Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Philosophy about Earth protection}} [1] => {{Use dmy dates|date=February 2024}} [2] => {{Use British English|date=May 2016}} [3] => [[File:Usstamp-save-our.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Environmentalism on United States stamps]] [4] => {{Environment sidebar}} [5] => '''Environmentalism''' or '''environmental rights''' is a broad [[Philosophy of life|philosophy]], [[ideology]], and [[social movement]] about supporting [[life]], [[habitat]]s, and surroundings. While environmentalism focuses more on the environmental and nature-related aspects of [[Green politics|green ideology and politics]], ecologism combines the ideology of [[Social ecology (theory)|social ecology]] and environmentalism. ''Ecologism'' is more commonly used in continental European languages, while ''environmentalism'' is more commonly used in English but the words have slightly different connotations. [6] => [7] => Environmentalism advocates the preservation, restoration and improvement of the [[natural environment]] and critical [[Earth system science|earth system]] elements or processes such as the [[climate]], and may be referred to as a movement to control [[pollution]] or protect plant and animal [[biodiversity|diversity]].{{cite web |url=http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/environmentalism |title=Environmentalism – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary |publisher=Merriam-webster.com |date=13 August 2010 |access-date=20 June 2012}} For this reason, concepts such as a [[land ethic]]s, [[environmental ethics]], [[biodiversity]], [[ecology]], and the [[biophilia hypothesis]] figure predominantly. [8] => [9] => At its crux, environmentalism is an attempt to balance relations between humans and the various natural systems on which they depend in such a way that all the components are accorded a proper degree of [[sustainability]].{{Cite journal |last=Badri |first=Adarsh |date=5 February 2024 |title=Feeling for the Anthropocene: affective relations and ecological activism in the global South |url=https://doi.org/10.1093/ia/iiae010 |journal=International Affairs |doi=10.1093/ia/iiae010 |issn=0020-5850|doi-access=free }} The exact measures and outcomes of this balance is controversial and there are many different ways for environmental concerns to be expressed in practice. Environmentalism and environmental concerns are often represented by the colour [[Green#In culture|green]],{{cite web |url=http://www.greendaily.com/2009/04/23/light-dark-and-bright-green-environmentalism/ |title=Light, Dark and Bright Green Environmentalism |access-date=2 November 2009 |author=Cat Lincoln |date=Spring 2009 |publisher=Green Daily |archive-date=25 April 2009 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20090425173005/http://www.greendaily.com/2009/04/23/light-dark-and-bright-green-environmentalism/}} but this association has been appropriated by the marketing industries for the tactic known as [[greenwashing]].{{cite journal |last1=Bowen |first1=Frances |last2=J. Alberto Aragon-Correa |author2-link=J. Alberto Aragon-Correa |date=2014 |title=Greenwashing in corporate environmentalism research and practice: The importance of what we say and do. |url=https://doi.org/10.1177/1086026614537078 |journal=Organization & Environment |volume=27 |issue=2 |pages=107–112 |doi=10.1177/1086026614537078 |doi-access=free}} [10] => [11] => Environmentalism is opposed by [[anti-environmentalism]], which says that the Earth is less fragile than some environmentalists maintain, and portrays environmentalism as overreacting to the human contribution to [[climate change]] or opposing human advancement.{{cite book|last=Rowell|first=Andrew|title=Green Backlash|year=1996|publisher=Routledge|isbn=978-0-415-12828-5|url-access=registration|url=https://archive.org/details/greenbacklashglo0000rowe}} [12] => [13] => ==Definitions== [14] => ''Environmentalism'' denotes a [[environmental movement|social movement]] that seeks to influence the political process by lobbying, activism, and education in order to protect natural resources and [[ecosystem]]s. [15] => [16] => An ''[[environmentalist]]'' is a person who may speak out about our natural environment and the sustainable management of its resources through changes in public policy or individual behaviour. This may include supporting practices such as informed consumption, conservation initiatives, investment in [[renewable resources]], improved efficiencies in the materials economy, transitioning to new accounting paradigms such as [[ecological economics]], renewing and revitalizing our connections with non-human life or even opting to have one less child to reduce consumption and pressure on resources. [17] => [18] => In various ways (for example, grassroots activism and protests), environmentalists and [[environmental organization|environmental organisation]]s seek to give the natural world a stronger voice in human affairs.Robert Gottlieb, ''Forcing the Spring: The Transformation of the American Environmental Movement'' (2005) [19] => [20] => In general terms, environmentalists advocate the [[sustainability|sustainable]] management of resources, and the protection (and restoration, when necessary) of the [[natural environment]] through changes in public policy and individual behaviour. In its recognition of humanity as a participant in ecosystems, the movement is centered around [[ecology]], [[health]], and [[human rights]]. [21] => [22] => ==History== [23] => {{See also|Conservation movement|Timeline of history of environmentalism}} [24] => A concern for environmental protection has recurred in diverse forms, in different parts of the world, throughout history. [25] => The earliest ideas of environmental protectionism can be found in [[Jainism]], a religion from ancient India revived by [[Mahavira]] in the 6th century BC. Jainism offers a view that is in many ways compatible with core values associated with environmental activism, such as the protection of life by [[nonviolence]], which could form a strong ecological ethos for global protection of the environment. Mahavira's teachings on the symbiosis between all living beings—as well as the five elements of earth, water, air, fire, and space—are core to environmental thought today.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ajAEBAAAQBAJ&q=jainism+and+environmentalism&pg=PT160|title=Jainism: An Introduction|first=Jeffery D.|last=Long|year=2013|publisher=I.B.Tauris|via=Google Books|isbn=978-0-85773-656-7}}{{cite web|url=http://fore.yale.edu/publications/books/cswr/jainism-introduction/|title=Jainism Introduction|publisher=[[Yale Forum on Religion and Ecology]]|website=fore.yale.edu}} [26] => [27] => In the Middle East, the [[Caliph]] [[Abu Bakr]] in the 630s AD commanded his army to "Bring no harm to the trees, nor burn them with fire," and to "Slay not any of the enemy's flock, save for your food."