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Array ( [0] => {{short description|Palace and fortress complex in Granada, Andalusia, Spain}} [1] => {{About|the palace in Granada, Spain}} [2] => {{Use dmy dates|date=March 2020}} [3] => {{Infobox historic site [4] => | image = Dawn Charles V Palace Alhambra Granada Andalusia Spain.jpg [5] => | caption = [6] => | location = [[Granada]], Spain [7] => | coordinates = {{coord|37|10|39|N|03|35|24|W|region:ES-AN_type:landmark|display=inline,title}} [8] => | website = {{URL|https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en|Patronato de la Alhambra}} [9] => | designation1 = WHS [10] => | designation1_partof = Alhambra, [[Generalife]] and [[Albaicín|Albayzín]], Granada [11] => | designation1_date = 1984 (8th [[World Heritage Committee|session]]) [12] => | designation1_criteria = Cultural: i, iii, iv [13] => | designation1_number = [https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/314 314-001] [14] => | designation1_free1name = Region [15] => | designation1_free1value = [[List of World Heritage Sites in Southern Europe]] [16] => | designation2 = Spain [17] => | designation2_type = Non-movable [18] => | designation2_criteria = Monument [19] => | designation2_date = 10 February 1870 [20] => | designation2_number = RI-51-0000009 [21] => }} [22] => [23] => The '''Alhambra''' ({{IPAc-en|æ|l|ˈ|h|æ|m|b|r|ə|}}, {{IPA-es|aˈlambɾa |lang}}; {{lang-ar|الْحَمْرَاء|translit=al-ḥamrāʼ }}) is a palace and fortress complex located in [[Granada]], [[Andalusia]], [[Spain]]. It is one of the most famous monuments of [[Islamic architecture]] and one of the best-preserved palaces of the historic [[Muslim world|Islamic world]], in addition to containing notable examples of Spanish [[Renaissance architecture]].{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=151}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=234}} [24] => [25] => The complex was begun in 1238 by [[Muhammad I of Granada|Muhammad I Ibn al-Ahmar]], the first [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrid]] emir and founder of the [[Emirate of Granada]], the last Muslim state of [[Al-Andalus]].{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=234}}{{Cite book |last=García-Arenal |first=Mercedes |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2014 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |chapter=Granada |journal=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |issn=1873-9830 |editor2-last=Krämer |editor2-first=Gudrun |editor3-last=Matringe |editor3-first=Denis |editor4-last=Nawas |editor4-first=John |editor5-last=Rowson |editor5-first=Everett}} It was built on the Sabika hill, an outcrop of the [[Sierra Nevada (Spain)|Sierra Nevada]] which had been the site of earlier fortresses and of the 11th-century palace of [[Samuel ibn Naghrillah]].{{Cite book |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M. |language=en |chapter=Granada |editor2-last=Blair |editor2-first=Sheila S.}} Later Nasrid rulers continuously modified the site. The most significant construction campaigns, which gave the royal palaces much of their definitive character, took place in the 14th century during the reigns of [[Yusuf I of Granada|Yusuf I]] and [[Muhammad V of Granada|Muhammad V]].{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=152}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=234–237}} After the conclusion of the Christian [[Reconquista]] in 1492, the site became the Royal Court of [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Ferdinand and Isabella]] (where [[Christopher Columbus]] received royal endorsement for his expedition), and the palaces were partially altered. In 1526, [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] commissioned a new [[Palace of Charles V|Renaissance-style palace]] in direct juxtaposition with the Nasrid palaces, but it was left uncompleted in the early 17th century. After being allowed to fall into disrepair for centuries, with its buildings occupied by [[squatters]], the Alhambra was rediscovered following the defeat of [[Peninsular War|Napoleon I]], whose troops destroyed parts of the site. The rediscoverers were first British intellectuals and then other American and Northern European [[Romanticism|Romantic]] travelers. The most influential of them was [[Washington Irving]], whose ''[[Tales of the Alhambra]]'' (1832) brought international attention to the site.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=303}} The Alhambra was one of the first Islamic monuments to become the object of modern scientific study and has been the subject of numerous restorations since the 19th century.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=238–239}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|pp=153–155}} It is now one of Spain's major tourist attractions and a [[UNESCO World Heritage Site]].{{cite web |title=Alhambra, Generalife and Albayzín, Granada |work=World Heritage List |publisher=UNESCO |url=https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/314 |access-date=13 January 2013 |archive-date=27 May 2008 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080527031642/https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/314 |url-status=live }} [26] => [27] => During the Nasrid era, the Alhambra was a self-contained city separate from the rest of Granada below.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=152}} It contained most of the amenities of a Muslim city such as a [[Congregational mosque|Friday mosque]], [[hammam]]s (public baths), roads, houses, artisan workshops, a [[Tanning (leather)|tannery]], and a sophisticated water supply system.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=201–215}}{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008}} As a royal city and citadel, it contained at least six major palaces, most of them located along the northern edge where they commanded views over the [[Albaicín]] quarter.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=152}} The most famous and best-preserved are the [[Mexuar]], the [[Court of the Myrtles|Comares Palace]], the [[Court of the Lions|Palace of the Lions]], and the [[Partal Palace]], which form the main attraction to visitors today. The other palaces are known from historical sources and from modern excavations.{{Sfn|López|2011}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017}} At the Alhambra's western tip is the [[Alcazaba of the Alhambra|Alcazaba fortress]]. Multiple smaller towers and fortified gates are also located along the Alhambra's walls. Outside the Alhambra walls and located nearby to the east is the [[Generalife]], a former Nasrid country estate and summer palace accompanied by historic [[orchard]]s and modern landscaped gardens.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=219–225}}{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008}} [28] => [29] => The architecture of the Nasrid palaces reflects the tradition of [[Moorish architecture]] developed over previous centuries.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017}} It is characterized by the use of the [[courtyard]] as a central space and basic unit around which other halls and rooms were organized.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=164}} Courtyards typically had water features at their center, such as a [[Reflecting pool|reflective pool]] or a fountain. Decoration was focused on the inside of the building and was executed primarily with [[Zellij|tile mosaics]] on lower walls and carved [[stucco]] on the upper walls. [[Islamic geometric patterns|Geometric patterns]], [[Arabesque|vegetal motifs]], and [[Arabic]] inscriptions were the main types of decorative motifs. Additionally, "stalactite"-like sculpting, known as ''[[muqarnas]]'', was used for three-dimensional features like [[Vault (architecture)|vaulted]] ceilings.{{Sfn|López|2011}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=164}} [30] => [[File:Alhambra evening panorama Mirador San Nicolas sRGB-1.jpg|thumb|450px|Panorama of the Alhambra from Mirador de San Nicolas. From left to right: [[Generalife]], [[Veleta (Sierra Nevada)|Veleta]] mountain, Nasrid Palaces, [[Palace of Charles V]], and [[Alcazaba of the Alhambra|Alcazaba]]|alt=]] [31] => [[File:Night view of Alhambra, Granada from Mirador de San Nicolas.jpg|thumb|450px|Night view of Alhambra from Mirador de San Nicolas]] [32] => [[File:La Alhambra, la joya de Granada.jpg|thumb|450px|Panorama of the Alhambra]] [33] => [34] => == Etymology == [35] => ''Alhambra'' derives from the [[Arabic]] {{lang|ar|الْحَمْرَاء}} (''{{transliteration|ar|ALA-LC|al-Ḥamrāʼ }}'', {{IPA-ar|alħamˈraːʔ|pron}}), meaning {{lit.|the red one}} (f.), the complete form of which was {{lang|ar|الْقَلْعَةُ ٱلْحَمْرَاءُ}} ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA-LC|al-Qalʻat al-Ḥamrāʼ }}'' "the red fortress ([[Qalat (fortress)|qalat]])".{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=234}} The "Al-" in "Alhambra" means "the" in Arabic, but this is ignored in general usage in both English and Spanish, where the name is normally given the definite article. The reference to the colour "red" in the name is due to the reddish colour of its walls, which were constructed of [[rammed earth]].{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=234}} The reddish colour comes from the [[iron oxide]] in the local [[clay]] used for this type of construction.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=41}} [36] => [37] => Most of the names used today for specific structures and locations within the Alhambra are imaginative names coined after the [[medieval period]], often in the 19th century.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|pp=6–7 (see also other pages about specific locations)}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=152}} The original Arabic names of the Nasrid-era buildings are not known, although some scholars have proposed connections between certain buildings and some of the names mentioned in historical sources.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=152}} [38] => [39] => ==History== [40] => === Origins and early history === [41] => [[File:Aa old gateway across rio darro in albaicin in granada.jpg|thumb|Remains of the ''Puente del Cadí'' (formerly ''Bāb al-Difāf''), an 11th-century Zirid fortification that enabled soldiers on the Sabika hill to access the river during times of siege]] [42] => The evidence for a Roman presence is unclear but archeologists have found remains of ancient foundations on the Sabika hill.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=293}} A fortress or citadel, probably dating from the Visigothic period, existed on the hill in the 9th century. The first reference to the ''Qal‘at al-Ḥamra'' was during the battles between the Arabs and the [[Muwallad|Muladies]] during the rule of [[Abdullah ibn Muhammad al-Umawi|‘Abdallah ibn Muhammad]] (r. 888–912). According to surviving documents from the era, the red castle was quite small, and its walls were not capable of deterring an army intent on conquering. The first reference to ''{{transliteration|ar|ALA-LC|al-Ḥamrāʼ }}'' came in lines of poetry attached to an arrow shot over the ramparts, recorded by [[Ibn Hayyan]] (d. 1076): [43] => "Deserted and roofless are the houses of our enemies; [44] => Invaded by the autumnal rains, traversed by impetuous winds; [45] => Let them within the red castle (Kalat al hamra) hold their mischievous councils; [46] => Perdition and woe surround them on every side."{{Cite book |last1=Calvert |first1=Albert Frederick |url=https://archive.org/details/granadapresentby00calvrich |title=Granada, present and bygone |last2=Hartley |first2=C. Gasquoine (Catherine Gasquoine) |date=1908 |publisher=London : J. M. Dent & co. |others=University of California Libraries}} [47] => [48] => At the beginning of the 11th century, the region of Granada was dominated by the Zirids, a [[Sanhaja]] [[Berbers|Berber]] group and offshoot of the [[Zirid dynasty|Zirids]] who ruled parts of [[North Africa]]. When the [[Caliphate of Córdoba]] collapsed after 1009 and the [[Fitna of al-Andalus|Fitna (civil war)]] began, the Zirid leader [[Zawi ben Ziri]] established an independent kingdom for himself, the [[Taifa of Granada]]. The Zirids built their citadel and palace, known as the ''al-Qaṣaba al-Qadīma'' ("Old Citadel" or "Old Palace"), on the hill now occupied by the [[Albaicín]] neighborhood. It was connected to two other fortresses on the Sabika and Mauror hills to the south. On the [[Darro (river)|Darro River]], between the Zirid citadel and the Sabika hill, was a [[Sluice|sluice gate]] called ''Bāb al-Difāf'' ("Gate of the Tambourines"),{{efn|The gate is known today as the ''Puente del Cadí'' ("Bridge of the [[Qadi]]") or the ''Puerta de los Tableros'' ("Gate of the Boards"), and all that remains of it is one of its hexagonal towers with fragments of its large [[horseshoe arch]]way.{{Sfn|Rėklaitytė|2021|p=443-445}}}} which could be closed to retain water if needed.{{Sfn|Rėklaitytė|2021|p=443-445}}{{Sfn|Rodgers|Cavendish|2021|p=21}} This gate was part of the fortification connecting the Zirid citadel with the fortress on the Sabika hill and it also formed part of a ''coracha'' (from Arabic ''qawraja''), a type of fortification allowing soldiers from the fortress to access the river and bring back water even during times of siege.{{Sfn|Rėklaitytė|2021|p=443-445}} The Sabika hill fortress, also known as ''al-Qasaba al-Jadida'' ("the New Citadel"), was later used for the foundations of the current [[Alcazaba of the Alhambra|Alcazaba]] of the Alhambra.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=149}}{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=81, 293}} Under the Zirid kings [[Habbus al-Muzaffar|Habbus ibn Maksan]] and [[Badis ibn Habus|Badis]], the most powerful figure in the kingdom was the [[Jews|Jewish]] administrator known as [[Samuel ibn Naghrillah|Samuel ha-Nagid]] (in [[Hebrew language|Hebrew]]) or Isma'il ibn Nagrilla (in Arabic).{{Cite book |last=Catlos |first=Brian A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xKBfDwAAQBAJ&dq=kingdoms+of+faith&pg=PP1 |title=Kingdoms of Faith: A New History of Islamic Spain |publisher=Basic Books |year=2018 |isbn=9780465055876 |location=New York |pages=216–220 |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=17 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117192241/https://books.google.com/books?id=xKBfDwAAQBAJ&dq=kingdoms+of+faith&pg=PP1 |url-status=live }} Samuel built his own palace on the Sabika hill, possibly on the site of the current palaces, although nothing remains of it. It reportedly included gardens and water features.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=149}}{{Efn|A 1956 theory by Frederick Bargebuhr{{Cite journal |last=Bargebuhr |first=Frederick P. |date=1956 |title=The Alhambra Palace of the Eleventh Century |journal=Journal of the Warburg and Courtauld Institutes |volume=19 |issue=3–4 |pages=192–258 |doi=10.2307/750296 |jstor=750296 |s2cid=190612778}} that the lion sculptures in the current [[Court of the Lions]] came from Samuel's palace has since been challenged and refuted by other scholars.{{Cite journal |last=Scheindlin |first=Raymond P. |date=1993–1994 |title=El poema de Ibn Gabirol y la fuente de los leones |journal=Cuadernos de la Alhambra |volume=29–30 |pages=185–190}}{{Sfn|Ruggles|2000|pp=164–167}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=283}}}} [49] => [50] => === Nasrid period === [51] => [[File:Detalle_de_la_pared_de_la_Sala_del_Mexuar._La_Alhambra,_Granada.«Sólo_Dios_es_vencedor».JPG|thumb|[[Islamic calligraphy]] in the [[Mexuar]] Hall: {{lang|ar|و لا غالب إلا الله}}, "[[Wala ghaliba illa Allah|There is no victor but God]]", a motto used by the Nasrid dynasty{{Sfn|Dickie|1992|p=139}}]] [52] => The period of the [[Taifa|Taifa kingdoms]], during which the Zirids ruled, came to an end with the conquest of [[al-Andalus]] by the [[Almoravid dynasty|Almoravids]] from North Africa during the late 11th century. In the mid-12th century they were followed by the [[Almohad Caliphate|Almohads]]. After 1228 Almohad rule collapsed and local rulers and factions emerged again across the territory of Al-Andalus.{{Sfn|Kennedy|1996|pp=265–267}} With the ''[[Reconquista]]'' in full swing, the Christian kingdoms of [[Kingdom of Castile|Castile]] and [[Kingdom of Aragon|Aragon]] – under kings [[Ferdinand III of Castile|Ferdinand III]] and [[James I of Aragon|James I]], respectively – made major conquests across al-Andalus. Castile captured [[Siege of Córdoba (1236)|Cordoba in 1236]] and [[Siege of Seville|Seville in 1248]]. Meanwhile, [[Muhammad I of Granada|Ibn al-Ahmar]] (Muhammad I) established what became the last and longest reigning [[Muslim]] dynasty in the Iberian peninsula, the [[Nasrid dynasty|Nasrids]], who ruled the [[Emirate of Granada]].{{cite book |last=Bosworth |first=Clifford Edmund |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mKpz_2CkoWEC&q=new+islamic+dynasties |title=The New Islamic Dynasties: A Chronological and Genealogical Manual |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2004 |isbn=9780748696482 |location= |pages= |chapter=The Nasrids or Banu 'l-Ahmar |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=3 September 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210903085645/https://books.google.com/books?id=mKpz_2CkoWEC&q=new+islamic+dynasties |url-status=live }} Ibn al-Ahmar was a relatively new political player in the region and likely came from a modest background, but he was able to win the support and consent of multiple Muslim settlements under threat from the Castilian advance.{{Sfn|Kennedy|1996|pp=266, 274–276}} Upon settling in Granada in 1238, Ibn al-Ahmar initially resided in the old citadel of the Zirids on the Albaicin hill, but that same year he began construction of the Alhambra as a new residence and citadel. According to an Arabic manuscript since published as the ''Anónimo de Madrid y Copenhague'',{{Sfn|López|2011|p=39}} [53] => {{blockquote|This year, 1238 Abdallah ibn al-Ahmar climbed to the place called "the Alhambra". He examined it, marked the foundations of a castle and left someone in charge of directing the work, and before that year had passed, the construction of the ramparts was completed; water was brought in from the river and a channel carrying the water was built (...)|source=|author=}} [54] => [[File:Court of the Lions, Alhambra by Juan Laurent.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|left|The [[Court of the Lions]] in 1871]] [55] => [56] => During the reign of the Nasrid Dynasty, the Alhambra was transformed into a palatine city, complete with an irrigation system composed of [[Aqueduct (water supply)|aqueducts]] and water channels that provided water for the complex and for other nearby countryside palaces such as the [[Generalife]].