1.4", Vetus Testament Supplement series, volume 114; Leiden: Brill, 2008 [225] => *Smith, Mark S., "Beginnings: 1928–1945", in Untold Stories. The Bible and Ugaritic Studies in the Twentieth Century, p. 13-49, 1991 {{ISBN|1-56563-575-2}} [226] => {{refend}} [227] => [228] => == External links == [229] => * [https://whc.unesco.org/en/tentativelists/1292/ Ugarit (Tell Shamra) 1999 application for UNESCO World Heritage Site] [230] => * [http://ochre.lib.uchicago.edu/RSTI/ RSTI]. The Ras Shamra Tablet Inventory: an online catalog of inscribed objects from Ras Shamra-Ugarit produced at the Oriental Institute of the University of Chicago. [231] => * [https://voices.uchicago.edu/rsti/ The Ras Shamra Tablet Inventory Blog] [232] => * [http://www.theology.edu/ugarbib.htm Ugarit and the Bible - Quartz Hill School of Theology] [233] => * [http://www.ras-shamra.ougarit.mom.fr/ Le Royaume d'Ougarit (in French)] [234] => * [https://isac.uchicago.edu/sites/default/files/uploads/shared/docs/nn172.pdf Dennis Pardee, Ugarit Ritual texts – Oriental Institute] [235] => * [http://www.pbase.com/dosseman_syria/ugarit Pictures from 2009] [236] => [237] => {{Ancient states and regions of the Levant |state = collapsed }} [238] => {{Rulers of the Ancient Near East}} [239] => {{Authority control}} [240] => [241] => [[Category:Ugarit| ]] [242] => [[Category:1928 archaeological discoveries]] [243] => [[Category:Amarna letters locations]] [244] => [[Category:Ancient Levant]] [245] => [[Category:Bronze Age sites in Syria]] [246] => [[Category:Destroyed populated places]] [247] => [[Category:Former populated places in Syria]] [248] => [[Category:Late Bronze Age collapse]] [249] => [[Category:Neolithic sites in Syria]] [250] => [[Category:Populated places disestablished in the 2nd millennium BC]] [251] => [[Category:Populated places established in the 6th millennium BC]] [252] => [[Category:States and territories disestablished in the 12th century BC]] [253] => [[Category:States and territories established in the 18th century BC]] [] => )
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Ugarit

Ugarit was an ancient Syrian city located near the Mediterranean Sea. It was a major center of trade and culture during the Late Bronze Age.

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It was a major center of trade and culture during the Late Bronze Age. The city was discovered in 1928, and its ruins have provided significant insights into the civilization that flourished there. The Wikipedia page on Ugarit provides a comprehensive overview of the city, its history, and its cultural significance. The article covers various aspects including geography, archaeology, economy, society, religion, and literature. The page begins with a description of Ugarit's location and its strategic importance as a port city. It then delves into the archaeological discoveries made at the site, highlighting the findings of various expeditions and the excavation of well-preserved clay tablets with cuneiform writing. The article also explores Ugarit's role as a major trading hub and a cosmopolitan city, connecting various civilizations of the time, such as the Hittites, Egyptians, and Mycenaeans. It discusses the economic activities, such as the production of olive oil, textiles, and metalwork, that contributed to the city's prosperity. Ugarit's society is examined, focusing on its hierarchical structure, government, and legal system. The religious practices of the city's inhabitants are also detailed, with a particular emphasis on the worship of a pantheon of gods, including El, Baal, and Anat. The significant role of Ugarit's religion in influencing neighboring cultures is highlighted as well. Additionally, the article explains the discovery and translation of the Ugaritic texts, shedding light on the city's literature and mythology. The Epic of Baal, a famous Ugaritic poem, is discussed as a notable example of the literary works found in Ugarit. In conclusion, the Wikipedia page on Ugarit provides a comprehensive overview of the ancient city's history, culture, and significance. It offers a valuable resource for those interested in understanding the role Ugarit played in the ancient world and its contributions to the fields of archaeology, literature, and religious studies.

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