{{citation |last1=Aboul-Enein |first1=H. Yousuf |last2=Zuhur |first2=Sherifa |date=2004 |title=Islamic Rulings on Warfare |publisher=Strategic Studies Institute, US Army War College |isbn=978-1-58487-177-4|page=22}} Various [[Islamic medicine|Arabic medical]] treatises during the 9th to 13th centuries dealt with environmentalism and [[environmental science]], including the issue of pollution. The authors of such treatises included [[Al-Kindi]], [[Qusta ibn Luqa]], [[Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi|Al-Razi]], [[Ibn Al-Jazzar]], [[al-Tamimi]], [[al-Masihi]], [[Avicenna]], [[Ali ibn Ridwan]], [[Ibn Jumay]], [[Isaac Israeli ben Solomon]], [[Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi (medieval writer)|Abd-el-latif]], Ibn al-Quff, and [[Ibn al-Nafis]]. Their works covered a number of subjects related to pollution, such as air pollution, [[water pollution]], [[soil contamination]], and the mishandling of [[municipal solid waste]]. They also included [[environmental impact assessment|assessments]] of certain localities' environmental impact.{{citation |last=Gari |first=L. |s2cid=85197649 |date=November 2002 |title=Arabic Treatises on Environmental Pollution up to the End of the Thirteenth Century |journal=Environment and History |volume=8 |issue=4 |pages=475–88 |doi=10.3197/096734002129342747|url=http://www.environmentandsociety.org/node/3141 }} [28] => [29] => In Europe, King [[Edward I of England]] banned the burning and sale of "[[coal|sea-coal]]" in 1272 by proclamation in London, after its smoke had become a prevalent annoyance throughout the city.{{cite web|url=http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/perspect/london.htm |title=London's Historic 'Pea-Soupers' |access-date=2 August 2006 |author=David Urbinato |date=Summer 1994 |publisher=U.S. Environmental Protection Agency |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20061002080012/http://www.epa.gov/history/topics/perspect/london.htm |archive-date=2 October 2006 }}{{cite web |url=https://www.pbs.org/now/science/smog.html |title=Deadly Smog |access-date=2 August 2006 |date=17 January 2003 |publisher=PBS}} This fuel, common in London due to the local scarcity of wood, was given this early name because it could be found washed up on some shores, from where it was carted away on a wheelbarrow. [30] => [31] => ===Early environmental legislation=== [32] => [[File:StRolloxChemical 1831.jpg|thumb|Levels of air pollution rose during the [[Industrial Revolution]], sparking the first modern [[environmental law]]s to be passed in the mid-19th century.]] [33] => {{Blockquote| [34] => At the advent of steam and electricity the muse of history holds her nose and shuts her eyes ([[H. G. Wells]] 1918).[[In the Fourth Year|In the Fourth Year: Anticipations of a World Peace]], (London: Chatto & Windus), p. 100.}} [35] => The origins of the environmental movement lay in the response to increasing levels of [[smoke]] [[pollution]] in the [[atmosphere]] during the [[Industrial Revolution]]. The emergence of great factories and the concomitant immense growth in [[history of coal mining|coal consumption]] gave rise to an unprecedented level of [[air pollution]] in industrial centers; after 1900 the large volume of industrial [[chemical]] discharges added to the growing load of untreated human waste.{{cite web |url=http://www.ametsoc.org/sloan/cleanair/ |title=History of the Clean Air Act |access-date=14 February 2006 |first=James R. |last=Fleming |author2=Bethany R. Knorr |publisher=American Meteorological Society}} The first large-scale, modern environmental laws came in the form of Britain's [[Alkali Acts]], passed in 1863, to regulate the deleterious air pollution ([[gaseous]] [[hydrochloric acid]]) given off by the [[Leblanc process]], used to produce [[soda ash]]. An Alkali inspector and four sub-inspectors were appointed to curb this pollution. The inspectorate's responsibilities were gradually expanded, culminating in the Alkali Order 1958 which placed all major heavy industries that emitted [[smoke]], grit, dust and fumes under supervision. [36] => [37] => In industrial cities, local experts and reformers, especially after 1890, took the lead in identifying [[environmental degradation]] and pollution, and initiating grass-roots movements to demand and achieve reforms.Harold L. Platt, ''Shock cities: the environmental transformation and reform of Manchester and Chicago'' (2005) [https://www.amazon.com/Shock-Cities-Environmental-Transformation-Manchester/dp/0226670767/ excerpt]. Typically the highest priority went to water and air pollution. The [[Environmental Protection UK|Coal Smoke Abatement Society]] was formed in 1898 making it one of the oldest environmental NGOs. It was founded by artist Sir [[William Blake Richmond]], frustrated with the pall cast by coal smoke. Although there were earlier pieces of legislation, the [[Public Health Act 1875]] required all furnaces and fireplaces to consume their own smoke. It also provided for sanctions against factories that emitted large amounts of black smoke. This law's provisions were extended in 1926 with the Smoke Abatement Act to include other emissions, such as soot, ash, and gritty particles, and to empower local authorities to impose their own regulations. [38] => [39] => It was only under the impetus of the [[Great Smog]] of 1952 in London, which almost brought the city to a standstill and may have caused upward of 6,000 deaths, that the [[Clean Air Act 1956]] was passed and airborne pollution in the city was first tackled. Financial incentives were offered to householders to replace open coal fires with alternatives (such as installing gas fires) or those who preferred, to burn coke instead (a byproduct of town gas production) which produces minimal smoke. 'Smoke control areas' were introduced in some towns and cities where only smokeless fuels could be burnt and power stations were relocated away from cities. The act formed an important impetus to modern environmentalism and caused a rethinking of the dangers of environmental degradation to people's quality of life.{{Cite web|url=http://activehistory.ca/2012/12/londons-great-smog-60-years-on/|title=London's Great Smog, 60 Years On|access-date=17 December 2012|date=10 December 2012}} [40] => [41] => The late 19th century also saw the passage of the first wildlife conservation laws. [42] => The zoologist [[Alfred Newton]] published a series of investigations into the ''Desirability of establishing a 'Close-time' for the preservation of indigenous animals'' between 1872 and 1903. His advocacy for legislation to protect animals from hunting during the mating season led to the formation of the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]] and influenced the passage of the [[Sea Birds Preservation Act 1869|Sea Birds Preservation Act]] in 1869 as the first nature protection law in the world.