{{sfn|López|2011|pp=239–257}} Previously, the old fortresses on the hill had been dependent on rainwater collected from the cistern near the Alcazaba and on what could be brought up from the Darro River below.{{Cite journal |last=Martín |first=Adelaida Martín |date=2019 |title=A New Architectural Approach to the Alcazaba and the Torre del Homenaje |url=https://cuadernosdelaalhambra.alhambra-patronato.es/index.php/cdalhambra/issue/view/1 |journal=Cuadernos de la Alhambra |volume=48 |pages=175–199 |access-date=11 April 2022 |archive-date=28 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210228183424/http://cuadernosdelaalhambra.alhambra-patronato.es/index.php/cdalhambra/issue/view/1 |url-status=live }} The creation of the Sultan's Canal ({{Lang-ar|ساقلتة السلطان |translit=Saqiyat al-Sultan|links=no}}), which brought water from the mountains to the east, solidified the identity of the Alhambra as a palace-city rather than a defensive and [[ascetic]] structure. This first hydraulic system was expanded afterwards and included two long water channels and several sophisticated elevation devices to bring water onto the plateau.{{Cite journal |last=García-Pulido |first=Luis José |date=2016-06-20 |title=The Mastery in Hydraulic Techniques for Water Supply at the Alhambra |url=https://academic.oup.com/jis/article/27/3/355/2458957 |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=355–382 |doi=10.1093/jis/etw016 |issn=0955-2340 |access-date=19 November 2018 |archive-date=19 November 2018 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181119220227/https://academic.oup.com/jis/article/27/3/355/2458957 |url-status=live }} [57] => [58] => Later Nasrid rulers after Ibn al-Ahmar continuously modified the site. Along with the fragile materials themselves, which needed regular repairs, this makes the exact chronology of its development difficult to determine.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|pp=152–153}}{{Sfn|Ruggles|2008}} The only elements preserved from the time of Ibn al-Ahmar are some of the fortification walls, particularly the Alcazaba at the western end of the complex.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=236}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=152}} Ibn al-Ahmar did not have time to complete any major new palaces and he may have initially lived in one of the towers of the Alcazaba, before later moving to a modest house on the site of the current [[Palace of Charles V]].{{Sfn|Cabanelas Rodríguez|1992|p=129}} The oldest major palace for which some remains have been preserved is the structure known as the ''[[Palacio del Partal Alto]]'', in an elevated location near the center of the complex, which probably dates from the reign of Ibn al-Ahmar's son, [[Muhammad II of Granada|Muhammad II]] (r. 1273–1302).''{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=236}}'' To the south was the Palace of the Abencerrajes, and to the east was another private palace, known as the [[Palace of the Convent of San Francisco]]'',{{Efn|Named after the Convent of Saint Francis which was installed here in 1494.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=180–184}}}}'' both of which were probably also originally constructed during the time of Muhammad II''.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=236}}'' [[Muhammad III of Granada|Muhammad III]] (r. 1302–1309) erected the [[Partal Palace]], parts of which are still standing today, as well as the Alhambra's main ([[Congregational mosque|congregational]]) mosque (on the site of the current Church of Santa Maria de la Alhambra).''{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=236}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=152}}'' The Partal Palace is the earliest known palace to be built along the northern walls of the complex, with views onto the city below.''{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=236}}'' It is also the oldest Nasrid palace still standing today.{{Cite web |title=The Partal |url=https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/the-partal |access-date=2020-11-28 |website=Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife |language=en-US |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129154039/https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/the-partal |url-status=live }} [59] => [60] => [[Ismail I of Granada|Isma'il I]] (r. 1314–1325) undertook a significant remodeling of the Alhambra. His reign marked the beginning of the "classical" period of Nasrid architecture, during which many major monuments in the Alhambra were begun and decorative styles were consolidated.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=261}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=295}} Isma'il decided to build a new palace complex just east of the Alcazaba to serve as the official palace of the sultan and the state, known as the ''Qaṣr al-Sultan'' or ''Dār al-Mulk''.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=261}} The core of this complex was the [[Court of the Myrtles|Comares Palace]], while another wing of the palace, the [[Mexuar]], extended to the west.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=236-238}} The Comares Baths are the best-preserved element from this initial construction, as the rest of the palace was further modified by his successors. Near the main mosque Isma'il I also created the ''Rawda'', the dynastic mausoleum of the Nasrids, of which only partial remains are preserved.''{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=236}}'' [[Yusuf I of Granada|Yusuf I]] (r. 1333–1354) carried out further work on the Comares Palace, including the construction of the Hall of Ambassadors and other works around the current Mexuar. He also built the Alhambra's main gate, the ''Puerta de la Justicia'', and the ''[[Torre de la Cautiva]]'', one of several small towers with richly-decorated rooms along the northern walls.''{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=236, 266, 269, 275}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=152}}'' [61] => [62] => Muhammad V's reign (1354–1391, with interruptions) marked the political and cultural apogee of the Nasrid emirate as well as the apogee of Nasrid architecture.{{Sfn|Kennedy|1996|p=288-292}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=164}} Particularly during his second reign (after 1362), there was a stylistic shift towards more innovative architectural layouts and an extensive use of complex ''[[muqarnas]]'' vaulting.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=164}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=295}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=278-279}} His most significant contribution to the Alhambra was the construction of the [[Court of the Lions|Palace of the Lions]] to the east of the Comares Palace in an area previously occupied by gardens. He also remodeled the Mexuar, created the highly decorated "Comares Façade" in the ''Patio del Cuarto Dorado'', and redecorated the Court of the Myrtles, giving these areas much of their final appearance.''{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=236, 265, 269, 273}}'' After Muhammad V, relatively little major construction work occurred in the Alhambra. One exception is the ''Torre de las Infantas'', which dates from the time of [[Muhammad VII of Granada|Muhammad VII]] (1392–1408).''{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=236}}'' The 15th century saw the Nasrid dynasty in decline and in turmoil, with few significant construction projects and a more repetitive, less innovative style of architecture.''{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=152, 164}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=295}}'' [63] => [64] => === ''Reconquista'' and Christian Spanish period === [65] => [[File:La Alzaba de la Alhambra 17.JPG|thumb|The ''Torre de la Polvóra'' at the Alcazaba, an example of a tower reinforced with curved ramparts in the 16th century to better defend against modern artillery{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=91-92}}]] [66] => The last Nasrid sultan, [[Muhammad XII of Granada]], surrendered the Emirate of Granada in January 1492, without the Alhambra itself being attacked, when the forces of the [[Catholic Monarchs of Spain|Catholic Monarchs]], King [[Ferdinand II of Aragon]] and Queen [[Isabella I of Castile]], took the surrounding territory with a force of overwhelming numbers. Muhammad XII moved the remains of his ancestors from the complex, as was verified by [[Leopoldo Torres Balbás]] in 1925, when he found seventy empty tombs.{{Cite web |url=https://granadaonly.com/en/historic/alhambra-sultans-their-tombs/ |title=Alhambra sultans: Their tombs |date=5 April 2019 |access-date=18 June 2020 |archive-date=20 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200620235028/https://granadaonly.com/en/historic/alhambra-sultans-their-tombs/ |url-status=live }} The remains are now likely to be located in Mondújar in the principality of [[Lecrín]].{{Cite web |url=https://www.ciceronegranada.com/en/blog/alhambras-monarchs-buried/ |title=Where are the Alhambra's monarchs buried? |date=21 August 2017 |access-date=18 June 2020 |archive-date=17 June 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200617110828/https://www.ciceronegranada.com/en/blog/alhambras-monarchs-buried/ |url-status=live }}The Moor's Last Stand: How Seven Centuries of Muslim Rule in Spain Came to an End, [[Elizabeth Drayson]] [67] => [68] => After the conquest, the Alhambra became a royal palace and property of the [[Monarchy of Spain|Spanish Crown]]. Isabella and Ferdinand initially took up residence here and stayed in Granada for several months, up until 25 May 1492.{{Sfn|Vincent|2021|p=168}} It was during this stay that two major events happened. On 31 March the monarchs signed the [[Alhambra Decree]], which ordered the [[Expulsion of Jews from Spain|expulsion of all Jews in Spain]] who refused to convert.{{Sfn|Coleman|2013|p=38}}{{Sfn|Vincent|2021|p=168}} [[Christopher Columbus]], who had also been present to witness the surrender of Granada, presented his plans for an [[Voyages of Christopher Columbus|expedition across the Atlantic]] to the monarchs in the Hall of Ambassadors and on 17 April they signed the contract which set the terms for the expedition which landed in the [[Americas]] later that year.{{Sfn|Vincent|2021|p=168}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=1, 16-17}} [69] => [70] => The new Christian rulers began to make additions and alterations to the palace complex. The governorship of the Alhambra was entrusted to the Tendilla family, who were given one of the Nasrid palaces, the ''Palacio del Partal Alto'' (near the Partal Palace), to use as family residence. [[Íñigo López de Mendoza y Quiñones|Iñigo López de Mendoza y Quiñones]] (d. 1515), the second [[Count]] of [[Tendilla]], was present in Ferdinand II's entourage when Muhammad XII surrendered the keys to the Alhambra and he became the Alhambra's first Spanish governor.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=297–298}} For almost 24 years after the conquest he made repairs and modifications to its fortifications in order to better protect it against [[Artillery|gunpowder artillery]] attacks. Multiple towers and fortifications – such as the ''Torre de Siete Suelos'', the ''Torre de las Cabezas'', and the ''Torres Bermejas'' – were built or reinforced in this period, as seen by the addition of semi-round [[bastion]]s.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=297–298}} In 1512 the Count was also awarded the property of [[Mondéjar]] and subsequently passed on the title of [[Marquess|Marquis]] of Mondéjar to his descendants.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=297–298}} [71] => [[File:Granada. Alhambra. Palacio Carlos V LCCN2017660754.jpg|thumb|The Renaissance-style [[Palace of Charles V]], begun in 1527 but left unfinished after 1637. This 1890 photograph shows the roof still missing over the upper floor.]] [72] => [[Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor|Charles V]] (r. 1516–1556) visited the Alhambra in 1526 with his wife [[Isabella of Portugal]] and decided to convert it into a royal residence for his use. He rebuilt or modified portions of the Nasrid palaces to serve as royal apartments, a process which began in 1528 and was completed in 1537.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=149-159}}{{Sfn|Dickie|1992|p=146}} He also demolished a part of the Comares Palace to make way for a monumental new palace, known as the Palace of Charles V, designed in the [[Renaissance architecture|Renaissance style]] of the period. Construction of the palace began in 1527 but it was eventually left unfinished after 1637.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=69–70}} [73] => [74] => The governorship of the Tendilla-Mondéjar family came to an end in 1717–1718, when [[Philip V of Spain|Philip V]] confiscated the family's properties in the Alhambra and dismissed the Marquis of Mondéjar, José de Mendoza Ibáñez de Segovia (1657–1734), from his position as mayor (''alcaide'') of the Alhambra, in retaliation for the Marquis opposing him in the [[War of the Spanish Succession]].{{Sfnm|López|2011|1p=299|Dickie|1992|2pp=148–149}} The departure of the Tendilla-Mondéjar family marked the beginning of the Alhambra's most severe period of decline. During this period the Spanish state dedicated few resources to it and its management was taken over by self-interested local governors who lived with their families inside the neglected palaces.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=299}} [75] => [76] => Over subsequent years the Alhambra was further damaged. Between 1810 and 1812 Granada was occupied by [[Napoleon]]'s army during the [[Peninsular War]].{{sfn|RingSalkinLa Boda|1995|p=298}} The French troops, under the command of [[Count Sebastiani]],{{harvp|Chisholm|1911}} occupied the Alhambra as a fortified position and caused significant damage to the monument.{{sfn|López|2011|p=301}} Upon evacuating the city, they attempted to dynamite the whole complex to prevent it from being re-used as a fortified position. They successfully blew up eight towers before the remaining fuses were disabled by Spanish soldier José Garcia, whose actions saved what remains today.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=301}} In 1821, an earthquake caused further damage. [77] => [78] => === Recovery and modern restorations === [79] => [[File:Weeks Edwin Lord A Court in The Alhambra in the Time of the Moors.jpg|thumb|''A Court in the Alhambra at the Time of the Moors'', Edwin Lord Weeks, 1876|left]] [80] => Restoration work was undertaken in 1828 by the architect José Contreras, endowed in 1830 by [[Ferdinand VII of Spain|Ferdinand VII]]. After the death of Contreras in 1847, it was continued by his son Rafael (died 1890) and his grandson Mariano Contreras (died 1912).{{Cite web |title=Alhambra {{!}} Palace, Fortress, Facts, Map, & Pictures {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/Alhambra-fortress-Granada-Spain |access-date=2022-02-25 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129174214/https://www.britannica.com/topic/Alhambra-fortress-Granada-Spain |url-status=live }} In 1830 [[Washington Irving]] lived in Granada and wrote his ''[[Tales of the Alhambra]]'', first published in 1832, which spurred international interest in southern Spain and in its Islamic-era monuments like the Alhambra (an apartment of which he decorated in New England style).{{sfn|RingSalkinLa Boda|1995|p=299}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=303}} Other artists and intellectuals, such as [[John Frederick Lewis]] and [[Owen Jones (architect)|Owen Jones]], helped make the Alhambra into an icon of the era with their writings and illustrations during the 19th century.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=303}} [81] => [[File:-Courtyard of the Lions, Alhambra, Granada- MET DP366396.jpg|thumb|Pavilion in the Court of the Lions in 19th-century photo, showing the "oriental" dome added by Rafael Contreras in 1859, later removed by [[Leopoldo Torres Balbás]]]] [82] => The Contreras family members continued to be the most important architects and conservators of the Alhambra up until 1907.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=304-305}} During this period they generally followed a theory of "stylistic restoration", which favoured the construction and addition of elements to make a monument "complete" but not necessarily corresponding to any historical reality. They added elements which they deemed to be representative of what they thought was an "Arabic style", emphasizing the Alhambra's purported "[[Orientalism|Oriental]]" character. For example, in 1858–1859 Rafael Contreras and Juan Pugnaire added Persian-looking spherical domes to the Court of the Lions and to the northern [[portico]] of the Court of the Myrtles, even though these had nothing to do with Nasrid architecture.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=304-305}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=30-31}} [83] => [84] => In 1868 a [[Glorious Revolution (Spain)|revolution deposed Isabella II]] and the government seized the properties of the Spanish monarchy, including the Alhambra. In 1870 the Alhambra was declared a [[National monuments of Spain|National Monument]] of Spain and the state allocated a budget for its conservation, overseen by the Provincial Commission of Monuments.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=305}} Mariano Contreras, the last of the Contreras architects to serve as director of conservation of the Alhambra, was appointed as architectural curator in April 1890. His tenure was controversial and his conservation strategy attracted criticism from other authorities.{{Cite web |title=Mariano Contreras Granja {{!}} Real Academia de la Historia |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/44265/mariano-contreras-granja |access-date=2022-02-25 |website=dbe.rah.es |archive-date=25 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225210400/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/44265/mariano-contreras-granja |url-status=live }} In September 1890 a fire destroyed a large part of the ''Sala de la Barca'' in the Comares Palace, which highlighted the site's vulnerability.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=303-304}} A report was commissioned in 1903 which resulted in the creation of a "Special Commission" in 1905 whose task was to oversee conservation and restoration of the Alhambra, but the commission ultimately failed to exercise control due to friction with Contreras.