{{cite book|url=https://books.google.com/books?isbn=3540740023|title=Coastal Dunes: Ecology and Conservation|author=G. Baeyens|author2=M. L. Martinez|year=2007|page=282|publisher=Springer}}{{Cite news|url=http://news.bbc.co.uk/local/humberside/hi/people_and_places/nature/newsid_9383000/9383787.stm|title=Protecting seabirds at Bempton Cliffs | work=BBC News | first=Jo|last=Makel|date=2 February 2011}} [43] => [44] => During the [[Spanish Revolution of 1936|Spanish Revolution]], anarchist-controlled territories undertook several environmental reforms, which were possibly the largest in the world at the time. [[Daniel Guérin|Daniel Guerin]] notes that [[List of anarchist communities|anarchist territories]] would diversify crops, extend [[irrigation]], initiate [[reforestation]], start tree nurseries and help to establish [[Naturist resort|naturist communities]].{{Cite book|title=Anarchism: From Theory to Practice|last=Guerin|first=Daniel|publisher=Monthly Review Press|year=1970|location=New York|pages=134}} Once there was a link discovered between air pollution and tuberculosis, the [[Confederación Nacional del Trabajo|CNT]] shut down several metal factories.Iain McKay, "[http://anarchism.pageabode.com/anarcho/caplan.html Objectivity and Right-Libertarian Scholarship]," 20 January 2009, http://anarchism.pageabode.com/anarcho/caplan.html . [45] => [46] => ===First environmental movements=== [47] => Early interest in the environment was a feature of the [[Romantic movement]] in the early 19th century. One of the earliest modern pronouncements on thinking about human industrial advancement and its influence on the environment was written by Japanese geographer, educator, philosopher and author [[Tsunesaburo Makiguchi]] in his 1903 publication ''Jinsei Chirigaku'' (''A Geography of Human Life'').{{cite journal |last=Odata |first=Toshihiro |date=1994 |script-title=ja:牧口常三郎 『人生地理学』 の地理学史上の再評価 |trans-title=A Reappraisal of Tsunesaburo Makiguchi's 'Jinsei Chirigaku' in the History of Geography in Japan |language=ja |journal=Chiri-Kagaku |trans-journal=Geographical Sciences |volume=49 |issue=4 |pages=197–212 |doi=10.20630/chirikagaku.49.4_197}} In Britain the poet [[William Wordsworth]] travelled extensively in the [[Lake District]] and wrote that it is a "sort of national property in which every man has a right and interest who has an eye to perceive and a heart to enjoy".{{Cite web|url=http://www.eh-resources.org/timeline/timeline_conservation.html |title=Nature conservation in Britain, ca. 1870–1945 |access-date=17 December 2012 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20130122133729/http://www.eh-resources.org/timeline/timeline_conservation.html |archive-date=22 January 2013 }} [48] => [49] => [[File:John Ruskin - Portrait - Project Gutenberg eText 17774.jpg|thumb|upright|[[John Ruskin]], an influential thinker who articulated the Romantic ideal of environmental protection and conservation]] [50] => Systematic efforts on behalf of the environment only began in the late 19th century; it grew out of the amenity movement in Britain in the 1870s, which was a reaction to [[industrialization|industrialisation]], the growth of cities, and worsening air and [[water pollution]]. Starting with the formation of the [[Commons Preservation Society]] in 1865, the movement championed rural preservation against the encroachments of industrialisation. [[Robert Hunter (National Trust)|Robert Hunter]], solicitor for the society, worked with [[Hardwicke Rawnsley]], [[Octavia Hill]], and [[John Ruskin]] to lead a successful campaign to prevent the construction of railways to carry slate from the quarries, which would have ruined the unspoiled valleys of [[Newlands Valley|Newlands]] and [[Ennerdale Water|Ennerdale]]. This success led to the formation of the Lake District Defence Society (later to become The Friends of the Lake District).[http://www.visitcumbria.com/rawnsley.htm "Canon Hardwicke Drummond Rawnsley"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140806070246/http://www.visitcumbria.com/rawnsley.htm |date=6 August 2014 }}, Visitcumbria.com, accessed 17 May 2009 [51] => [52] => [[Peter Kropotkin]] wrote about ecology in [[economics]], [[agricultural science]], [[Conservation movement|conservation]], [[ethology]], criminology, urban planning, geography, geology and biology. He observed in Swiss and Siberian glaciers that they had been slowly melting since the dawn of the industrial revolution, possibly making him one of the first predictors for climate change. He also observed the damage done from deforestation and hunting.{{Cite web|url=https://zabalazabooks.net/2013/12/04/green-flame-kropotkin-and-the-birth-of-ecology/|title=Green Flame: Kropotkin and the Birth of Ecology|last=Purchase|first=Graham|date=4 December 2013|website=zabalazabooks.net}} Kropotkin's writings would become influential in the 1970s and became a major inspiration for the [[intentional community]] movement as well as his ideas becoming the basis for the theory of [[Social ecology (theory)|social ecology]]. [53] => [54] => In 1893 Hill, Hunter and Rawnsley agreed to set up a national body to coordinate environmental conservation efforts across the country; the "National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty" was formally inaugurated in 1894."A Proposed National Trust", ''The Times'', 17 July 1894, p. 12 The organisation obtained secure footing through the 1907 National Trust Bill, which gave the trust the status of a statutory corporation."Parliamentary Committees", ''The Times'', 26 July 1907. p. 4 and the bill was passed in August 1907.[http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/servlet/file/store5/item740098/version1/National%20Trust%20Acts%201907-1971%20post%20Order%202005.pdf "An Act to incorporate and confer powers upon the National Trust for Places of Historic Interest or Natural Beauty"] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120602185018/http://www.nationaltrust.org.uk/servlet/file/store5/item740098/version1/National%20Trust%20Acts%201907-1971%20post%20Order%202005.pdf |date=2 June 2012 }}, The National Trust, accessed 4 June 2012 [55] => [56] => An early "Back-to-Nature" movement, which anticipated the romantic ideal of modern environmentalism, was advocated by intellectuals such as [[John Ruskin]], [[William Morris]], [[George Bernard Shaw]] and [[Edward Carpenter]], who were all against [[consumerism]], [[pollution]] and other activities that were harmful to the natural world.Gould, Peter C. (1988). ''Early Green Politics'', Brighton, Harvester Press, pp. 15–19, and [[Derek Wall|Wall, Derek]], (1994) ''Green History: A Reader.'' London, Routledge, pp. 9–14. The movement was a reaction to the urban conditions of the industrial towns, where sanitation was awful, pollution levels intolerable and housing terribly cramped. Idealists championed the rural life as a mythical [[utopia]] and advocated a return to it. John Ruskin argued that people should return to a "small piece of English ground, beautiful, peaceful, and fruitful. We will have no steam engines upon it ... we will have plenty of flowers and vegetables ... we will have some music and poetry; the children will learn to dance to it and sing it."