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=|pp=304-305}} In 1907 Mariano Contreras was replaced with Modesto Cendoya, whose work was also criticized. Cendoya began many excavations in search of new artifacts but often left these works unfinished. He restored some important elements of the site, like the water supply system, but neglected others.{{Cite book |last=Ruggles |first=D. Fairchild |title=Envisioning Islamic Art and Architecture: Essays in Honor of Renata Holod |publisher=Brill |year=2014 |isbn=978-90-04-28028-1 |editor-last=Roxburgh |editor-first=David J. |pages=1–21 |chapter=Inventing the Alhambra}}{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=304-305}}{{Cite web |title=Modesto Tiburcio Cendoya Busquets {{!}} Real Academia de la Historia |url=https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/47303/modesto-tiburcio-cendoya-busquets |access-date=2022-02-25 |website=dbe.rah.es |archive-date=25 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220225210402/https://dbe.rah.es/biografias/47303/modesto-tiburcio-cendoya-busquets |url-status=live }} Due to continued friction with Cendoya, the Special Commission was dissolved in 1913 and replaced with the council (''Patronato'') of the Alhambra in 1914, which was charged again with overseeing the site's conservation and Cendoya's work. In 1915 it was linked directly to the Directorate-General of Fine Arts of the Ministry of Public Education (later the Ministry of National Education).{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=304-305}} Like Mariano Contreras before him, Cendoya continued to clash with the supervisory body and to obstruct their control. He was eventually dismissed from his post in 1923. [85] => {{multiple image [86] => | width = [87] => | image1 = Alhambra before adornments started.jpg [88] => | alt1 = 19th century [89] => | image2 = Alhambra, Alcazaba, Torre Quebrada 01 (4392663424).jpg [90] => | alt2 = 21st century [91] => | footer_align = center [92] => | footer = The Alcazaba before and after 20th-century restoration work [93] => | align = [94] => | direction = [95] => | total_width = 400 [96] => | caption1 = [97] => | caption2 = [98] => }} [99] => [100] => After Cendoya, [[Leopoldo Torres Balbás]] was appointed as chief architect from 1923 to 1936. The appointment of Torres Balbás, a trained [[Archaeology|archeologist]] and [[Art history|art historian]], marked a definitive shift to a more scientific and systematic approach to the Alhambra's conservation.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=304-305}} He endorsed the principles of the 1931 [[Athens Charter (preservation)|Athens Charter for the Restoration of Monuments]], which emphasized regular maintenance, respect for the work of the past, legal protection for heritage monuments, and the legitimacy of modern techniques and materials in restoration so long as these were visually recognizable.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=304-305}} Many of the buildings in the Alhambra were affected by his work. Some of the inaccurate changes and additions made by the Contreras architects were reversed.{{sfn|López|2011|pp=135, 142}}{{sfn|Irwin|2004|p=30}} The young architect "opened arcades that had been walled up, re-excavated filled-in pools, replaced missing tiles, completed inscriptions that lacked portions of their stuccoed lettering, and installed a ceiling in the still unfinished palace of Charles V".Roxburgh, David J. (ed.) (2014). ''Envisioning Islamic Art and Architecture''. Brill. {{ISBN|9789004280281}}, pp. 18–19. He also carried out systematic archeological excavations in various parts of the Alhambra, unearthing lost Nasrid structures such as the ''Palacio del Partal Alto'' and the Palace of the Abencerrajes which provided deeper insight into the former palace-city as a whole.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=304-305}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=237-239}} [101] => [102] => The work of Torres Balbás was continued by his assistant, Francisco Prieto Moreno, who was the chief architectural curator from 1936 to 1970.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=304-306}} In 1940 a new Council of the Alhambra was created to oversee the site, which has remained in charge ever since.{{Efn|The Council was known as the "Council of the Alhambra and of the Palace of Charles V" until 1951, when it became known as the "Council of the Alhambra and the Generalife".{{sfn|López|2011|p=307}}}} In 1984 the central government in [[Madrid]] transferred responsibility for the site to the [[Regional Government of Andalusia]] and in 1986 new statutes and documents were developed to regulate the planning and protection of the site.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=306-307}} In 1984 the Alhambra and Generalife were also listed as a [[World Heritage Site|UNESCO World Heritage Site]]. The Alhambra is now one of the most popular tourist destinations in Spain. Research, archeological investigations, and restoration works have also remained ongoing into the 21st century.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|pp=153-155}} [103] => [104] => ==Layout== [105] => [[File:Map of alhambra sp.svg|thumb|Modern plan of the Alhambra|left]] [106] => [107] => The Alhambra site is about {{cvt|700–740|m|-1}} in length and about {{cvt|200–205|m|-1}} at its greatest width.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=234}} It extends from west-northwest to east-southeast and covers an area of about {{cvt|142000|m2}} or 35 acres.{{cite web |title=Alhambra, Granada, Spain |url=https://www.airpano.com/360Degree-VirtualTour.php?3D=Alhambra-Granada-Spain |website=AirPano |access-date=23 January 2017 |archive-date=3 February 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170203192259/http://www.airpano.com/360Degree-VirtualTour.php?3D=Alhambra-Granada-Spain |url-status=live }} It stands on a narrow promontory overlooking the ''Vega'' or Plain of Granada and carved by the river [[Darro (river)|Darro]] on its north side as it descends from the [[Sierra Nevada (Spain)|Sierra Nevada]].{{harvp|Salmerón Escobar|2007}} The red earth from which the fortress is constructed is a granular aggregate held together by a medium of red clay which gives the resulting layered brick- and stone- reinforced construction (''tapial calicastrado'') its characteristic hue and is at the root of the name of 'the Red Hill'.{{harvp|Salmerón Escobar|2007|loc=III. The material base: construction and form}} [108] => [109] => The Alhambra's most westerly feature is the Alcazaba, a large fortress overlooking the city. Due to touristic demand, modern access runs contrary to the original sequence which began from a principal access via the ''Puerta de la Justicia'' (Gate of Justice) onto a large [[souq]] or public market square facing the Alcazaba, now subdivided and obscured by later Christian-era development. From the ''Puerta del Vino'' (Wine Gate) ran the ''Calle Real'' (Royal Street) dividing the Alhambra along its axial spine into a southern residential quarter, with [[mosque]]s, [[Turkish bath|hamams]] (bathhouses) and diverse functional establishments,{{harvp|Salmerón Escobar|2007|loc=IV. Formation and spatial perception}} and a greater northern portion, occupied by several palaces of the nobility with extensive landscaped gardens commanding views over the Albaicín. All of this was subservient to the great Tower of the Ambassadors in the ''Palacio Comares'' (Comares Palace), which acted as the royal audience chamber and throne room with its three arched windows dominating the city. The private, internalised universe of the ''Palacio de Los Leones'' (Palace of the Lions) adjoins the public spaces at right angles (see Plan illustration) but was originally connected only by the function of the Comares Baths (or Royal Baths), the ''Mirador de Lindaraja'' serving as the exquisitely decorated focus of meditation and authority overlooking the refined garden courtyard of ''Lindaraja/Daraxa'' toward the city. [110] => [111] => The rest of the plateau comprises a number of earlier and later Moorish palaces, enclosed by a [[Defensive wall|fortified wall]], with thirteen defensive towers, some such as the ''Torre de la Infanta'' and ''Torre de la'' ''Cautiva'' containing elaborate vertical palaces in miniature. The river Darro passes through a ravine on the north and divides the plateau from the Albaicín district of Granada. Similarly, the Sabika Valley, containing the Alhambra Park, lies on the west and south, and, beyond this valley, the almost parallel ridge of Monte Mauror separates it from the Antequeruela district. Another ravine separates it from the Generalife, the summer pleasure gardens of the emir. Salmerón Escobar notes that the later planting of deciduous elms obscures the overall perception of the layout, so a better reading of the original landscape is given in winter when the trees are bare.{{harvp|Salmerón Escobar|2007|loc=VI. The Alhambra that survives}} [112] => [113] => {{Multiple image [114] => | total_width = 850 [115] => | image1 = Alhambra general plan (numbered).png [116] => | caption1 = Layout and important features: 1) Alcazaba; 2) Puerta de las Armas; 3) Puente del Cadí; 4) Torres Bermejas; 5) Plaza de los Aljibes; 6) Puerta del Vino; 7) Puerta de la Justicia; 8) Palace of Charles V; 9) Mexuar courtyards; 10) Mexuar main hall; 11) Comares Palace; 12) Palace of the Lions; 13) Lindaraja Courtyard; 14) Peinador de la Reina; 15) Partal Palace; 16) Palacio del Partal Alto; 17) Rawda mausoleum; 18) Church of Santa Maria; 19) Baths of the Mosque; 20) Palace of the Abencerrajes; 21) Palace of the Convent of San Francisco; 22) Torre de los Picos; 23) Torre de la Cautiva; 24) Torre de las Infantas; 25) Torre del Agua; 26) Puerta de los Siete Suelos; 27) Generalife Palace [117] => | image2 = Alhambra 2015 004.jpg [118] => | caption2 = Close-up plan of the Nasrid Palaces (from 1889): [119] => {{legend|#f9f89e|Mexuar (main hall)}} [120] => {{legend|#ce878b|Comares Palace}} [121] => {{legend|#7eca8a|Palace of the Lions}} [122] => {{legend|#8590f9|Courtyard of Lindaraja}} [123] => | align = center [124] => }} [125] => [126] => == Architecture == [127] => === General design === [128] => [[File:Alhambra by Juan Laurent.jpg|thumb|Mullioned windows of the Hall of the Two Sisters in the Alhambra, by [[Jean Laurent (photographer)|Jean Laurent]], c. 1874. Stucco decoration can be seen on the upper walls while geometric tile mosaic is seen below.]]The design and decoration of the Nasrid palaces are a continuation of [[Moorish architecture|Moorish (western Islamic) architecture]] from earlier centuries but developed their own characteristics.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=219}} The combination of carefully-proportioned courtyards, water features, gardens, arches on slender columns, and intricately-sculpted [[stucco]] and [[tile]] decoration gives Nasrid architecture qualities that are described as ethereal and intimate.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}{{Cite book |last=Tabbaa |first=Yasser |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2007 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Architecture |issn=1873-9830 |editor2-last=Krämer |editor2-first=Gudrun |editor3-last=Matringe |editor3-first=Denis |editor4-last=Nawas |editor4-first=John |editor5-last=Rowson |editor5-first=Everett}}{{Cite book |last= |first= |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M. |location= |pages= |language=en |chapter=Architecture; VI. c. 1250–c. 1500; D. Western Islamic lands |editor2-last=Blair |editor2-first=Sheila S.}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=49}} Walls were built mostly in [[rammed earth]], [[Lime mortar|lime concrete]], or [[brick]] and then covered with [[plaster]], while wood (mostly [[pine]]) was used for roofs, ceilings, doors, and window shutters.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=282–286}} [129] => [130] => Buildings were designed to be seen from within, with their decoration focused on the inside.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}} The basic unit of Nasrid palace architecture was a rectangular [[courtyard]] with a pool, fountain, or water channel at its center.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=164}} Courtyards were flanked on two or four sides by halls, often preceded by [[Arcade (architecture)|arcaded]] porticoes. Many of these structures featured a ''[[Mirador (architecture)|mirador]]'', a room projecting from the exterior commanding scenic views of gardens or of the city.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=219}} Buildings were designed with a mathematical proportional system that gives them a harmonious visual quality.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=260}} The layout of the courtyards, the distribution of windows, and the use of water features were designed with the climate in mind, cooling and ventilating the environment in summer while minimizing cold drafts and maximizing sunlight in winter.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=267–268, 275}} Upper-floor rooms were smaller and more enclosed, making them more suited for use during the winter.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}} Courtyards were usually aligned in a north–south direction which allows the main halls to receive direct sunlight at midday during the winter, while during the summer the higher midday sun is blocked by the position and depth of the porticos fronting these halls.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=267}}{{Cite journal |last=Wilmert |first=Todd |date=2010 |title=Alhambra Palace Architecture: An Environmental Consideration of Its Inhabitation |url=https://www.archnet.org/publications/9489 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=27 |pages=157–188|doi=10.1163/22118993_02701008 }} [131] => [132] => === Architects and poets === [133] => Little is known about the architects and craftsmen who built the Alhambra, but more is known about the ''Dīwān al-Ins͟hā''', or [[Chancery (medieval office)|chancery]].{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=237}} This institution seems to have played an increasingly important role in the design of buildings, probably because inscriptions came to feature so prominently in their decoration.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=259}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=237-238}} The head of the chancery was often also the [[vizier]] (prime minister) of the sultan. Although not exactly architects, the terms of office of many individuals in these positions coincide with the major phases of construction in the Alhambra, which suggests that they played a role in leading construction projects.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=237-238}} The most important figures who held these positions, such as [[Ibn al-Jayyab]], [[Ibn al-Khatib]], and [[Ibn Zamrak]], also composed much of the poetry that adorns the walls of the Alhambra. Ibn al-Jayyab served as head of the chancery at various times between 1295 and 1349 under six sultans from Muhammad II to Yusuf I.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=259}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=237-238}} Ibn al-Khatib served as both head of the chancery and as vizier for various periods between 1332 and 1371, under the sultans Yusuf I and Muhammad V.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=259}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=237-238}} Ibn Zamrak served as vizier and head of the chancery for periods between 1354 and 1393, under Muhammad V and Muhammad VII.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=259}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=237-238}}{{Cite book |last=Granja |first=F. de la |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition |publisher=Brill |year=2008 |isbn=9789004161214 |editor-last=Bearman |editor-first=P. |location= |pages= |chapter=Ibn Zamrak |editor2-last=Bianquis |editor2-first=Th. |editor3-last=Bosworth |editor3-first=C.E. |editor4-last=van Donzel |editor4-first=E. |editor5-last=Heinrichs |editor5-first=W.P.}} [134] => [135] => === Decoration === [136] => [[File:Ceiling Crafts of the Alhambra yeonu.jpg|thumb|Stucco-carved ''[[muqarnas]]'' (or ''mocárabes'') in the Palace of the Lions|left]] [137] => [[Stucco decoration in Islamic architecture|Carved stucco]] (or ''yesería'' in Spanish) and mosaic tilework ([[Zellij|''zilīj'' or ''zellij'']] in Arabic;{{efn|The Arabic word ''zellij'' gave rise to the Spanish word ''[[azulejo]]s'', but the latter is now used to designate various ceramic artwork more generally.}} ''alicatado'' in Spanish{{Cite book |last1=Degeorge |first1=Gérard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VynrAAAAMAAJ&q=zellij+alicatado |title=The Art of the Islamic Tile |last2=Porter |first2=Yves |publisher=Random House Incorporated |year=2002 |isbn=978-2-08-010876-0 |pages=24 |language=en}}) were used for wall decoration, while ceilings were generally made in wood, which could be carved and painted in turn. Tile mosaics and wooden ceilings often feature [[Islamic geometric patterns|geometric motifs]]. Tilework was generally used for lower walls or for floors, while stucco was used for upper zones.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}} Stucco was typically carved with vegetal [[arabesque]] motifs (''ataurique'' in Spanish, from {{Lang-ar|التوريق |translit=al-tawrīq|lit=foliage|links=no}}), epigraphic motifs, geometric motifs, or ''[[sebka]]'' motifs.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|pp=166–167}}{{Sfn|Puertas|1997|p=96}} It could be further sculpted into three-dimensional ''muqarnas'' (''mocárabes'' in Spanish). Arabic inscriptions, a feature especially characteristic of the Alhambra, were carved along the walls and included [[Quran|Qur'anic]] excerpts, poetry by Nasrid court poets, and the repetition of the Nasrid motto "''[[Wala ghaliba illa Allah|wa la ghalib illa-llah]]''" ({{Lang-ar|ولا غالب إلا الله|lit=And there is no victor but God}}).{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|pp=166–167}}{{Cite web |last=Borges |first=Victor |date=2012-02-02 |title=Nasrid Plasterwork: Symbolism, Materials & Techniques |url=http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/journals/conservation-journal/issue-48/nasrid-plasterwork-symbolism,-materials-and-techniques/ |access-date=2022-02-20 |website=Victoria and Albert Museum Online Museum |archive-date=20 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220220210918/http://www.vam.ac.uk/content/journals/conservation-journal/issue-48/nasrid-plasterwork-symbolism,-materials-and-techniques/ |url-status=live }} [[File:Palacios nazaríes. Sala del Mexuar - 005.JPG|thumb|Example of a typical Nasrid [[Capital (architecture)|capital]] (from the ''Sala del Mexuar''), with some of its original colours preserved]] [138] => White marble quarried from [[Macael]] (in [[Province of Almería|Almeria province]]) was also used to make fountains and slender columns.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=286}} The [[Capital (architecture)|capitals]] of columns typically consisted of a lower cylindrical section sculpted with stylized [[Acanthus (plant)|acanthus]] leaves, an upper cubic section with vegetal or geometric motifs, and inscriptions (like the Nasrid motto) running along the base or the top edge.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}} [139] => [140] => While the stucco decoration, wooden ceilings, and marble capitals of the Alhambra often appear colourless or monochrome today, they were originally painted in bright colours.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|pp=44, 49-50}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}} [[Primary color|Primary colours]] – red, blue, and (in place of yellow) gold – were the most prominent and were juxtaposed to achieve a certain aesthetic balance, while other colours were used in more nuanced ways in the background.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=166}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=156}} [141] => [142] => ==== Inscriptions ==== [143] => [[File:Granada-Alhambra12.jpg|thumb|Calligraphy in the Hall of Ambassadors: above is a band of inscriptions that repeats the Nasrid motto ("And There is no victor but God") in [[Naskh (script)|cursive script]], while below is a larger cartouche containing an inscription in "Knotted" [[Kufic]]]] [144] => The Alhambra features various styles of the [[Islamic calligraphy|Arabic epigraphy]] that developed under the Nasrid dynasty, and particularly under Yusuf I and Muhammad V.{{Cite book |last1=Jayyusi |first1=Salma Khadra |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cbfORLWv1HkC&pg=PA667 |title=The Legacy of Muslim Spain |last2=Marín |first2=Manuela |date=1992 |publisher=BRILL |isbn=978-90-04-09599-1 |access-date=26 June 2020 |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725025635/https://books.google.com/books?id=cbfORLWv1HkC&pg=PA667 |url-status=live }} [[José Miguel Puerta Vílchez]] compares the walls of the Alhambra to the pages of a manuscript, drawing similarities between the ''zilīj''-covered [[Dado (architecture)|dados]] and the geometric manuscript illuminations, and the epigraphical forms in the palace to calligraphic motifs in contemporary Arabic manuscripts. Inscriptions typically ran in vertical or horizontal bands or they were set inside cartouches of round or rectangular shape.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=124}} [145] => [146] => Most major inscriptions in the Alhambra use the [[Naskh (script)|''Naskhi'']] or cursive script, which was the most common script used in writing after the early Islamic period.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=269}} ''[[Thuluth]]'' was a derivation of the cursive script often used for more pompous or formal contexts; favoured, for example, in the preambles of documents prepared by the Nasrid chancery.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=124}} Many inscriptions in the Alhambra were composed in a mixed ''Naskhi-Thuluth'' script.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=124}}{{Cite journal |last=Bush |first=Olga |date=2009 |title=The Writing on the Wall: Reading the Decoration of the Alhambra |journal=Muqarnas |volume=26 |pages=119–148 |doi=10.1163/22118993-90000146|doi-access=free }} Bands of cursive script often alternated with friezes or cartouches of Kufic script. Kufic is the oldest form of Arabic calligraphy, but by the 13th century Kufic scripts in the western Islamic world became increasingly stylized in architectural contexts and could be nearly illegible.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=269}}{{Cite book |last=Blair |first=Sheila S. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=laQxEAAAQBAJ&dq=naskh+script+nasrid&pg=PA143 |title=Islamic Inscriptions |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |year=2019 |isbn=978-1-4744-6448-2 |pages=91 |language=en |access-date=13 April 2022 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502192158/https://books.google.com/books?id=laQxEAAAQBAJ&dq=naskh+script+nasrid&pg=PA143 |url-status=live }} In the Alhambra, there are many examples of "Knotted" Kufic, a particularly elaborate style where the letters tie together in intricate knots.{{Cite book |last1=Jazayeri |first1=S. M. V. Mousavi |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCj5DQAAQBAJ&dq=knotted+kufic&pg=PA9 |title=A Handbook of Early Arabic Kufic Script: Reading, Writing, Calligraphy, Typography, Monograms |last2=Michelli |first2=Perette E. |last3=Abulhab |first3=Saad D. |publisher=Blautopf Publishing |year=2017 |isbn=978-0-9981727-4-3 |pages=9 |language=en |access-date=13 April 2022 |archive-date=2 May 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220502192154/https://books.google.com/books?id=LCj5DQAAQBAJ&dq=knotted+kufic&pg=PA9 |url-status=live }} The extensions of these letters could turn into strips that continued and formed more abstract motifs, or sometimes formed the edges of a cartouche encompassing the rest of the inscription.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=269}} [147] => [148] => The texts of the Alhambra include "devout, regal, votive, and Qur'anic phrases and sentences," formed into arabesques, carved into wood and marble, and glazed onto tiles. Poets of the Nasrid court, including Ibn al-Khatīb and Ibn Zamrak, composed poems for the palace.{{Cite web |title=Travelers of Al-Andalus, Part VI: The Double Lives of Ibn al-Khatib - AramcoWorld |url=https://www.aramcoworld.com/Articles/November-2015/Travelers-of-Al-Andalus-Part-VI-The-Double-Lives |access-date=2020-06-07 |website=www.aramcoworld.com |archive-date=25 July 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200725025536/https://www.aramcoworld.com/Articles/November-2015/Travelers-of-Al-Andalus-Part-VI-The-Double-Lives |url-status=live }} The inscriptions of the Alhambra are also unique for their frequent self-referential nature and use of [[personification]]. Some inscribed poems, such as those in the Palace of the Lions, talk about the palace or room in which they're situated and are written in the first person, as if the room itself was speaking to the reader.{{Cite journal |last=Robinson |first=Cynthia |date=2008 |title=Marginal Ornament: Poetics, Mimesis, And Devotion In The Palace Of The Lions |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rRewCQAAQBAJ&dq=alhambra+self-referential+inscriptions&pg=PA193 |journal=Muqarnas |volume=25 |pages=193 |isbn=9789047426745 |access-date=13 April 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623053418/https://www.google.com/books/edition/Muqarnas_Volume_25/rRewCQAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=alhambra+self-referential+inscriptions&pg=PA193&printsec=frontcover |url-status=live }}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=167}} Most of the poetry is inscribed in Nasrid cursive script, while foliate and floral Kufic inscriptions—often formed into arches, columns, enjambments, and "architectural calligrams"—are generally used as decorative elements. Kufic [[calligram]]s, particularly of the words "blessing" ({{Lang|ar|بركة}} ''baraka'') and "felicity" ({{Lang|ar|يمن}} ''yumn''), are used as decorative motifs in arabesque throughout the palace. Like the rest of the original stucco decoration, many inscriptions were originally painted and enhanced with colours. Studies indicate that the letters were often painted in gold or silver, or in white with black outlines, which would have made them stand out on the decorated backgrounds that were often painted in red, blue, or turquoise (with other colours mixed into the details). [149] => {{multiple image [150] => | align = center [151] => | total_width = 820 [152] => | image1 = خط أندلسي مشبك بفناء الريحان بقصر الحمراء 1.jpg [153] => | alt1 = {{lang|ar|وفتحت بالسيف الجزيرة}} "And the peninsula was conquered with the sword" [154] => | caption1 = {{lang|ar|وفتحت بالسيف الجزيرة}}
"And the peninsula was conquered with the sword" [155] => | image2 = خط أندلسي مشبك بفناء الريحان بقصر الحمراء.jpg [156] => | alt2 = {{lang|ar|يبنون القصور تخدما}} "They build palaces diligently" [157] => | caption2 = {{lang|ar|يبنون القصور تخدما}}
"They build palaces diligently" [158] => | footer = Epigraphic samples from the [[Court of the Myrtles]]: what [[Muhammad Kurd Ali]] described as Andalusi ''mushabbak'' (sinuous) script ({{Lang|ar|خط أندلسي مُشَبَّك}}), or what Western sources refer to as Nasrid cursive (left and center images){{Cite book |last1=محمد كرد علي |first1=محمد بن عبد الرزاق بن محمد |title=غابر الأندلس وحاضرها |date=2011 |publisher=شركة نوابغ الفكر |isbn=978-977-6305-97-7 |oclc=1044625566}} and floral [[Kufic]] script (right). [159] => | direction = [160] => | image3 = خط كوفي بفناء الريحان بقصر الحمراء.jpg [161] => | alt3 = [162] => | caption3 = {{lang|ar|ولا غالب إلا الله}}
"There is no victor but God." [163] => }} [164] => [165] => == Main structures == [166] => === Entrance gates === [167] => [[File:Alhambra Gatehouse.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The ''Puerta de la Justicia'' (Gate of Justice), the main southern gate to the Alhambra, built by [[Yusuf I]] in 1348|left]] [168] => The main gate of the Alhambra is the large ''Puerta de la Justicia'' (Gate of Justice), known in Arabic as ''Bab al-Shari'a'' ({{Lang-ar|باب الشريعة|lit=Gate of [[Shari'a]] (law)}}), which served as the main entrance on the south side of the walled complex. It was built in 1348 during the reign of Yusuf I.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|pp=152–155}}{{Sfn|López|1992}}{{Cite book |last=García Porras |first=Alberto |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zgsOEAAAQBAJ |title=The Nasrid Kingdom of Granada between East and West: (Thirteenth to Fifteenth Centuries) |publisher=Brill |year=2020 |isbn=978-90-04-44359-4 |editor-last=Fábregas |editor-first=Adela |chapter=Productive Activities and Material Culture |access-date=11 February 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623053419/https://books.google.com/books?id=zgsOEAAAQBAJ |url-status=live }} The gate consists of a large horseshoe arch leading to a steep ramp passing through a [[Bent entrance|bent passage]]. The passage turns 90 degrees to the left and then 90 degrees to the right, with an opening above where defenders could throw projectiles onto any attackers below. The image of a hand, whose five fingers symbolized the [[Five Pillars of Islam]], is carved above the archway on the exterior façade, while the image of a key, another symbol of faith, is carved above the archway on the inner façade. A Christian-era sculpture of the [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Virgin]] and [[Christ Child]] was inserted later into another niche just inside the gate.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=47–49}} Near the outside of the gate is the ''Pilar de Carlos V'', a Renaissance-style fountain built in 1524 with some further alterations in 1624.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=35}} [169] => [170] => At the end of the passage coming from the ''Puerta de la Justicia'' is the ''Plaza de los Aljibes'' ('Place of the Cisterns'), a broad open space which divides the Alcazaba from the Nasrid Palaces. The plaza is named after a large cistern dating to around 1494, commissioned by Iñigo López de Mondoza y Quiñones. The cistern was one of the first works carried out in the Alhambra after the 1492 conquest and it filled what was previously a gully between the Alcazaba and the palaces.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=63}} On the east side of the square is the ''Puerta del Vino'' (Wine Gate) which leads to the Palace of Charles V and to the former residential neighbourhoods (the ''medina'') of the Alhambra.{{Sfn|López|1992}}{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=61–63}} The gate's construction is attributed to the reign of Muhammad III, although the decoration dates from different periods. Both the inner and outer façades of the gate are embellished with ceramic decoration filing the spandrels of the arches and stucco decoration above. On the western side of the gate is the carving of a key symbol like the one on the ''Puerta de la Justicia''.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=61}} [171] => [172] => [[File:Puerta de las Armas-crop.jpg|thumb|upright=0.8|The ''Puerta de las Armas'' ('Gate of Arms'), the main northern gate of the Alhambra, from the 13th century]] [173] => The other main gate of the Alhambra was the ''Puerta de las Armas'' ('Gate of Arms'), located on the north side of the Alcazaba, from which a walled ramp leads towards the ''Plaza de los Aljibes'' and the Nasrid Palaces. This was originally the main access point to the complex for the regular residents of the city, since it was accessible from the Albaicín side, but after the Christian conquest the ''Puerta de la Justicia'' was favoured by Ferdinand and Isabella.{{Sfn|López|1992}} The gate, one of the earliest structures built in the Alhambra in the 13th century, is one of the Alhambra structures that bears the most resemblance to the Almohad architectural tradition that preceded the Nasrids. The exterior façade of the gate is decorated with a polylobed moulding with glazed tiles inside a rectangular ''[[alfiz]]'' frame. Inside the gate's passage is a dome that is painted to simulate the appearance of red brick, a decorative feature characteristic of the Nasrid period.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=49–51}} [174] => [175] => Two other exterior gates existed, both located further east. On the north side is the ''Puerta del Arrabal'' ('Arrabal Gate'), which opens onto the ''Cuesta de los Chinos'' ('Slope of the Pebbles'), the ravine between the Alhambra and the Generalife. It was probably created under Muhammad II and served the first palaces of the Alhambra which were built in this area during his reign. It underwent numerous modifications in the later Christian era of the Alhambra.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=53}}{{Sfn|López|1992}} On the south side is the ''Puerta de los Siete Suelos'' ('Gate of Seven Floors'), which was almost entirely destroyed by the explosions set off by the departing French troops in 1812. The present gate was reconstructed in the 1970s with help of remaining fragments and of multiple old [[engraving]]s that illustrate the former gate. The original gate was probably built in the mid-14th century and its original Arabic name was ''Bab al-Gudur''. It would have been the main entrance serving the ''medina'', the area occupied by industries and the houses of workers inside the Alhambra. It was also through here that the Catholic Monarchs first entered the Alhambra on January 2, 1492.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=45–46}}{{Sfn|López|1992}} [176] => [177] => === Alcazaba === [178] => {{Main|Alcazaba of the Alhambra}} [179] => [[File:Patio de Armas y Alcazaba de la Alhambra II.jpg|thumb|View of the [[Alcazaba of the Alhambra|Alcazaba]] and its interior]] [180] => The Alcazaba or citadel is the oldest part of the Alhambra today. It was the centerpiece of the complicated system of fortifications that protected the area. Its tallest tower, the {{Convert|26|m|ft|abbr=on|adj=on}} high ''Torre del Homenaje'' ('Tower of Homage'), was the [[keep]] and military command post of the complex. It may have also been the first residence of Ibn al-Ahmar inside the Alhambra while the complex was being constructed.{{Sfn|López|1992|p=154}}{{Sfn|Puerta-Vílchez|2022|p=368}} The westernmost tower, the {{Convert|25|m|ft|abbr=on|adj=on}} high ''Torre de la Vela'', acted as a watch tower. The flag of Ferdinand and Isabella was first raised above it as a symbol of the Spanish conquest of Granada on 2 January 1492.{{harvp|Chisholm|1911|p=657}} A bell was added on the tower soon afterward and for centuries it was rung at regular times every day and on special occasions. In 1843 the tower became part of the city's coat of arms.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=90}} Inside the enclosure of the inner fortress was a residential district that housed the elite guards of the Alhambra. It contained urban amenities like a communal kitchen, a [[hammam]], and a water supply cistern, as well as multiple subterranean chambers which served as [[dungeon]]s and [[silo]]s.{{Sfn|López|2011b|p=282}} [181] => [182] => ===Nasrid palaces=== [183] => The royal palace complex consists of three main parts, from west to east: the Mexuar, the Comares Palace, and the Palace of the Lions.{{Efn|Some scholarly descriptions of the palaces treat the Mexuar as merely one part of the larger Comares Palace.{{sfn|Dickie|1992}}{{sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=245, 262}}}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=95}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|pp=155–164}} Collectively, these palaces are also known as the ''Casa Real Vieja'' ('Old Royal Palace'), to distinguish them from the newer palaces erected next to them during the Christian Spanish period.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=155}}{{Sfn|López|2011b|p=283}} [184] => [185] => ==== Mexuar ==== [186] => {{Main|Mexuar}} [187] => [[File:Mexuar, seen from the Patio de Machuca, 16.08.14.jpg|thumb|View of the Mexuar today (with the Comares Tower also visible behind it)]] [188] => The Mexuar is the westernmost part of the palace complex. It was analogous to the [[Mechouar|''mashwar'']]s (or ''mechouar''s) of royal palaces in North Africa.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=269}} It was first built as part of the larger complex begun by Isma'il I which included the Comares Palace. It housed many of the administrative and more public functions of the palace, such as the chancery and the treasury. Its layout consisted of two consecutive courtyards followed by a main hall, all aligned along a central axis from west to east. Little remains of the two western courtyards of the Mexuar today, except for their foundations, a portico, and the water basin of a fountain. The main hall, known as the ''Sala del Mexuar'' or Council Hall, served as a throne hall where the sultan received and judged petitions. This area also granted access to the Comares Palace via the ''Cuarto Dorado'' section on the east side of the Council Hall. Multiple parts of the Mexuar were significantly modified in the post-''Reconquista'' period; notably, the ''Sala del Mexuar'' was converted into a Christian [[chapel]] and additions were made to the ''Cuarto Dorado'' to convert it into a residence. Many of these additions were later removed during modern restorations in the 19th and 20th centuries.