{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/backtolandpastor00mars|url-access=registration|title=Back to the Land: The Pastoral Impulse in England, 1880–1914|author=Jan Marsh|year=1982|publisher=Quartet Books|isbn=978-0-7043-2276-9}} [57] => [58] => Practical ventures in the establishment of small cooperative farms were even attempted and old rural traditions, without the "taint of manufacture or the canker of artificiality", were enthusiastically revived, including the [[Morris dance]] and the [[maypole]].{{Cite journal|url=http://www.csmonitor.com/1983/1215/121523.html|title='Back to nature' movement nothing new – dates back to 1880|journal=Christian Science Monitor|access-date=17 December 2012|date=15 December 1983}} [59] => [60] => These ideas also inspired various environmental groups in the UK, such as the [[Royal Society for the Protection of Birds]], established in 1889 by [[Emily Williamson]] as a [[advocacy group|protest group]] to campaign for greater protection for the indigenous birds of the [[British Isles|island]].{{cite web|url=https://www.rspb.org.uk/about-the-rspb/about-us/our-history/|title=Our History|publisher=RSPB |access-date=28 August 2020}} The Society attracted growing support from the suburban middle-classes as well as support from many other influential figures, such as the [[ornithologist]] Professor [[Alfred Newton]]. By 1900, public support for the organisation had grown, and it had over 25,000 members. The [[garden city movement]] incorporated many environmental concerns into its [[urban planning]] manifesto; the [[Socialist League (UK, 1885)|Socialist League]] and [[The Clarion (British newspaper)|The Clarion]] movement also began to advocate measures of [[nature conservation]].Gould, (1988) pp. 16, 23–24, 36–38, 84–86. [61] => [62] => [[File:Walden Thoreau.jpg|thumb|upright|Original title page of ''[[Walden]]'' by [[Henry David Thoreau]]]] [63] => [[Environmental movement in the United States|The movement in the United States]] began in the late 19th century, out of concerns for protecting the natural resources of the West, with individuals such as [[John Muir]] and [[Henry David Thoreau]] making key philosophical contributions. Thoreau was interested in peoples' relationship with nature and studied this by living close to nature in a simple life. He published his experiences in the book ''[[Walden]]'', which argues that people should become intimately close with nature. Muir came to believe in nature's inherent right, especially after spending time hiking in [[Yosemite Valley]] and studying both the ecology and geology. He successfully lobbied congress to form [[Yosemite National Park]] and went on to set up the [[Sierra Club]] in 1892. The conservationist principles as well as the belief in an inherent right of nature were to become the bedrock of modern environmentalism. [64] => [65] => In the 20th century, environmental ideas continued to grow in popularity and recognition. Efforts were starting to be made to save some wildlife, particularly the [[American bison]]. The death of the last [[passenger pigeon]] as well as the endangerment of the American bison helped to focus the minds of conservationists and to popularise their concerns. In 1916, the [[National Park Service]] was founded by US President [[Woodrow Wilson]]. [66] => [67] => The [[Forestry Commission]] was set up in 1919 in Britain to increase the amount of woodland in Britain by buying land for [[afforestation]] and [[reforestation]]. The commission was also tasked with promoting forestry and the production of timber for trade.{{cite web |title=Forestry Commission – a brief history |website=Woodland Trust |url=http://www.woodlandtrust.org.uk/en/campaigning/save-ancient-forests/Documents/a-brief-history-of-the-fc.pdf|access-date=11 April 2012}}{{Dead link|date=January 2022 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} During the 1920s the Commission focused on acquiring land to begin planting out new forests; much of the land was previously used for agricultural purposes. By 1939 the Forestry Commission was the largest landowner in Britain.{{cite book|title=Forest Policies and Social Change in England|url=https://archive.org/details/forestpoliciesso00nail|url-access=registration|author=Sylvie Nail|date= 2008|page=[https://archive.org/details/forestpoliciesso00nail/page/n331 332]|publisher=Springer|isbn=978-1-4020-8364-8}} [68] => [69] => {{anchor|Nazi Germany}} [70] => During the 1930s the Nazis had elements that were supportive of animal rights, zoos and wildlife,{{cite book |author= Thomas R. DeGregori|title= Bountiful Harvest: Technology, Food Safety, and the Environment|publisher= Cato Institute|year= 2002|page= 153|isbn= 978-1-930865-31-0|title-link= Bountiful Harvest}} and took several measures to ensure their protection.{{cite book |author= Martin Kitchen|title= A History of Modern Germany, 1800-2000|url= https://archive.org/details/historymodernger00kitc|url-access= registration|publisher= Blackwell Publishing|year= 2006|page= [https://archive.org/details/historymodernger00kitc/page/n295 278]|isbn= 978-1-4051-0040-3}} In 1933 the government created a stringent animal-protection law and in 1934, {{Lang|de|Das Reichsjagdgesetz}} (The Reich Hunting Law) was enacted which limited hunting.Hartmut M. Hanauske-Abel, ''[http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/full/313/7070/1453#R101 Not a slippery slope or sudden subversion: German medicine and National Socialism in 1933]'', BMJ 1996; pp. 1453–1463 (7 December){{cite web | url = http://www.kaltio.fi/index.php?494 | title = kaltio.fi | access-date = 15 August 2007 }} [[Environmentalism in Nazi Germany|Several Nazis were environmentalists]] (notably [[Rudolf Hess]]), and species protection and [[animal welfare]] were significant issues in the regime. In 1935, the regime enacted the "Reich Nature Protection Act" (''{{Lang|de|Reichsnaturschutzgesetz}}''). The concept of the ''{{Lang|de|Dauerwald}}'' (best translated as the "perpetual forest") which included concepts such as [[forest management]] and protection was promoted and efforts were also made to curb [[air pollution]].