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=268-274}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=99-106}} [189] => [190] => ====Comares Palace==== [191] => {{Main|Court of the Myrtles}} [192] => [[File:Patio de los Arrayanes Alhambra 02 2014.jpg|alt=|thumb|The [[Court of the Myrtles]], the central courtyard of the Comares Palace{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=262–265}}|left]]The Comares Palace was the core of a large palace complex begun by Isma'il I in the early 13th century and subsequently modified and refurbished by Yusuf I and Muhammad V over the course of the same century.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017}} This new palace complex served as the official palace of the sultan and the state, known in Arabic as the ''Qaṣr al-Sultan'' or ''Dār al-Mulk''.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=261}} The Comares Palace was accessed from the west through the Mexuar. An internal façade, known as the Comares Façade, stands on the south side of the ''Patio de Cuarto Dorado'' ('Courtyard of the Gilded Room') at the east edge of the Mexuar. This highly decorated symmetrical façade, with two doors, was the entrance to the palace and likely served in some ceremonial functions.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=109}}{{Sfn|Dickie|1992|p=137}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=159}}[[File:Techo del Salón de Embajadores (la Alhambra), Granada.jpg|thumb|Ceiling of the Hall of the Ambassadors]]The Comares Palace itself is centered around the ''Patio de los Arrayanes'' ('Court of the Myrtles'), a courtyard measuring 23 to 23.5 metres wide and 36.6 metres long, with its long axis aligned roughly north-to-south.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=265}} At the middle, aligned with the main axis of the court, is a wide [[Reflecting pool|reflective pool]]. The pool measures 34 metres long and 7,10 meters wide.{{cite web |title=Court of the Myrtles |url=http://www.alhambradegranada.org/en/info/placesandspots/courtofthemyrtles.asp |work=Alhambra de Granada |access-date=18 February 2022 |archive-date=27 March 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160327052348/http://www.alhambradegranada.org/en/info/placesandspots/courtofthemyrtles.asp |url-status=live }} The myrtle bushes that are the court's namesake grow in hedges along either side of this pool. Two ornate porticos are situated at the north and south ends of the court, leading to further halls and rooms behind them. The court's decoration contained eleven [[Qasida|''qasā'id'']] by [[Ibn Zamrak]], eight of which remain.{{Cite book |last1=Puerta Vílchez |first1=José Miguel |title=Reading the Alhambra: a visual guide to the Alhambra through its inscriptions |last2=Núñez Guarde |first2=Juan Agustín |date=2011 |publisher=Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife : Edilux |isbn=978-84-86827-62-5 |location=Granada, Spain |oclc=828680669}} Annexed to the east side of the palace are the Comares Baths, a royal hammam that is exceptionally well-preserved.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=123}} [193] => [194] => On the north side of the Court of the Myrtles, inside the massive Comares Tower, is the ''Salón de los Embajadores'' ('Hall of the Ambassadors'), the largest room in the Alhambra. It is accessed by passing through the ''Sala de la Barca'',{{Efn|The name ''barca'' is assumed to derive from the Arabic word ''[[Barakah|baraka]]'', meaning "blessing", which is included in the inscriptions around the hall.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=265}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=115-116}}{{Sfn|Dickie|1992|p=139-140}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=41-42}}}} a wide rectangular hall behind the northern portico of the court. The Hall of the Ambassadors is a square chamber measuring 11.3 meters per side and rising to a height of 18.2 metres.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=266}} This was the throne room or audience chamber of the sultan.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=43}} The sultan's throne was placed opposite the entrance in front of a recessed double-arched window at the back of the hall.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=118}} In addition to the extensive tile and stucco decoration of the walls, the interior culminates in a large domed ceiling. The ceiling is made of 8017 interlinked pieces of wood that form an abstract geometric representation of the [[Seven Heavens|seven heavens]].{{Sfn|López|2011|p=118}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=43-44}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=159}} The hall and its tower project from the walls of the palace, with windows providing views in three directions. In this sense, it was an enlarged version of a ''mirador'', a room from which the palace's inhabitants could gaze outward to the surrounding landscape.{{Sfn|Dickie|1992|p=}} [195] => [196] => ====Palace of the Lions==== [197] => {{main|Court of the Lions}} [198] => [[File:Palacios Nazaríes in the Alhambra (Granada). (51592334991).jpg|alt=|thumb|The [[Court of the Lions]] and its central fountain]] [199] => The Palace of the Lions is one of the most famous palaces in [[Islamic architecture]] and exemplifies the apogee of Nasrid architecture under the reign of Muhammad V.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=164}} Its central rectangular courtyard measures about 28.7 meters long and 15.6 meters wide, with its long axis aligned roughly east-to-west.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=279}} The arches and columns of the surrounding portico are arranged in a complex pattern of single columns alternating with groups of two or three columns, a design that was unique in Islamic architecture.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=279-281}} Two ornate pavilions stand at the east and west sides of the courtyard, while the center is occupied by the famed Fountain of the Lions. The fountain consists of a large basin surrounded by twelve stylized lion sculptures, all carved from marble.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=282-283}} Along the rim of the fountain's basin is an inscribed poem composed by Ibn Zamrak. This praises the beauty of the fountain and the power of the lions, but it also describes their hydraulic systems and how they worked.{{harvp|Al-Hassani|Woodcock|Saoud|2007|p=233}} [200] => [[File:Hall of Kings (Alhambra) 08 (43582411254).jpg|left|thumb|Painted ceiling with Nasrid figures in the Hall of Kings]] [201] => Four halls are arranged around the courtyard. The ''Sala de los Mocárabes'' ('Hall of the ''mocárabes'' (''muqarnas'')'), on the west side, was damaged in 1590 by the explosion of a nearby [[gunpowder magazine]] and its ceiling was replaced by the current Baroque-style plaster vault in 1714.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=132}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=52-53}} The {{Ill|Sala de los Reyes|es|Sala de los Reyes (Alhambra)|italic=y}} ('Hall of Kings'), on the east side, is subdivided into multiple sections covered by ''muqarnas'' vaults. Opening behind these are several more rooms, three of which contain rounded vault ceilings covered by unique pictorial scenes painted on leather. One painting shows a Nasrid sultan and other dignitaries sitting and discussing together while the two other paintings feature scenes of sports, hunting, and court life.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=284}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=140}} The style of painting was influenced to one extent or another by Christian [[Gothic art]].{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=284}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=53-54}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=140}}{{Cite journal |last=Dodds |first=Jerrilynn |date=1979 |title=The Paintings in the Sala de Justicia of the Alhambra: Iconography and Iconology |journal=Art Bulletin |volume=61 |issue=2 |pages=186–197 |doi=10.1080/00043079.1979.10787657}} [202] => [[File:Alhambra Hall of Two Sisters DSCF7585.jpg|thumb|''[[Muqarnas]]'' dome in the Hall of the Two Sisters]] [203] => On the south side of the courtyard, the ''Sala de los Abencerrajes'' ('Hall of the [[Abencerrages]]') derives its name from a legend according to which the father of [[Boabdil]], the last sultan of Granada, having invited the chiefs of that line to a banquet, massacred them here.Lowe, Alfonso; Hugh Seymour-Davies. ''The Companion Guide to the South of Spain''. Companion Guides, 2000. {{ISBN|9781900639330}}. P. 8. It is covered by an elaborate ''muqarnas'' vault ceiling, featuring a 16-sided [[Roof lantern|lantern]] cupola in the shape of an [[Octagram|eight-pointed star]], possibly symbolizing the celestial heaven.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=285}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=136-138}}{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=163}} On the north side of the courtyard is the ''Sala de Dos Hermanas'' ('Hall of Two Sisters'), so-called because of two large slabs of marble that form part of the pavement. Its original Arabic name was ''al-Qubba al-Kubrā'' ({{Lang-ar|القبة الكبرى|lit=the Great Dome|links=no}}), suggesting it had a particular significance.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=285}} The hall is covered by one of the most remarkable ''muqarnas'' domes in [[Islamic architecture|Islamic art]]. The ''muqarnas'' composition consists of at least 5000 [[Prism (geometry)|prismatic]] pieces, unfolding from the central summit into sixteen miniature domes right above the level of the windows.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=55}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=145}} [204] => [205] => To the north of the ''Sala de Dos Hermanas'', and accessed through it, is the ''Mirador de Lindaraja'', a small projecting room with double-arched windows on three sides which overlook the gardens below. The name ''Lindaraja'' is a corruption of Arabic '''Ayn Dar 'Aisha'' ({{Lang-ar|عين دار عائشة|lit=Eye of the House of 'Aisha|links=no}}).{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=9}} This small chamber has some of the most sophisticated carved stucco decoration in the Alhambra and retains original mosaic tilework that features very fine Arabic inscriptions.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=146}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=286}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=55}} The room is also covered by a unique vault ceiling consisting of a wooden [[Lattice (order)|lattice]] shaped into an interlacing geometric motif and filled with pieces of [[Glass coloring and color marking|coloured glass]].{{Sfn|López|2011|p=146}} [206] => [207] => ==== Renaissance apartments and courtyards ==== [208] => [[File:Granada 2009-08-10zh.jpg|thumb|The Lindaraja Courtyard, formed in the 16th century]] [209] => To the east of the Comares Palace and the Palace of the Lions is an area of Renaissance-style Christian additions dating primarily from the 16th century. Directly north of the Palace of the Lions is the ''Patio de Lindaraja'' (Lindaraja Courtyard), originally an open garden area but turned into a cloistered garden by the addition of new structures around it during the 16th century. The fountain at its center features a [[Baroque]] pedestal made in 1626 that supports a Nasrid marble basin installed here at the same time, although a replica now replaces the original basin which is kept at the Alhambra Museum.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=149-159}}{{Cite web |title=The Fountain of Lindaraja |url=https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/elemento-del-mes/the-fountain-of-lindaraja |access-date=2022-02-19 |website=Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife |language=en-US |archive-date=19 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220219043203/https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/elemento-del-mes/the-fountain-of-lindaraja |url-status=live }} On the west and north sides of the courtyard, along the upper floors, are six rooms constructed for Charles V between 1528 and 1537, known as the Emperor's Chambers. The most interesting details of the rooms are a marble fireplace sculpted with the emperor's coat of arms and a ceiling of panels painted with pictures of fruits. The paintings were made around 1537 by Julio Aquiles and Alejandro Mayner.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=149-159}}{{Sfn|Dickie|1992|p=146}} To the west of the Lindaraja Courtyard is the smaller ''Patio de la Reja'' ('Courtyard of the Queen'), located between the Emperor's Chambers and the Comares Tower. A gallery was built around the upper floor of the courtyard between 1654 and 1655.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=156}} [210] => [211] => Further north is a tower known as the ''Peinador de la Reina'' ('Queen's Robing Room'), formerly known as the Tower of Abu al-Juyyush.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=30}} This was originally a stand-alone fortification tower in the Alhambra walls that was probably built in the reign of [[Nasr of Granada|Nasr]] (r. 1309–1314), also known as Abu al-Juyyush. Yusuf I converted it into a small palatial residence with a lantern ceiling and Muhammad V later added decoration around its entrance. Between 1528 and 1537 it was connected to the Emperor's Chambers via a new elevated gallery and an upper level was added to the tower around the existing lantern ceiling.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=155-156}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=275}} Between 1539 and 1546 this upper floor was painted by Julio Aquiles and Alejandro Mayner with [[Classical mythology|mythological]] scenes, depictions of Charles V's 1535 [[Conquest of Tunis (1535)|invasion of Tunis]], and more formal [[Roman art|classical]]-like motifs. Later, in 1618, Nasrid-period columns and capitals from other palaces were integrated into the gallery, some of which were later moved to the Alhambra Museum.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=155-156}} [212] => [213] => ==== Partal Palace and gardens ==== [214] => {{Main|Partal Palace|Torre de la Cautiva}} [215] => [[File:Granada Alhambra.jpg|thumb|The [[Partal Palace]]]] [216] => To the east of the Palace of the Lions and the Renaissance additions is the Partal Palace, a pavilion structure on the edge of the Alhambra walls. It was built by Muhammad III, which makes it the oldest surviving palace in the Alhambra today, although it has undergone many alterations since then.{{Cite web |title=The Partal |url=https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/the-partal |access-date=2022-02-19 |website=Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife |language=en-US |archive-date=29 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220129154039/https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/the-partal |url-status=live }}{{Sfn|Barrucand|Bednorz|1992|p=189}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=165-167}} Its south side has a portico and faces a large reflective pool, while a mirador projects from its north side over the walls. Next to it is a small but richly decorated oratory containing a [[mihrab]].{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=162–173}} Beyond the Partal is an area of gardens stretching along the northern wall of the Alhambra. Several towers along this northern wall were converted into small palatial residences during the Nasrid period, including the ''Torre de los Picos'' ('Tower of the Pointed Battlements'{{Cite web |title=The tower of the Pointed Embattlements |url=https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/the-tower-of-the-pointed-embattlements |access-date=2022-02-10 |website=Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife |archive-date=10 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210061749/https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/the-tower-of-the-pointed-embattlements |url-status=live }}), the ''Torre de la Cautiva'' ('Tower of the Captive'), and the ''Torre de las Infantas'' ('Tower of the Princesses').{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=189–198}} For tourists visiting the Alhambra today, all these areas are accessible after passing through the main Nasrid Palaces, although the palace-towers are not normally open to visitors.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=150–191}}{{Cite web |title=Alhambra {{!}} Granada, Spain Attractions |url=https://www.lonelyplanet.com/spain/granada/attractions/alhambra/a/poi-sig/430192/360733 |access-date=2022-02-10 |website=Lonely Planet |archive-date=10 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210061751/https://www.lonelyplanet.com/spain/granada/attractions/alhambra/a/poi-sig/430192/360733 |url-status=live }}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=59}} [217] => [218] => === Palace of Charles V === [219] => {{Main|Palace of Charles V}} [220] => [[File:Palacio de Carlos V - panoramio.jpg|thumb|Exterior of the [[Palace of Charles V]]]] [221] => [[File:Patio Paleis Karel V.jpg|thumb|Courtyard of the Palace of Charles V]] [222] => The palace commissioned by Charles V in the middle of the Alhambra was designed by [[Pedro Machuca]], an architect who had trained under [[Michelangelo]] in [[Rome]] and who was steeped in the culture of the Italian [[High Renaissance]] and of the artistic circles of [[Raphael]] and [[Giulio Romano]].{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=65–70}}{{Cite book |last=Checa |first=Fernando |title=Art and Architecture of Spain |publisher=Bulfinch Press |year=1998 |isbn=0821224565 |editor-last=Barral i Altet |editor-first=Xavier |pages=260 |chapter=The Art of the Renaissance}}{{Cite journal |last=Brown |first=Jonathan |date=1986 |title=Review of The Palace of Charles V in Granada |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/1864465 |journal=The American Historical Review |volume=91 |issue=5 |pages=1219–1220 |doi=10.2307/1864465 |jstor=1864465 |issn=0002-8762 |access-date=9 February 2022 |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209231515/https://www.jstor.org/stable/1864465 |url-status=live }} It was conceived in a contemporary [[Renaissance architecture|Renaissance style]] or "Roman" style{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=65–70}} with an innovative design reflecting the architectural ideals of this period. The construction of a monumental Italian-influenced palace in the heart of the Nasrid-built Alhambra symbolized Charles V's imperial status and the triumph of Christianity over Islam achieved by his grandparents (the Catholic Monarchs).{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=65–70}} It consists of a massive square structure of stone which encloses a perfectly circular courtyard. The exterior facades are divided into two horizontal zones of decoration, with [[Rustication (architecture)|rustication]] below and [[pilaster]]s alternating with other embellishments above.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=70–72}} The two main entrance portals, on the western and southern sides, have designs resembling [[triumphal arch]]es with engaged columns. The pedestals of these columns are carved with reliefs depicting allegorical scenes such as the [[Victoria (mythology)|Victories]] destroying armaments, representing the emperor's imposition of a universal peace. The upper façade of the southern entrance portal features a [[Venetian window|Serlian window]]. Among the other details of the palace façades are a series of bronze rings or [[Door knocker|knockers]] which are strictly ornamental, with more Hispanic symbolic imagery such as lion and eagle heads.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=70–72}} Pedro Machuca had intended to create plazas with [[colonnade]]s on the east and west sides of the building to serve as a grand new approach to the Alhambra palaces, but these were never executed.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=70}}{{Cite web |title=Palace of Charles V |url=https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/palace-of-charles-v |access-date=2022-02-09 |website=Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife |archive-date=9 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220209231518/https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/palace-of-charles-v |url-status=live }} [223] => [224] => Construction of the palace began in 1527. After Machuca's death in 1550 it was continued by his son Luis, who finished the facades and built the internal courtyard. Work was halted for 15 years when the [[Rebellion of the Alpujarras (1568–1571)|1568 Morisco Rebellion]] began. Work was still unfinished when Philip IV visited in 1628 and the project was finally abandoned in 1637, leaving the structure without a roof.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=69–70}} It was finally completed after 1923, when Leopoldo Torres Balbás began its restoration. Today, the building houses the Alhambra Museum, which holds objects and artefacts relating to the Alhambra's history, as well as the Fine Arts Museum of Granada, which houses a collection of paintings from Granada dating from the 16th to 20th centuries.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=75–79}} [225] => [226] => === Other Nasrid palaces === [227] => {{Further|Palacio del Partal Alto|Palace of the Convent of San Francisco}}[[File:Convent of San Francisco, Granada - DSC07679.JPG|thumb|The Convent of Saint Francis was built over the remains of a former Nasrid palace. The building is now a [[Paradores|Parador]] (state-owned hotel).]] [228] => Three other major Nasrid-era palaces once existed but were largely destroyed over the centuries. The excavated remains of the ''Palacio del Partal Alto'' ('Upper Partal Palace'), also known as the ''Palacio del Conde del Tendilla'' ('Palace of the Count of Tendilla'), are incorporated today into the Partal Gardens. The palace dates from the time of Muhammad II, with later renovations and modifications, and is the oldest palace in the Alhambra of which traces have been found.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=236}} [229] => [230] => The Palace of the Convent of San Francisco (''Palacio del Convento de San Francisco'', also known as the ''Palacio de los Infantes'') is named after the Convent of [[Francis of Assisi|Saint Francis]] which was installed here in 1494.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=246–247}}{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=180–184}} The Nasrid palace here was probably first built by Muhammad II but some surviving inscriptions suggest it was significantly remodeled by Muhammad V.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=25}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=246–247}} Little remains of the Nasrid structure today except for a rectangular courtyard and some of its adjoining rooms, including a richly-decorated chamber with ''muqarnas'' vaulting. Queen Isabella I was originally buried here in 1504 before her body was moved to the [[Royal Chapel of Granada|Royal Chapel]] near the cathedral.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=247}} The rest of the present-day building dates from an 18th-century remodeling of the convent and includes a cloistered courtyard. Today it serves as a [[Paradores|Parador]] (state-owned hotel).{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=180–184}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=246–247}} [231] => [232] => The Palace of the Abencerrajes (''Palacio de los Abencerrajes'') was one of the largest palaces in the Alhambra and may also date from the time of Muhammad II. What was left of the palace was blown up by Napoleon's troops in 1812. It then became part of an area of abandoned ruins known as the Secano. Its excavated remains are visible today in the southern part of the complex but they have yet to be fully studied.{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|pp=250–251}}{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=175–180}} [233] => [234] => === Church of Santa Maria and the Alhambra Mosque === [235] => [[File:Iglesia de Santa María de la Alhambra.jpg|thumb|Exterior of the Church of Santa Maria de la Alhambra]] [236] => Located just east of the Palace of Charles V is the Catholic Church of ''Santa María de la Alhambra'' ('Saint Mary of the Alhambra'), which stands on the site of the former Alhambra Mosque, the congregational mosque of the Alhambra complex. The church was built between 1581 and 1618.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=213}} It is under the authority of the [[Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Granada|Archbishop of Granada]].{{Cite web |title=St. Mary Church |url=https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/st-mary-church |access-date=2022-04-18 |website=Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife |language=en-US |archive-date=19 May 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210519030701/https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/st-mary-church |url-status=live }} The building was designed by architects Juan de Herrera and Juan de Orea and completed by Ambrosio Vico. Inside is a large Baroque [[altarpiece]] with gilded ornate columns completed in 1671, although the most impressive centerpiece of the altar, a sculpture of [[Our Lady of Sorrows]] (depicting [[Mary, mother of Jesus|Mary]] holding the body of [[Jesus]]), was carved between 1750 and 1760 by Torcuato Ruiz del Peral.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=213}} Every year during [[Holy Week in Spain|Holy Week]], this sculpture is taken out and carried in a procession through the streets of Granada. During processions it is carried on top of a "throne" or platform that is sculpted to resemble the arcades in the Court of the Lions.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=213}} [237] => [238] => Little remains of the Alhambra Mosque which stood previously on this site, aside from an ornate bronze lamp now preserved at the [[National Archaeological Museum (Madrid)|National Archaeological Museum]] in [[Madrid]]. According to an inscription on this lamp and to the writings of Ibn al-Khatib, the mosque was commissioned by Muhammad III and completed in 1305.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=210–211}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=57}} The mosque's main axis was aligned towards the ''[[qibla]]'' to the southeast, which also matched the alignment of the main street next to it. The structure consisted of a hypostyle hall with three "naves" separated by rows of three arches. The arches were supported by marble columns with capitals similar in style to those of the earlier Cordoban Caliphate period in the 10th century. The roof was made of wood and the central nave, which led to the mihrab, had a higher ceiling than the two side naves. A slender [[minaret]] stood at the western end of the building.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=210–211}} After the Christian conquest, the building was converted to a church but by the late 16th century it was in disrepair. It was finally demolished in 1576, prior to the construction of the present church.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=210–211}} [239] => [240] => ==== Baths of the mosque ==== [241] => [[File:Baños de Comares. 19 September 2016.JPG|thumb|Interior of the baths ([[hammam]]) that stood near the Alhambra Mosque]] [242] => One of the Alhambra Mosque's annexes, the baths (hammam), has been preserved on the east side of the church today and is accessible from the main street. Like other Islamic baths, it provided general hygiene to the local residents as well as the means to perform the ritual ablutions (''[[ghusl]]'') for religious purposes.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=46}} Although sometimes eroticized in [[Romanticism|Romantic]] western literature, visitors attended the baths strictly with members of the same sex and wore cloths or towels around their private parts.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=46}} These baths were constructed under Muhammad III along with the mosque. They may have been partly demolished in 1534 before being incorporated into a residential house during the 17th and 18th centuries. The preserved remains were significant enough to enable their restoration and reconstruction in 1934.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=213–215}} [243] => [244] => The layout of the baths had a typical sequence of rooms, including a [[Apodyterium|changing room]] (''bayt al-maslak͟h'' in Arabic), a [[Frigidarium|cold room]] (''bayt al-barid''), and a [[Caldarium|hot room]] (''bayt al-sak͟hun'').{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=213–215}} Behind the hot room there would have been a boiler room where water was heated and firewood stored nearby. Original fragments of tile and stucco decoration, as well as part of the marble flooring, have been preserved in some of the rooms. The hot room has one small pool and another may have existed where a modern fountain stands today.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=213–215}} However, unlike in Christian and earlier [[Greco-Roman world|Greco-Roman culture]], Muslims generally did not favour swimming or immersion in water for their visits to the baths.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|pp=40, 46}}{{cite journal |last=Sibley |first=Magda |title=The Historic Hammams of Damascus and Fez: Lessons of Sustainability and Future Developments |journal=The 23rd Conference on Passive and Low Energy Architecture}} Private baths, of varying size and importance, were also built as part of the Alhambra's palaces.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=}}{{Cite book |last=Fournier |first=Caroline |url=https://books.openedition.org/pur/44617 |title=Les Bains d'al-Andalus: VIIIe-XVe siècle |series=Histoire |publisher=Presses universitaires de Rennes |year=2016 |location=Rennes |isbn=9782753555457 |access-date=11 February 2022 |archive-date=11 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220211224032/https://books.openedition.org/pur/44617 |url-status=live }} [245] => [246] => === Rawda (Nasrid mausoleum) === [247] => [[File:Rawda of the Alhambra DSCF8288.jpg|thumb|Remains of the ''Rawda'' mausoleum today (with the Palace of the Lions standing behind it)]] [248] => In the space between the former mosque and the Palace of the Lions stood the ''Rawda'' (spelled ''Rauda'' in Spanish), the royal mausoleum of the Nasrids. The term ''rawda'' ({{Lang-ar|الروضة|links=no}}) means 'garden' in Arabic, but a number of historic Islamic necropolises or cemeteries were known by this name, including the necropolis of the former Umayyad rulers in Cordoba.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=57}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=172-173}} The Nasrid mausoleum was first built by Isma'il I in the early 14th century,{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=236}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=57}} though an earlier cemetery may have already existed there previously.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=172-173}} The structure no longer stands today but it has been studied by archeologists and its foundations are still visible.{{Sfn|Dickie|1992|p=144-145}} The necropolis consisted of a rectangular enclosure which was accessed through a small horseshoe-arch gate preserved today on its north side. Inside the enclosure was a square mausoleum chamber covered by a roof with a central square lantern. (The presence of the lantern is indicated by the remains of four pillars in the center of the structure.) Some rectangular rooms were adjoined to the side of this chamber. The mausoleum was preceded by a rectangular courtyard. This layout was similar to some earlier mausoleums in North Africa and to the later [[Saadian Tombs]] in Marrakesh.{{Sfn|Bloom|2020|p=164}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=172-173}} Like the nearby mosque, the mausoleum was aligned with the ''qibla''. It was decorated with carved stucco and tilework, remains of which have been uncovered in excavations. The windows of the central lantern were closed with wooden latticework, an example of which is preserved in the Alhambra Museum today.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=172-173}} [249] => [250] => The most important persons, such as the Nasrid rulers, were buried inside this mausoleum, but in the open space between the mausoleum and the outer enclosure wall were other graves belonging to less important figures.{{Sfn|Dickie|1992|p=144-145}} The tombs of important figures were covered with marble slabs on top of which were pyramidal or [[Prism (geometry)|prismatic]] stones known as ''maqabriyya''s, while lesser tombs outside where framed by stone curbs that made them look like miniature gardens.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=172-173}}{{Sfn|Dickie|1992|p=144-145}} At the heads of important graves were marble tombstones carved with detailed inscriptions, some examples of which are preserved at the Alhambra Museum today.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=172-173}} In 1574, during construction of the nearby Palace of Charles V, the tombstones of Muhammad II, Isma'il I, Yusuf I and Yusuf III were discovered. When Torres Balbás investigated the site in 1925-1926 he found 70 more graves inside the enclosure. Almost all the graves were already empty, as Muhammad XII, the last sultan of Granada, arranged to have the remains of his ancestors moved to an unknown site at Mondújar, in the [[Alpujarras]].{{Sfn|López|2011|p=172-173}}{{Sfn|Dickie|1992|p=144-145}} [251] => [252] => === Generalife === [253] => {{Main|Generalife}} [254] => [255] => [[File:Patio de la Acequia (Generalife) - DSC07863.JPG|thumb|The ''Patio de la Acequia'' in the [[Generalife]]]] [256] => To the east of the Alhambra and outside its walls is the Generalife (from {{Lang-ar|جَنَّة الْعَرِيف |translit=Jannat al-'Ārifa|links=no}}{{Efn|The exact meaning and etymology of the name is not known for certain.{{sfn|Irwin|2004|pp=59–62}}}}), a Nasrid-era country estate which was first built by Muhammad II and Muhammad III in the late 13th and early 14th centuries.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2000|pp=155–156}}{{Sfn|Arnold|2017|p=257}} It underwent multiple modifications under later Nasrid rulers and then by Christian Spanish builders in the 16th century. It features several rectangular garden courtyards with decorated pavilions at either end. A large area of landscaped gardens from the 20th century occupies the approach to the former palace today. The Nasrid palace was originally linked to the Alhambra by a walled corridor that crossed the valley between them.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=219–237}} [257] => [258] => === Other outlying structures === [259] => [[File:Castillo del Mauror.JPG|thumb|The ''Torres Bermejas'' on the Mauror Hill]] [260] => The main approach to the Alhambra today is through the Alhambra Woods in the valley on its south side. The outer entrance to the woods is through the ''Puerta de las Granadas'' ('Gate of the Pomegranates'), a formal Renaissance-style gate built in 1536 over the remains of an earlier Islamic-era gate.{{Cite web |title=The gate of the pomegranates |url=https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/the-gate-of-the-pomegranates |access-date=2022-02-10 |website=Patronato de la Alhambra y Generalife |archive-date=10 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220210022656/https://www.alhambra-patronato.es/en/edificios-lugares/the-gate-of-the-pomegranates |url-status=live }} Within the woods is the ''Puerta de Birambla'' (from Arabic ''Bab al-Ramla''), one of the former Islamic-era gates in Granada's city walls which was demolished between 1873 and 1884 and then reconstructed here in 1933.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=36}} To the south of the ''Puerta de las Granadas'' are the ''Torres Bermejas'' ('Vermilion Towers'), a group of three adjacent towers on the Mauror Hill. Their origin is not clear, but the oldest remains found here date from the late 8th century or early 9th century.{{Cite book |last=Gallego Roca |first=J. |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=22jwXgepN28C&dq=torres+bermejas&pg=PA33 |title=Rammed Earth Conservation |date=2012-05-31 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-203-08565-3 |editor-last=Mileto |editor-first=C. |pages=33 |chapter=Torres Bermejas: Conserving the past |editor2-last=Vegas |editor2-first=F. |editor3-last=Cristini |editor3-first=V. |access-date=11 February 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623053424/https://books.google.com/books?id=22jwXgepN28C&dq=torres+bermejas&pg=PA33 |url-status=live }} They may have been inhabited by Muhammad I (the founder of the Nasrid dynasty). In the 16th century, during the Christian Spanish era, an artillery bastion was added to them on the northwest side.