[http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=/journals/technology_and_culture/v048/48.1olsen.html Jonathan Olsen "How Green Were the Nazis? Nature, Environment, and Nation in the Third Reich (review)"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160304120440/http://muse.jhu.edu/login?uri=%2Fjournals%2Ftechnology_and_culture%2Fv048%2F48.1olsen.html |date=4 March 2016 }} Technology and Culture – Volume 48, Number 1, January 2007, pp. 207–08 [71] => [72] => In 1949, ''[[A Sand County Almanac]]'' by [[Aldo Leopold]] was published. It explained Leopold's belief that humankind should have moral respect for the environment and that it is unethical to harm it. The book is sometimes called the most influential book on conservation. [73] => [74] => Throughout the 1950s, 1960s, 1970s and beyond, photography was used to enhance public awareness of the need for protecting land and recruiting members to environmental organisations. [[David Brower]], [[Ansel Adams]] and [[Nancy Newhall]] created the Sierra Club Exhibit Format Series, which helped raise public environmental awareness and brought a rapidly increasing flood of new members to the Sierra Club and to the environmental movement in general. ''This Is Dinosaur'', edited by [[Wallace Stegner]] with photographs by [[Martin Litton (environmentalist)|Martin Litton]] and [[Philip Hyde (photographer)|Philip Hyde]], prevented the building of dams within [[Dinosaur National Monument]] by becoming part of a new kind of activism called environmentalism that combined the conservationist ideals of Thoreau, Leopold and Muir with hard-hitting advertising, lobbying, book distribution, letter writing campaigns, and more. The powerful use of photography in addition to the written word for conservation dated back to the creation of [[Yosemite National Park]], when photographs persuaded Abraham Lincoln to preserve the beautiful glacier carved landscape for all time. The Sierra Club Exhibit Format Series galvanised public opposition to building dams in the [[Grand Canyon]] and protected many other national treasures. The Sierra Club often led a coalition of many environmental groups including the [[The Wilderness Society (United States)|Wilderness Society]] and many others. [75] => [76] => After a focus on preserving wilderness in the 1950s and 1960s, the Sierra Club and other groups broadened their focus to include such issues as air and water pollution, population concern, and curbing the [[exploitation of natural resources]]. [77] => [78] => The prevailing belief regarding the origins of early environmentalism suggests that it emerged as a local response to the adverse impacts of industrialization in Western nations and communities. In terms of conservation efforts, there is a widespread view that the conservation movement began as a predominantly [[elite]] concern in North America, focusing on the preservation of local natural areas. A less prevailing view, however, attributes the roots of early environmentalism to a growing public concern about the influence of Western economic forces, particularly in connection with [[colonization]], on tropical environments.{{Cite journal |last=Grove |first=Richard |date=3 May 1990 |title=The Origins of Environmentalism |journal=Nature |volume=345 |issue=6270 |pages=11–14|doi=10.1038/345011a0 |bibcode=1990Natur.345...11G |s2cid=46114051 }} [[Richard Grove]], in a 1990 report, points out that little attention has been given to the significance of the colonial experience, particularly the European colonial experience, in shaping early European environmentalism. [79] => [80] => Grove argues that as European colonization expanded, so did the European interaction with land and indigenous people, providing Europeans with an awareness of the destructive consequences of their economic and colonial activities on the newly "discovered" lands. As global trade expanded through colonization, the European concept of nature underwent a transformation, with the foreign tropical environments of their conquests evolving into romantic symbols of idyllic landscapes that required care and protection by Europeans. Examples of this impact of colonization on the Western mindset can be found in prominent cultural references, such as [[William Shakespeare|William Shakespeare's]] play "[[The Tempest]]" and [[Andrew Marvell]]'s poem "Bermoothes." [81] => [82] => Although this newfound self-awareness among Europeans about the destructive impacts of colonization on the environment did not halt the expansion of colonization itself, it did pave the way for a different approach to colonization – one focused on the preservation and protection of foreign natural resources. This phenomenon can be linked to the emergence of Edenic thinking, or the quest for [[Garden of Eden|Eden]] on Earth. This quest to locate Eden gained prominence in the 15th century, coinciding with colonization, and fostered the belief that newly "discovered" lands, especially tropical ones, had the potential to be heavenly paradises. [83] => [84] => ===Post-war expansion=== [85] => {{See also | Steady-state economy #Post-war economic expansion and emerging ecological concerns }} [86] => [[File:Suburbia by David Shankbone.jpg|thumb|In the United States and several other countries, the boom was manifested in suburban development and [[urban sprawl]], aided by automobile ownership.]] [87] => In 1962, ''[[Silent Spring]]'' by American biologist [[Rachel Carson]] was published. The book cataloged the environmental impacts of the indiscriminate spraying of [[DDT]] in the US and questioned the logic of releasing large amounts of chemicals into the environment without fully understanding their effects on human health and ecology. The book suggested that DDT and other pesticides may cause [[cancer]] and that their agricultural use was a threat to wildlife, particularly birds.{{cite book |title=Silent Spring |first=Rachel |last=Carson |author-link=Rachel Carson |year=1962 |publisher=Houghton Mifflin |location=Boston |isbn=978-0-8093-2218-3|title-link=Silent Spring }}{{Page needed|date=September 2010}} The resulting public concern led to the creation of the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]] in 1970 which subsequently banned the agricultural use of DDT in the US in 1972. The limited use of DDT in [[Vector (epidemiology)|disease vector]] control continues to this day in certain parts of the world and remains controversial. The book's legacy was to produce a far greater awareness of environmental issues and interest into how people affect the environment. With this new interest in environment came interest in problems such as air pollution and petroleum spills, and environmental interest grew. New pressure groups formed, notably [[Greenpeace]] and [[Friends of the Earth (US)]], as well as notable local organisations such as the [[Wyoming Outdoor Council]], which was founded in 1967. From 1962 to 1998, the environmental movement founded 772 national organizations in the United States.Erik W. Johnson, and Scott Frickel, "Ecological Threat and the Founding of U.S. National Environmental Movement Organizations, 1962–1998," Social Problems 58 (2011), 305–29. [https://www.academia.edu/download/42475589/Johnson.2011.pdf online] [88] => [89] => In the 1970s, the environmental movement gained rapid speed around the world as a productive outgrowth of the [[counterculture of the 1960s|counterculture]] movement.{{Cite news |date=11 December 1994 |title=Opinion {{!}} In Praise of the Counterculture |language=en-US |work=The New York Times |url=https://www.nytimes.com/1994/12/11/opinion/in-praise-of-the-counterculture.html |access-date=24 February 2023 |issn=0362-4331}} [90] => [91] => The world's first political parties to campaign on a predominantly environmental platform were the [[United Tasmania Group]] of [[Tasmania|Tasmania, Australia]], and the [[Values Party]] of New Zealand.{{cite web |last=Dann|first=Christine|title=The development of the first two Green parties New Zealand and Tasmania|url=http://www.globalgreens.org/literature/dann/chapterfive.html|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110515170932/http://www.globalgreens.org/literature/dann/chapterfive.html|url-status=dead|archive-date=15 May 2011|work=From Earth's last islands. The global origins of Green politics|publisher=Global Greens|access-date=4 August 2011}}Bevan, RA (2001), Petra Kelly: The Other Green, New Political Science, vol. 23, no. 2, November, pp. 181–202 The first [[green party]] in Europe was the Popular Movement for the Environment, founded in 1972 in the Swiss canton of [[Neuchâtel]]. The first national green party in Europe was PEOPLE, founded in Britain in February 1973, which eventually turned into the [[Ecology Party]], and then the [[Green Party (UK)|Green Party]]. [92] => [93] => Protection of the environment also became important in the [[developing world]]; the [[Chipko movement]] was formed in India under the influence of [[Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi|Mhatmas Gandhi]] and they set up peaceful resistance to [[deforestation]] by literally hugging trees (leading to the term "tree huggers"). Their peaceful methods of protest and slogan "ecology is permanent economy" were very influential. [94] => [95] => Another milestone in the movement was the creation of [[Earth Day]]. Earth Day was first observed in San Francisco and other cities on 21 March 1970, the first day of spring. It was created to give awareness to environmental issues. On 21 March 1971, United Nations Secretary-General [[U Thant]] spoke of a [[spaceship Earth]] on Earth Day, hereby referring to the [[ecosystem services]] the earth supplies to us, and hence our obligation to protect it (and with it, ourselves). Earth Day is now coordinated globally by the [[Earth Day Network]],{{cite web |url=http://www.earthday.net/ |title=Resource temporarily unavailable |publisher=Earthday.net |access-date=22 April 2011}} and is celebrated in more than 192 countries every year.{{cite web |url=https://abcnews.go.com/International/earth-day-2019/story?id=62552199|title=Earth Day 2019: Everything you need to know|publisher=abcnews.go.com |date=22 April 2019}} [96] => [97] => The UN's first major conference on international environmental issues, the [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] (also known as the Stockholm Conference), was held on 5–16 June 1972. It marked a turning point in the development of international environmental politics.John Baylis, Steve Smith. 2005. The Globalization of World Politics (3rd ed). Oxford. Oxford University Press. pp. 454–55 [98] => [99] => By the mid-1970s, many felt that people were on the edge of environmental catastrophe. The [[back-to-the-land movement]] started to form and ideas of environmental ethics joined with [[anti-Vietnam War]] sentiments and other political issues. These individuals lived outside normal society and started to take on some of the more radical environmental theories such as [[deep ecology]]. Around this time more mainstream environmentalism was starting to show force with the signing of the [[Endangered Species Act]] in 1973 and the formation of [[CITES]] in 1975. Significant amendments were also enacted to the United States [[Clean Air Act (United States)|Clean Air Act]]Clean Air Act Extension of 1970, {{usstat|84|1676}}, {{uspl|91|604}}, 31 December 1970. and [[Clean Water Act]].[http://www.glin.gov/download.action?fulltextId=68261&documentId=70515&glinID=70515 Pub.L. 95-217] {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120229205148/http://www.glin.gov/download.action?fulltextId=68261&documentId=70515&glinID=70515 |date=29 February 2012 }}, 27 December 1977. [100] => [101] => In 1979, [[James Lovelock]], a British scientist, published ''Gaia: A new look at life on Earth'', which put forth the [[Gaia hypothesis]]; it proposes that life on earth can be understood as a single organism. This became an important part of the [[Deep Green Resistance|Deep Green]] ideology. Throughout the rest of the history of environmentalism there has been debate and argument between more radical followers of this Deep Green ideology and more mainstream environmentalists. [102] => [103] => ===21st century and beyond=== [104] => Environmentalism continues to evolve to face up to new issues such as [[global warming]], [[Human overpopulation|overpopulation]], [[genetic engineering]], and [[plastic pollution]]. [105] => [106] => Research demonstrates a precipitous decline in the US public's interest in 19 different areas of environmental concern.{{cite journal|author=McCallum, M.L.|author2=G.W. Bury|name-list-style=amp|year=2013|title=Google search patterns suggest declining interest in the environment|journal=Biodiversity and Conservation|doi=10.1007/s10531-013-0476-6|volume=22|issue=6|pages=1355–1367|bibcode=2013BiCon..22.1355M |s2cid=15593201}} Americans are less likely to be actively participating in an environmental movement or organisation and more likely to identify as "unsympathetic" to an environmental movement than in 2000.{{cite web|url=http://www.gallup.com/poll/1615/environment.aspx |title=Environment | Gallup Historical Trends |date=20 April 2007 |publisher=Gallup.com |access-date=15 May 2013}} This is likely a lingering factor of the [[Great Recession]] in 2008. Since 2005, the percentage of Americans agreeing that the environment should be given priority over economic growth has dropped 10 points; in contrast, those feeling that growth should be given priority "even if the environment suffers to some extent" has risen 12 percent. Nevertheless, a recent ''National Geographic'' survey indicated strong desire for commitment across a dozen countries, indicating a majority were in favour of more than half of the Earth's land surface being protected.{{Cite web|title=Many people want to set aside half of Earth as nature|url=https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/09/poll-extinction-public-slow-extinction/|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190919161344/https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/2019/09/poll-extinction-public-slow-extinction/|url-status=dead|archive-date=19 September 2019|date=17 September 2019|website=Animals|language=en|access-date=29 May 2020}} [107] => [108] => === New forms of ecoactivism === [109] => [[File:Berkeley Tree Sitters - UC Berkeley Memorial Oak Grove.jpg|thumb|upright|Demonstrators in a tree at the [[University of California, Berkeley oak grove controversy|Berkeley oak grove protest]] in 2008]] [110] => [[Tree sitting]] is a form of activism in which the protester sits in a tree in an attempt to stop the removal of a tree or to impede the demolition of an area with the longest and most famous tree-sitter being [[Julia Butterfly Hill]], who spent 738 days in a California Redwood, saving a three-acre tract of forest.