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=32}} [261] => [262] => During the Nasrid period there were several other country estates and palaces to the east of the Alhambra and the Generalife, located on the mountainside and taking advantage of the water supply system which ran through this area. The two best-known examples are the ''Palacio de los Alijares'' and the ''Dar al-'Arusa'' ({{Lang-ar|دار العروس|lit=House of the Bride|links=no}}), both of which were built in the 14th century and then abandoned some time after the 1492 conquest. Only traces of them remain today. They were probably richly decorated like the Alhambra palaces and were accompanied by gardens and amenities like hammams.{{Sfn|López|2011|pp=251–255}} Also nearby is the ''Silla del Moro'' ('Seat of the Moor'), a ruined structure on the hilltop overlooking the Generalife. It was once a fort and monitoring post that protected the water supply infrastructure in this area.{{sfn|López|2011|pp=255}} [263] => [264] => == Water supply system == [265] => [[File:Alhambra (5987161547).jpg|thumb|Aqueduct of the ''Acequia Real'', which brings water into the Alhambra's walled enclosure (on the right)]] [266] => Water was provided to both the Alhambra and the Generalife by the ''Acequia del Sultan'' (also known as the ''Acequia del Rey'' or ''Acequia Real''),{{efn|The canal was known as the ''Sāqiyat al-Sulṭān'' in Arabic ({{Lang-ar|ساقية السلطان|lit=canal of the sultan}}; {{Lang-es|Acequia del Sultan}}), but after the Nasrid period it became known in Spanish as the ''Acequia del Rey'' ('Canal of the King') or the ''Acequia Real'' ('Royal Canal').}} which still exists in large part today. It draws water from the Darro River at an uphill location in the foothills of the Sierra Nevada, about 6.1 kilometers east of the Alhambra.{{sfn|López|2011|pp=239–257}} A smaller branch known as the ''Acequia del Tercio'' also splits off from it several kilometers upstream and proceeded along higher ground before arriving at the top point of the Generalife's palace and gardens. The main branch, proceeding along lower ground, also arrives at the Generalife palace and supplies water to its famous ''Patio de la Acequia''.{{Sfn|Ruggles|2000|pp=170–174}}{{sfn|López|2011|pp=239–257}} Both canals generally ran along the surface but some parts ran through tunnels cut directly into the [[bedrock]].{{Sfn|Ruggles|2000|pp=170–174}}{{sfn|López|2011|pp=239–257}} [267] => [268] => After arriving at the Generalife, the canals turn towards the southeast and run past the gardens. They then join before turning back towards the Alhambra, where the water enters via an arched [[Aqueduct (water supply)|aqueduct]] next to the ''Torre del Agua'' ('Water Tower') at the Alhambra's eastern tip.{{sfn|López|2011|pp=239–257}} From here it is channeled through the citadel via a complex system of conduits (''acequias'') and water tanks (''albercones'') which create the celebrated interplay of light, sound and surface in the palaces. [269] => [270] => == Historic furnishings and art objects == [271] => {{Multiple image [272] => | image1 = Diego Sánchez Sarabia - Jarrón nazarí de los escudos. - Google Art Project.jpg [273] => | caption1 = 18th-century illustration of an "Alhambra vase" [274] => | image2 = 12. Museo Alhambra (41538755801).jpg [275] => | caption2 = The Vase of the Gazelles at the Alhambra Museum [276] => | total_width = 350 [277] => }} [278] => [[File:Alhambra mosque lamp DSCF2980.jpg|thumb|upright=0.75|Bronze lamp from the Alhambra Mosque, dated to 1305 (housed at the [[National Archaeological Museum (Madrid)|National Archaeological Museum]])]] [279] => While the walls and rooms of the Alhambra are devoid of furnishings today, they would have originally been decorated and filled with many objects such as carpets, floor cushions, and tapestries or similar objects to be hung on the walls.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=32}} The custom of sitting on the ground explains why some of the windows in the miradors (lookout rooms) were situated so low, where the eyeline of seated persons would be.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=32}} [280] => [281] => Among the most famous objects from the Nasrid palaces are the "Alhambra vases", a type of large [[Hispano-Moresque ware]] from the Nasrid period that were mostly found in the Alhambra. They stood on display in parts of the palace, probably in the corners of rooms. Their practical function, if any, is unclear but they probably served as accessories to compliment the architecture.{{Cite book |title=The Grove Encyclopedia of Islamic Art and Architecture |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195309911 |editor-last=Bloom |editor-first=Jonathan M. |language=en |chapter=Ceramics; IV. 1250–1500; D. Spain and North Africa. |editor2-last=Blair |editor2-first=Sheila S.}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=42}} They stood about 125 centimeters tall on average, making them the largest lusterware pieces ever made. They were shaped like amphorae with narrow bases, bulging body, and narrow ribbed necks flanked by flat handles shaped like wings. They were decorated with Arabic inscriptions and other motifs, with the most common colours being [[cobalt blue]], white, and gold.{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|pp=42–43}} Ten vases of this kind have survived and began to be documented in the 18th century, making their way into museums afterwards. The earliest examples are dated to the late 13th or early 14th century, but the most elegant examples date from the late 14th or early 15th century. It is unclear where exactly they were produced, as there were several centers of ceramic production in the Nasrid kingdom, including Granada and [[Málaga]]. One of the best examples is the 14th-century Vase of the Gazelles, now kept at the Alhambra Museum. It stands 135 centimeters tall and is named after the image of confronted gazelles painted on its body.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=76}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=43}} [282] => [283] => Smaller jars and vases were also kept in niches in the walls and entrances of many rooms of the Alhambra. A ''taqa'', a niche set into the walls under an archway (in the [[jamb]]s), was a characteristic element of Nasrid architecture where such jars were kept, possibly filled with water for visitors. Examples of these niches are found in the entrance to the Hall of Ambassadors.{{Sfn|López|2011|p=115}}{{Sfn|Irwin|2004|p=42}} [284] => [285] => Another significant surviving object from the Alhambra is an elaborate bronze lamp that once hung in the main mosque, dated to 1305. The main section of the lamp is conical in shape, tied to a shaft or stem above which is punctuated with small spherical sections. The bronze is pierced to create Arabic inscriptions in a ''Naskhi'' script and a background of vegetal Arabesque motifs. After the 1492 conquest it was confiscated and made part of the treasury of [[Francisco Jiménez de Cisneros|Cardinal Cisneros]]. It is now on display at the National Archaeological Museum in Madrid, although a replica is also kept at the Alhambra Museum.{{Cite book |last= |first= |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |title=Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1992 |isbn=0870996371 |editor-last=Dodds |editor-first=Jerrilynn D. |location=New York |pages= |chapter= |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202192026/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |url-status=live }}{{Rp|page=276}}{{Sfn|López|2011|p=211}} [286] => [287] => ==Influence== [288] => [289] => === In architecture === [290] => [[File:Hau. Interiors of the Winter Palace. The Bathroom of Empress Alexandra Fyodorovna. 1870.jpg|thumb|The [[Alhambresque]] bathroom of Empress [[Alexandra Feodorovna (Alix of Hesse)|Alexandra Feodorovna]] in the [[Winter Palace]]{{Cite journal |last=McSweeney |first=Anna |date=2015 |title=Versions and Visions of the Alhambra in the Nineteenth-Century Ottoman World |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1086/683080 |journal=West 86th: A Journal of Decorative Arts, Design History, and Material Culture |volume=22 |issue=1 |pages=44–69 |doi=10.1086/683080 |jstor=10.1086/683080 |s2cid=194180597 |issn=2153-5531}}]] [291] => The Alhambra was often remembered nostalgically in some Muslim societies after the Christian conquest of 1492 and may have influenced later examples of Islamic architecture. For example, several monuments constructed by the [[Saadi Sultanate|Saadian dynasty]], which ruled [[Morocco]] in the 16th and 17th centuries, appear to imitate prototypes found in the Alhambra, particularly the Court of the Lions.{{Cite book |last=Salmon |first=Xavier |title=Marrakech: Splendeurs saadiennes: 1550–1650 |publisher=LienArt |year=2016 |isbn=9782359061826 |location=Paris}}{{Cite book |last=Denny |first=Walter B. |title=The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=9780195305135 |editor-last=Esposito |editor-first=John L. |chapter=Alhambra}} [292] => [293] => After [[Owen Jones (architect)|Owen Jones]] published ''[[Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra]]'' in London from 1842 to 1845, a fanciful, ornamental, Alhambra-inspired [[Orientalism|Orientalist]] architectural style called ''[[Alhambresque]]'' became popular in the West in the 18th–19th centuries. The style was later absorbed in the [[Ottoman Empire|Ottoman]] world, in what Ussama Makdisi called "Ottoman Orientalism." [294] => [295] => The Alhambra also inspired a number of buildings in [[Moorish Revival architecture]]: [296] => *[[Isaac M. Wise Temple]] (synagogue in [[Cincinnati]], [[Ohio]]){{cite web |author=Kenny, Daniel |date=1875 |title=Illustrated Cincinnati |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gEwRAQAAMAAJ&q=steven%20rolfes&pg=PA106 |url-status=live |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201202150/https://books.google.com/books?id=gEwRAQAAMAAJ&q=steven%20rolfes&pg=PA106 |archive-date=1 February 2022 |access-date=2013-05-19 |publisher=Stevens |pages=106}} [297] => *[[Villa Zorayda]] (villa in [[St. Augustine, Florida]]){{cite book |author=Nolan, David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vmklFlgwHC4C&pg=PA46 |title=The Houses of St. Augustine |publisher=Pineapple Press Inc |year=1995 |isbn=978-1-56164-069-0 |page=46 |access-date=1 February 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220201202150/https://books.google.com/books?id=vmklFlgwHC4C&pg=PA46 |archive-date=1 February 2022 |url-status=live}} [298] => *[[Villa Alhambra]] (villa in [[Malta]]) [299] => [300] => === In literature === [301] => Parts of the following works are set in the Alhambra: [302] => *[[Washington Irving]]'s ''[[Tales of the Alhambra]]''. This is a collection of essays, verbal sketches, and stories. Irving lived in the palace while writing the book and was instrumental in introducing the site to an international audience. [303] => *[[Radwa Ashour]]'s {{Interlanguage link|Granada Trilogy|lt=|ar|ثلاثية غرناطة|WD=|italic=y}} [304] => *[[Salman Rushdie]]'s ''[[The Moor's Last Sigh]]'' [305] => *[[Amin Maalouf]]'s ''[[Leo Africanus (novel)|Leo Africanus]]'', depicting the reconquest of Granada by the [[Catholic Monarchs]]. [306] => *[[Philippa Gregory]]'s ''[[The Constant Princess]]'', depicting Catalina the Infanta of Spain as she lived in the Alhambra after her parents took Granada. [307] => *[[Federico García Lorca]]'s play ''[[Doña Rosita the Spinster]]'', mentioned by title character Doña Rosita in her song/speech to the Manola sisters. [308] => *[[Paulo Coelho]]'s novel ''[[The Alchemist (novel)|The Alchemist]]'' [309] => *[[Ali Smith]]'s ''[[The Accidental]]'' [310] => *[[George Bernard Shaw]]'s play ''[[Man and Superman]]'' [311] => *[[László Krasznahorkai]]'s ''[[Seiobo There Below]]'' [312] => *[[Hanya Yanagihara]]'s ''A Little Life'' [313] => [314] => ===In music=== [315] => {{More citations needed section|date=January 2023}} [316] => The plot of the ''Ballet-héroïque'' entitled ''[[Zaïde, reine de Grenade]]'', by the French [[Baroque]] composer [[Joseph-Nicolas-Pancrace Royer]] (c. 1705–1755), takes place at the Alhambra. Alhambra has directly inspired musical compositions including [[Francisco Tárrega]]'s famous tremolo study for guitar ''[[Recuerdos de la Alhambra]]'', as well as [[Claude Debussy]]'s piece for two pianos composed in 1901, ''Lindaraja'', and the prelude, ''La Puerta del Vino'', from the second book of preludes composed from 1912 to 1913. [[Isaac Albéniz]] wrote a piano suite ''Recuerdos de viaje'', which included a piece called "En La Alhambra", while his suite ''[[Iberia]]'' contained a piece called "El Albaicín". Albéniz also composed an uncompleted ''Suite Alhambra''. [317] => [318] => "En los Jardines del Generalife", the first [[movement (music)|movement]] of [[Manuel de Falla]]'s ''[[Noches en los Jardines de España]]'', and other pieces by composers such as [[Ruperto Chapí]] (''Los Gnomos de la Alhambra'', 1891), [[Tomás Bretón]], and many others are included in a stream referred to by scholars as ''Alhambrismo''.{{cite web |url=http://cvc.cervantes.es/el_rinconete/anteriores/septiembre_00/07092000_02.htm |title=CVC. Rinconete. Acordes |publisher=Cvc.cervantes.es |access-date=4 April 2012 |archive-date=5 March 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120305162902/http://cvc.cervantes.es/el_rinconete/anteriores/septiembre_00/07092000_02.htm |url-status=live }}{{cite book |url=http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=618223 |title=El alhambrismo en la música española hasta la época de Manuel de Falla – Dialnet |year=1999 |pages=33–46 |publisher=Dialnet.unirioja.es |isbn=9782840501428 |access-date=4 April 2012 |archive-date=3 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120403120156/http://dialnet.unirioja.es/servlet/articulo?codigo=618223 |url-status=live }} [319] => [320] => In 1976, filmmaker [[Christopher Nupen]] filmed ''The Song of the Guitar'' at the Alhambra which was an hour-long program featuring the legendary Spanish guitarist, [[Andrés Segovia]]. [321] => [322] => British composer [[Peter Seabourne]] wrote an extended piano cycle ''Steps Volume 3: Arabesques'' (2008–2012) based on shared experiences of the Alhambra with his painter aunt Ann Seabourne,{{cite web |title=Peter Seabourne composer |url=http://peterseabourne.com |website=peterseabourne.com |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=11 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211211223836/http://peterseabourne.com/ |url-status=live }}{{Cite web |url=https://www.gramophone.co.uk/review/seabourne-steps-2-3 |title=Review: SEABOURNE Steps 2 & 3 |website=Gramophone |access-date=1 June 2019 |archive-date=1 June 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190601230746/https://www.gramophone.co.uk/review/seabourne-steps-2-3 |url-status=live }}{{cite web |title=Ann Seabourne: Painter |url=http://www.annseabourne.co.uk |website=annseabourne.co.uk |access-date=23 June 2022 |archive-date=17 April 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220417053138/http://www.annseabourne.co.uk/ |url-status=live }} and a movement from his Steps Volume 1 is entitled "El Suspiro del Moro" inspired by the legend of the expulsion of the last Moorish King of Granada. In 2000, [[Julian Anderson]] wrote a piece for contemporary chamber ensemble, ''Alhambra Fantasy''. [323] => [324] => In pop and folk music, Alhambra is the subject of the [[Ghymes]] song of the same name. The rock band [[Grateful Dead]] released a song called "Terrapin Station" on the 1977 [[Terrapin Station|album of the same name]]. It consisted of a series of small compositions penned by Robert Hunter and put to music by [[Jerry Garcia]]; a lyrical section of this suite was called "Alhambra". In September 2006, Canadian singer/composer [[Loreena McKennitt]] performed live at the Alhambra. The resulting video recordings premiered on [[PBS]] and were later released as a 3-disc DVD/CD set called ''[[Nights from the Alhambra]]''. The [[Basques|Basque]] pop group [[Mocedades]] performed a song called "Juntos En La Alhambra". ''[[Alhambra (EP)|Alhambra]]'' is the title of an [[extended play|EP]] recording by [[Canadians|Canadian]] rock band, [[The Tea Party]], containing acoustic versions of a few of their songs. Alhambra and [[Albaicín]] are mentioned in the [[Mägo de Oz]] song named "El Paseo de los Tristes" from the album entitled ''Gaia II''. [325] => [326] => ===In mathematics=== [327] => {{further|Mathematics and art}} [328] => [[File:Tassellatura alhambra.jpg|thumb|[[Tessellations]] like this inspired [[M. C. Escher|M. C. Escher's]] work]] [329] => [330] => The Alhambra tiles are remarkable in that they contain nearly all, if not all, of the seventeen mathematically possible [[wallpaper group]]s.{{cite web |url=http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/teaching/math-art-arch.shtml#Symmetry |title=Mathematics in Art and Architecture |publisher=Math.nus.edu.sg |access-date=4 April 2012 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150507151115/http://www.math.nus.edu.sg/aslaksen/teaching/math-art-arch.shtml#Symmetry |archive-date=7 May 2015 |url-status=dead}} This is a unique accomplishment in world architecture. [[M. C. Escher]]'s visit in 1922 and study of the Moorish use of symmetries in the Alhambra tiles inspired his subsequent work on [[tessellation]], which he called "regular divisions of the plane".{{cite journal |author=Gelgi, Fatih |url=http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/The-Influence-of-Islamic-Art-on-MC-Escher |title=The Influence of Islamic Art on M.C. Escher |journal=The Fountain |issue=76 |date=July 2010 |access-date=16 November 2015 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20151117020956/http://www.fountainmagazine.com/Issue/detail/The-Influence-of-Islamic-Art-on-MC-Escher |archive-date=17 November 2015 |url-status=dead}} [331] => [332] => ===In film=== [333] => {{More citations needed section|date=May 2022}} [334] => [[Marcel L'Herbier]]'s 1921 film ''[[El Dorado (1921 film)|El Dorado]]'' features many scenes shot in and around the Alhambra palace. This was the first time permission had been granted for a feature film company to shoot inside the Alhambra palace and L'Herbier gave prominent place to its gardens, fountains and geometric architectural patterns, which became some of the film's most memorable images. [335] => [336] => Animated films by Spanish director Juan Bautista Berasategui such as ''Ahmed, El Principe de la Alhambra'' and ''El Embrujo del Sur'' are based on stories in [[Washington Irving]]'s ''[[Tales of the Alhambra]]''. [337] => [338] => The Alhambra stands in for Baghdad in the 1958 adventure film ''[[The 7th Voyage of Sinbad]]''. Interior palace scenes, including in the Tower of Comares, the Court of the Myrtles, and the Court of the Lions, were shot at night so as not to disturb tourists. The Patio de los Aljibes, backed by the Alcazaba—standing in for a prison yard—was filmed by day.