{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2006/06/18/weekinreview/18basic.html|title=Rising Above the Environmental Debate|last=Fountain|first=Henry|date=18 June 2006|work=The New York Times}} Also notable is the [[Yellow Finch tree sit]], which was a 932-day blockade of the [[Mountain Valley Pipeline]] from 2018 to 2021.{{Cite news|last=Hammack|first=Laurence|date=12 November 2020|title=Judge orders tree-sitters down after more than 2 years|work=The Roanoke Times|url=https://roanoke.com/business/local/judge-orders-tree-sitters-down-after-more-than-2-years/article_3a53db1a-250b-11eb-8b06-4bf4a91a32cc.html}}{{Cite news|last=Dhillon|first=Matt|date=16 April 2021|title=Last Tree-sitters Removed from Path of Mountain Valley Pipeline|work=The Appalachian Voice|url=https://appvoices.org/2021/04/16/tree-sitters-removed-mvp/}} [111] => [112] => [[Sit-in]]s can be used to encourage social change, such as the Greensboro sit-ins, a series of protests in 1960 to stop racial segregation, but can also be used in ecoactivism, as in the [[Dakota Access Pipeline]] Protest.{{Cite news|url=https://www.nytimes.com/2016/11/29/us/veterans-to-serve-as-human-shields-for-pipeline-protesters.html?_r=0|title=Veterans To Serve as 'Human Shields' for Dakota Pipeline Protestors|last=Mele|first=Christopher|date=2016|work=The New York Times}} [113] => [114] => Before the [[Syrian civil war]], [[Rojava]] had been ecologically damaged by [[monoculture]], oil extraction, damming of rivers, [[deforestation]], [[drought]], [[Erosion|topsoil loss]] and general pollution. The [[Democratic Federation of Northern Syria|DFNS]] launched a campaign titled 'Make Rojava Green Again' (a parody of [[Make America Great Again]]) which is attempting to provide [[renewable energy]] to communities (especially [[Solar Energy Generating Systems|solar energy]]), [[reforestation]], protecting water sources, planting gardens, promoting [[urban agriculture]], creating [[Nature reserve|wildlife reserves]], [[Reclaimed water|water recycling]], [[beekeeping]], expanding [[Public Transportation|public transportation]] and promoting environmental awareness within their communities.{{Cite web|url=https://www.unicornriot.ninja/2018/building-autonomy-ecology-rojava/|title=Building Autonomy Through Ecology in Rojava|date=28 February 2018|website=unicornriot.ninja}} [115] => [116] => The [[Rebel Zapatista Autonomous Municipalities]] are firmly environmentalist and have stopped the extraction of oil, uranium, timber and metal from the [[Lacandon Jungle]] and stopped the use of [[pesticide]]s and [[Fertilizer|chemical fertilisers]] in farming.Gobierno Autónomo I: Cuaderno de texto de primer grado del curso de "La Libertad según l@s Zapatistas"'', 19.'' [117] => [118] => The [[CIPO-RFM]] has engaged in [[sabotage]] and [[direct action]] against [[wind farm]]s, [[shrimp farms]], [[Eucalyptus|eucalyptus plantations]] and the [[timber industry]]. They have also set up corn and coffee [[worker cooperative]]s and built schools and hospitals to help the local populations. They have also created a network of autonomous community radio stations to educate people about dangers to the environment and inform the surrounding communities about new industrial projects that would destroy more land. In 2001, the CIPO-RFM defeated the construction of a highway that was part of [[Plan Puebla Panama]].{{Cite book|title=Teaching Rebellion: Stories from the Grassroots Mobilisation in Oaxaca|last=Denham|first=Diana|year=2008}} [119] => [120] => ==Environmental movement== [121] => {{Main|Environmental movement}} [122] => [[File:Air pollution by industrial chimneys.jpg|thumb|right|Before [[flue-gas desulfurization]] was installed, the [[air pollution|air-polluting]] emissions from this power plant in [[New Mexico]] contained excessive amounts of [[sulfur dioxide]].]] [123] => [124] => The ''[[environmental movement]]'' (a term that sometimes includes the [[conservation movement|conservation]] and [[Green politics|green]] movements) is a diverse scientific, [[Social movement|social]], and [[political movement]]. Though the movement is represented by a range of organisations, because of the inclusion of environmentalism in the classroom curriculum,{{Cite book [125] => | author = Craig Kridel [126] => | title = Encyclopedia of Curriculum Studies [127] => | publisher = Sage Publications, Inc. [128] => | page = 341 [129] => | date = 2010 [130] => | isbn = 978-1-4129-5883-7 [131] => | url = https://books.google.com/books?id=GgMyFqxsXWoC&q=environmentalism%20in%20the%20classroom%20curriculum&pg=PA341 [132] => | access-date = 16 April 2010 }} [133] => {{cite web [134] => | author = Jennifer Sinsel [135] => | title = Earth Day Activities [136] => | publisher = Lesson Planet [137] => | date = 15 April 2010 [138] => | url = http://www.lessonplanet.com/directory_articles/elementary_science_lesson_plans/15_April_2010/360/earth_day_activities [139] => | access-date = 16 April 2010 }} [140] => the environmental movement has a younger demographic than is common in other social movements (see [[green seniors]]). [141] => [142] => Environmentalism as a movement covers broad areas of institutional oppression, including for example: consumption of ecosystems and natural resources into waste, dumping waste into disadvantaged communities, air pollution, water pollution, weak infrastructure, exposure of organic life to toxins, mono-culture, anti-polythene drive (jhola movement) and various other focuses. Because of these divisions, the environmental movement can be categorized into these primary focuses: [[environmental science]], environmental activism, environmental advocacy, and [[environmental justice]].{{cite web|url=http://www.iep.utm.edu/enviro-j/|title=American Environmental Justice Movement |publisher= Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy|website=www.iep.utm.edu|access-date=15 April 2018}} [143] => [144] => ===Free market environmentalism=== [145] => {{Main|Free-market environmentalism}} [146] => [147] => Free market environmentalism is a theory that argues that the [[free market]], [[property rights]], and [[tort]] law provide the best tools to preserve the health and [[sustainability]] of the environment. It considers environmental stewardship to be natural, as well as the expulsion of polluters and other aggressors through individual and [[class action]]. [148] => [149] => ===Evangelical environmentalism=== [150] => {{Main|Evangelical environmentalism}} [151] => [152] => Evangelical environmentalism is an environmental movement in the United States in which some [[Evangelicalism|Evangelicals]] have emphasized [[Bible|biblical]] mandates concerning humanity's role as steward and subsequent responsibility for the care taking of Creation. While the movement has focused on different environmental issues, it is best known for its focus of addressing climate action from a biblically grounded [[theology|theological]] perspective. This movement is controversial among some non-Christian environmentalists due to its rooting in a specific religion. [153] => [154] => ===Preservation and conservation=== [155] => [[File:An example of US Federal Environmental Regulations, 1987.jpg|thumb|right|''[[Federal Register]]'' documents and literature related to US environmental regulations, including the [[Resource Conservation and Recovery Act]] (RCRA), 1987]] [156] => {{Main|Nature conservation|Conservation movement}} [157] => [158] => Environmental preservation in the United States and other parts of the world, including Australia, is viewed as the setting aside of natural resources to prevent damage caused by contact with humans or by certain human activities, such as logging, mining, hunting, and fishing, often to replace them with new human activities such as tourism and recreation.