{{cite web |url=https://spanishcastlemoviemagic.com/the-7th-voyage-of-sinbad-1958/.asp |title=The 7th Voyage of Sinbad (1958) }}{{Dead link|date=October 2023 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [339] => [340] => The [[Court of the Lions]] was depicted in ''[[Assassin's Creed (film)|Assassin's Creed]]'' (2016) when Sultan [[Muhammad XII]] surrenders the 'Apple of Eden', a powerful artifact in the center of the movie plot, in exchange for his son's safe return. Both the Court of the Lions and Granada's Albaicin are featured on the animated film ''[[Tad Jones: The Hero Returns]]''.{{cite web |url=https://www.alhambradegranada.org/es/info/noticiasdelaalhambra/Tadeo-Jones-2-ElSecreto-del-Rey-Midas-Alhambra-20170825.asp |title=Se estrena Tadeo Jones 2. El Secreto del Rey Midas, recreada en la Alhambra y en el Albaicín - Noticias de La Alhambra |first=Area25 IT - |last=www.area25.es |date=25 August 2017 |access-date=11 November 2017 |archive-date=12 November 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20171112074012/https://www.alhambradegranada.org/es/info/noticiasdelaalhambra/Tadeo-Jones-2-ElSecreto-del-Rey-Midas-Alhambra-20170825.asp |url-status=live }} [341] => [342] => The fictional Broadway theatre (the interior actually [[Auckland]], [[New Zealand]]'s [[Auckland Civic Theatre|Civic Theatre]]), in which Kong is displayed as the 'Eighth Wonder of the World' in 2005's ''[[King Kong (2005 film)|King Kong]]'', is named "The Alhambra".{{cite web |url=http://www.movie-locations.com/movies/k/King_Kong_2005.html |title=King Kong, 2005 |publisher=The Worldwide Guide to Movie Locations |access-date=27 May 2017 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170520232744/http://www.movie-locations.com/movies/k/King_Kong_2005.html |archive-date=20 May 2017 |url-status=dead}} [343] => [344] => 2018 [[Korean drama|South Korean television series]] ''[[Memories of the Alhambra]]'' is based in Granada, Spain with the Alhambra palace as the backdrop of an AR game within the series. Many features and stories of the palace were used as clues and characters for the game progression and AR Alhambra was depicted as ‘a place of magic’ and ‘Mecca for Gamers’ to establish the Gaming plot in the story. [345] => [346] => ===In astronomy=== [347] => There is a [[Asteroid belt|main belt]] [[asteroid]] named [[3851 Alhambra|Alhambra]]. [348] => [349] => ==See also== [350] => {{Portal|Gardening}} [351] => *[[12 Treasures of Spain]] [352] => *[[Alfarje]] [353] => *[[History of medieval Arabic and Western European domes]] [354] => *[[Islamic garden]] [355] => [356] => ==Notes== [357] => {{notelist}} [358] => [359] => ==References== [360] => {{reflist}} [361] => [362] => ===Bibliography=== [363] => {{Refbegin|32em}} [364] => *{{cite book |last1=Al-Hassani |first1=Salim T. S. |last2=Woodcock |first2=Elizabeth |last3=Saoud |first3=Rabah |year=2007 |title=1001 Inventions: Muslim Heritage in our World |edition=2nd |publisher=Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation |location=Manchester, UK |isbn=978-0-9552426-1-8}} [365] => *{{Cite book |last=Arnold |first=Felix |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bXjXDQAAQBAJ&dq=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1 |title=Islamic Palace Architecture in the Western Mediterranean: A History |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2017 |isbn=9780190624552 |location= |pages= |access-date=15 November 2021 |archive-date=24 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211124102855/https://books.google.com/books?id=bXjXDQAAQBAJ&dq=Islamic+Palace+Architecture+in+the+Western+Mediterranean&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}} [366] => *{{Cite book |last1=Barrucand |first1=Marianne |title=Moorish architecture in Andalusia |last2=Bednorz |first2=Achim |publisher=Taschen |year=1992 |isbn=3822896322 |location= |pages=}} [367] => *{{Cite book |last=Bloom |first=Jonathan M. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&dq=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West%3A+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula%2C+700-1800&pg=PP1 |title=Architecture of the Islamic West: North Africa and the Iberian Peninsula, 700–1800 |publisher=Yale University Press |year=2020 |isbn=9780300218701 |location= |pages= |access-date=15 November 2021 |archive-date=21 January 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220121064655/https://books.google.com/books?id=IRHbDwAAQBAJ&dq=Architecture+of+the+Islamic+West:+North+Africa+and+the+Iberian+Peninsula,+700-1800&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}} [368] => *{{Cite book |last=Cabanelas Rodríguez |first=Dario |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |title=Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1992 |isbn=0870996371 |editor-last=Dodds |editor-first=Jerrilynn D. |location=New York |pages=127–133 |chapter=The Alhambra: An Introduction |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202192026/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |url-status=live}} [369] => *{{cite EB1911 |wstitle=Alhambra, The |volume=1|pages=656–658}} [370] => *{{Cite book |last=Coleman |first=David |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bbV2DwAAQBAJ&pg=PP1 |title=Creating Christian Granada: Society and Religious Culture in an Old-World Frontier City, 1492–1600 |publisher=Cornell University Press |year=2013 |orig-year=2003 |isbn=9780801468766}} [371] => *{{Cite book |last=Dickie |first=James |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |title=Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1992 |isbn=0870996371 |editor-last=Dodds |editor-first=Jerrilynn D. |location=New York |pages=135–151 |chapter=The Palaces of the Alhambra |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202192026/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |url-status=live}} [372] => *{{cite book |last=Irwin |first=Robert |year=2004 |title=The Alhambra |location=Cambridge, MA |publisher=Harvard University Press}} [373] => *{{Cite book |last=Kennedy |first=Hugh |title=Muslim Spain and Portugal: A Political History of al-Andalus |publisher=Routledge |year=1996 |isbn=9781317870418 |location= |pages=}} [374] => *{{Cite book |last=López |first=Jesús Bermúdez |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |title=Al-Andalus: The Art of Islamic Spain |publisher=The Metropolitan Museum of Art |year=1992 |isbn=0870996371 |editor-last=Dodds |editor-first=Jerrilynn D. |location=New York |pages=153–161 |chapter=The City Plan of the Alhambra |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=2 December 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211202192026/https://www.metmuseum.org/art/metpublications/Al_Andalus_The_Art_of_Islamic_Spain |url-status=live}} [375] => *{{Cite book |last=López |first=Jesús Bermúdez |title=The Alhambra and the Generalife: Official Guide |publisher=TF Editores |year=2011 |isbn=9788492441129 |location= |pages=}} [376] => *{{Cite book |last=López |first=Jesús Bermúdez |title=Islam: Art and Architecture |publisher=h.f.ullmann |year=2011b |isbn=9783848003808 |editor-last=Hattstein |editor-first=Markus |location= |pages=279–297 |chapter=The Alhambra |editor2-last=Delius |editor2-first=Peter}} [377] => *{{citation |author1=Owen Jones |author2=Jules Goury |author3-link=Pascual de Gayangos |author3=Pascual de Gayangos |date=1842 |url=https://archive.org/search.php?query=creator:%22Goury,+Jules,+1803-1834%22 |title=Plans, Elevations, Sections and Details of the Alhambra |volume=1-2 |author1-link=Owen Jones (architect)#The Alhambra}} [378] => *{{citation |author1=Owen Jones |author2-link=Francis Bedford (photographer) |author2=Francis Bedford |date=1856 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/grammarornament00Jone#page/n127/ |title=The Grammar of Ornament |chapter=Moresque Ornament from the Alhambra |pages=127–143 |publisher=[[Vincent Brooks, Day & Son|Day & Son]] |author1-link=Owen Jones (architect)#The Grammar of Ornament}} [379] => *{{cite book |last1=Puerta-Vílchez |first1=José Miguel |editor1-last=Boloix-Gallardo |editor1-first=Bárbara |title=A Companion to Islamic Granada |date=2022 |publisher=Brill |isbn=9789004382114 |pages=365–406 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tBhREAAAQBAJ |language=en |chapter=The Alhambra and the Generalife. The Eternal Landmarks of Islamic Granada |access-date=31 May 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623053446/https://books.google.com/books?id=tBhREAAAQBAJ |url-status=live}} [380] => *{{Cite book |last=Puertas |first=Antonio Fernández |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9xNCAQAAIAAJ&q=alhambra+sebka |title=The Alhambra |publisher=Saqi Books |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-86356-466-6 |volume=1 |language=en |access-date=21 February 2022 |archive-date=23 June 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220623053447/https://books.google.com/books?id=9xNCAQAAIAAJ&q=alhambra+sebka |url-status=live}} [381] => *{{Cite book |last=Rėklaitytė |first=Ieva |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tBhREAAAQBAJ |title=A Companion to Islamic Granada |publisher=Brill |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-42581-1 |editor-last=Boloix-Gallardo |editor-first=Bárbara |pages=441–462 |language=en |chapter=The Rumor of Water: A Key Element of Moorish Granada}} [382] => *{{cite book |first1=Trudy |last1=Ring |first2=Robert M. |last2=Salkin |first3=Sharon |last3=La Boda |title=International dictionary of historic places |date=1995 |publisher=Fitzroy Dearborn Publishers |location=Chicago |isbn=978-1884964022}} [383] => *{{Cite book |last1=Rodgers |first1=Helen |title=City of Illusions: A History of Granada |last2=Cavendish |first2=Stephen |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2021 |isbn=9780197619414 |language=en}} [384] => *{{cite book |last=Ruggles |first=D. Fairchild |author-link=D. Fairchild Ruggles |year=1992 |chapter=The gardens of the Alhambra and the concept of the garden in Islamic Spain |pages=163–171 |title=Al-Andalus: The Arts of Islamic Spain |editor=[[Jerrilynn Dodds]] |location=New York, NY |publisher=Metropolitan Museum |isbn=978-0-87099-636-8 |chapter-url=https://archive.org/stream/AlAndalusTheArtofIslamicSpain#page/n193/mode/2up}} [385] => *{{Cite book |last=Ruggles |first=D. Fairchild |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JgQxkcLBzaEC&pg=PP1 |title=Gardens, Landscape, and Vision in the Palaces of Islamic Spain |publisher=Pennsylvania State University Press |year=2000 |isbn=9780271018515 |location= |access-date=27 February 2021 |archive-date=9 July 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210709185153/https://books.google.com/books?id=JgQxkcLBzaEC&pg=PP1 |url-status=live}} [386] => *{{Cite book |last=Ruggles |first=D. Fairchild |title=Encyclopaedia of Islam, Three |publisher=Brill |year=2008 |editor-last=Fleet |editor-first=Kate |location= |pages= |chapter=Alhambra |journal=The Encyclopaedia of Islam |issn=1873-9830 |editor2-last=Krämer |editor2-first=Gudrun |editor3-last=Matringe |editor3-first=Denis |editor4-last=Nawas |editor4-first=John |editor5-last=Rowson |editor5-first=Everett}} [387] => *{{Cite book |last=Ruggles |first=D. Fairchild |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=848k_veh0IkC&q=generalife&pg=PA155 |title=Islamic Gardens and Landscapes |publisher=University of Pennsylvania Press |year=2011 |isbn=9780812207286 |location= |access-date=17 November 2021 |archive-date=17 November 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20211117192239/https://books.google.com/books?id=848k_veh0IkC&q=generalife&pg=PA155 |url-status=live}} [388] => *{{cite book |last=Salmerón Escobar |first=Pedro |year=2007 |others=Translated by Diana Kelham |title=The Alhambra: Structure and Landscape |series=La Biblioteca de la Alhambra |isbn=9788461181230}} [389] => *{{Cite book |last=Vincent |first=Bernard |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tBhREAAAQBAJ |title=A Companion to Islamic Granada |publisher=Brill |year=2021 |isbn=978-90-04-42581-1 |editor-last=Boloix-Gallardo |editor-first=Bárbara |pages=164–182 |language=en |chapter=1492: From Islamic to Christian Granada}} [390] => {{Refend}} [391] => [392] => == Further reading == [393] => *{{cite book |title=The Alhambra. Vol 1: From the Ninth Century to Yusuf I (1354) |first=Antonio |last=Fernández Puertas |publisher=Saqi Books |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-86356-466-6}} [394] => *{{cite book |title=The Alhambra. Vol 2: (1354–1391) |first=Antonio |last=Fernández Puertas |publisher=Saqi Books |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-86356-467-3}} [395] => *{{cite book |title=The Alhambra. Vol 3: From 1391 to the Present Day |first=Antonio |last=Fernández Puertas |publisher=Saqi Books |year=1999 |isbn=978-0-86356-589-2}} [396] => *Grabar, Oleg (1978). ''The Alhambra''. Massachusetts: Harvard University Press. [397] => *{{cite book |last1=Jacobs |first1=Michael |last2=Fernández |first2=Francisco |title=Alhambra |year=2009 |publisher=Frances Lincoln |isbn=978-0-7112-2518-3}} [398] => *Lowney, Chris (2005). ''A Vanished World: Medieval Spain's Golden Age of Enlightenment''. New York: [[Simon & Schuster]], Inc. [399] => *Menocal, Maria, Rosa (2002). ''The Ornament of the World''. Boston: Little, Brown and Company. [400] => *Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2000). ''Gardens, Landscape, and Vision in the Palaces of Islamic Spain'', Philadelphia: Pennsylvania State University Press. [401] => *Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2008). "Alhambra," in ''Encyclopaedia of Islam'', third edition. Leiden: E. J. Brill. [402] => *Ruggles, D. Fairchild (2011). ''Islamic Gardens and Landscapes''. University of Pennsylvania Press. [403] => *{{cite journal |date=September 2016 |doi=10.1093/jis/etw016 |title=The Mastery in Hydraulic Techniques for Water Supply at the Alhambra |journal=Journal of Islamic Studies |volume=27 |issue=3 |pages=355–382 |last1=García-Pulido |first1=Luis José}} [404] => [405] => ==External links== [406] => {{Commons category}} [407] => *{{official website}} [408] => *[http://www.turgranada.es/en/fichas/la-alhambra-16621/ Alhambra in turgranada.es] Official site for tourism of the province of Granada. [409] => *[http://www.ne.jp/asahi/arc/ind/2_meisaku/08_alhambra/alh_eng.htm The Alhambra in Granada, Spain] Masterpieces of Islamic Architecture. [410] => *[https://web.archive.org/web/20150106171036/http://hitchhikershandbook.com/2013/05/30/infocus-la-alhambra-generalife-granada-spain/ InFocus: La Alhambra & Generalife (Granada, Spain)] at [https://web.archive.org/web/20140517081504/http://hitchhikershandbook.com/ HitchHikers Handbook] [411] => *Paul F. Hoye, 1967, [https://web.archive.org/web/20150106161348/http://www.saudiaramcoworld.com/issue/196703/the.alhambra.htm The Alhambra], ''[[Saudi Aramco World]]'' [412] => *[[James Cavanah Murphy|Murphy, James Cavanah]], 1816, [https://web.archive.org/web/20190617152325/http://islamic-arts.org/2012/the-alhamra-at-granada/ The Alhamra (Alhambra) at Granada], ''islamic-arts.org'' [413] => *[http://libmma.contentdm.oclc.org/cdm/compoundobject/collection/p15324coll10/id/45966/rec/1 Al-Andalus: the art of Islamic Spain], an exhibition catalog from The Metropolitan Museum of Art (fully available online as PDF), which contains material on Alhambra (see index) [414] => *High-resolution 360° Panoramas of [https://mcid.mcah.columbia.edu/art-atlas/panoramas-world-architecture/alhambra Alhambra |Art Atlas] [415] => [416] => {{La Alhambra}} [417] => {{Granada monuments}} [418] => {{World Heritage Sites in Spain}} [419] => {{History of architecture}} [420] => {{Authority control}} [421] => [422] => [[Category:Alhambra (Spain)| ]] [423] => [[Category:Nasrid architecture]] [424] => [[Category:Nasrid dynasty]] [425] => [[Category:Buildings and structures in Granada]] [426] => [[Category:Bien de Interés Cultural landmarks in the Province of Granada]] [427] => [[Category:Buildings and structures with azulejos in Andalusia]] [428] => [[Category:Castles in Andalusia]] [429] => [[Category:Gardens in Spain]] [430] => [[Category:Spanish gardens]] [431] => [[Category:Islamic gardens]] [432] => [[Category:Islamic art of Spain]] [433] => [[Category:Palaces in Andalusia]] [434] => [[Category:Royal residences in Spain]] [435] => [[Category:Open-air museums in Spain]] [436] => [[Category:World Heritage Sites in Spain]] [] => )

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Alhambra

The Alhambra is a palace and fortress complex located in Granada, Spain. It was originally constructed as a small fortress in the 9th century and later expanded into a royal palace in the 13th century by the Nasrid dynasty, the last Muslim dynasty in Spain.

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It was originally constructed as a small fortress in the 9th century and later expanded into a royal palace in the 13th century by the Nasrid dynasty, the last Muslim dynasty in Spain. The complex is known for its stunning Islamic architecture, intricate tilework, ornate ceilings, and beautifully landscaped gardens. The Alhambra served as the residence of Muslim rulers for nearly 250 years, until it was conquered by Catholic monarchs in 1492. After the conquest, some parts of the complex were altered and rebuilt in a Renaissance style, blending Islamic and Christian architectural elements. The Alhambra is comprised of several distinct areas, including the Alcazaba (fortress), the Nasrid Palaces (the main living quarters), the Generalife (royal gardens), and the Palace of Charles V (built by the Holy Roman Emperor in the 16th century). Each area showcases a unique blend of Islamic and European influences, making the Alhambra a testament to the rich cultural history of Spain. Today, the Alhambra is a popular tourist attraction and a UNESCO World Heritage site. It receives millions of visitors each year, who come to admire its exquisite beauty and historical significance. The complex has also been a source of inspiration for many artists, writers, and poets throughout history, solidifying its status as one of the greatest architectural treasures in the world.

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