{{Cite book [159] => | last = Cunningham [160] => | first = William P. [161] => | display-authors = etal [162] => | title = Environmental encyclopedia [163] => | publisher = Gale Research [164] => | year = 1998 [165] => | url = https://archive.org/details/environmentalenc02cunn [166] => | isbn = 978-0-8103-9314-1 [167] => | url-access = registration [168] => }} Regulations and laws may be enacted for the preservation of natural resources. [169] => [170] => ===Exergy and availability of resources=== [171] => Thermodynamic derived environmentalism is based on the [[second law of thermodynamics]], minimization of [[exergy]] disruption (or [[entropy]] generation)and the concept of availability. It moves from he milestone work of [[Jan Szargut]] who emphasized the relation between exergy and availability, [172] => {{cite web [173] => |author= Jan Szargut [174] => |title= Exergy Method: Technical and Ecological Applications [175] => |year=2005 [176] => |publisher=Thermal Science [177] => |url=https://www.witpress.com/books/978-1-85312-753-3 [178] => }} [179] => it is necessary to remember "Exergy Ecology and Democracy". [180] => {{cite web [181] => |title= Goran Wall [182] => |work=Exergy, ecology and democracy - concepts of a vital society or a proposal for an exergy tax [183] => |year=1993 [184] => |publisher=International Conference on Energy Systems and Ecology [185] => |url=https://www.researchgate.net/publication/239839936 [186] => }} [187] => by [[Goran Wall]], a short essay, which evidences the strict relation that relates exergy disruption with environmental and social disruption. More recently it has verified that governmental emissions and impacts balances underestimate the effective [[Greenhouse gas|GHG]] production by means of human processes. In fact, they often neglects the impacts of import/export related emissions. In addition they have analyzed the UN [[SDG]]s and the methods which are suggested for verifying the advances of the countries. This activity has evidenced that objective and coherent parameters are missing. Therefore, they suggest the introduction of [[exergy]] analysis as the most effective method for estimating the environmental degradation.{{cite journal [188] => |author= Trancossi, M., Pascoa, J., Catellani, T. [189] => |title= Exergy, ecology and democracy - concepts of a vital society or a proposal for an exergy tax 30 years after - Part 1: Generalities [190] => |year=2023 [191] => |issue= 2 Part B [192] => |pages= 1337–1353 [193] => |journal=Thermal Science [194] => |volume= 27 [195] => |doi= 10.2298/TSCI220907019T [196] => |url= https://doiserbia.nb.rs/Article.aspx?id=0354-98362300019T [197] => |doi-access= free [198] => }}{{cite journal [199] => |author= Trancossi, M., Pascoa, J., Catellani, T. [200] => |title=Exergy, ecology and democracy - concepts of a vital society or a proposal for an exergy tax 30 years after - Part 2: Exergy and UN sustainable development goals [201] => |year=2023 [202] => |issue=3 Part B [203] => |pages=2359–2375 [204] => |journal=Thermal Science [205] => |volume=27 [206] => |doi=10.2298/TSCI220907020T [207] => |s2cid=256687017 [208] => |url=https://doiserbia.nb.rs/Article.aspx?id=0354-98362300020T [209] => |doi-access=free [210] => }} [211] => Therefore, a novel fiscal model based on Exergy and availability disruption has been defined as the only possible way for overcoming the problems induced by the globalized markets. [212] => [213] => ==Organisations and conferences== [214] => {{Main|List of environmental organizations}} [215] => {{unreferenced section|date=August 2023}} [216] => [[File:ReefDoctor work station in Ifaty, Madagascar.jpg|thumb|Reef doctor work station in [[Tsifota|Ifaty]], [[Madagascar]]]] [217] => [218] => Environmental organisations can be global, regional, national or local; they can be government-run or private ([[NGO]]). Environmentalist activity exists in almost every country. Moreover, groups dedicated to community development and social justice also focus on environmental concerns. [219] => [220] => Some US environmental organisations, among them the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]] and the [[Environmental Defense Fund]], specialise in bringing lawsuits (a tactic seen as particularly useful in that country). Other groups, such as the US-based [[National Wildlife Federation]], [[Earth Day]], [[National Cleanup Day]], [[the Nature Conservancy]], and [[The Wilderness Society (United States)|The Wilderness Society]], and global groups like the [[World Wide Fund for Nature]] and [[Friends of the Earth]], disseminate information, participate in [[Hearing (law)|public hearings]], [[Lobbying|lobby]], [[Demonstration (people)|stage demonstrations]], and may purchase land for [[Nature reserve|preservation]]. Statewide nonprofit organisations such as the [[Wyoming Outdoor Council]] often collaborate with these national organisations and employ similar strategies. Smaller groups, including [[Wildlife Conservation International]], conduct research on [[endangered species]] and [[ecosystems]]. More radical organisations, such as [[Greenpeace]], [[Earth First!]], and the [[Earth Liberation Front]], have more directly opposed actions they regard as environmentally harmful. While Greenpeace is devoted to nonviolent confrontation as a means of bearing witness to environmental wrongs and bringing issues into the public realm for debate, the underground ''Earth Liberation Front'' engages in the clandestine destruction of property, the release of caged or penned animals, and other criminal acts. Such tactics are regarded as unusual within the movement, however. [221] => [222] => On an international level, concern for the environment was the subject of a [[United Nations Conference on the Human Environment]] in Stockholm in 1972, attended by 114 nations. Out of this meeting developed the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) and the follow-up [[Earth Summit|United Nations Conference on Environment and Development]] in 1992. Other international organisations in support of environmental policies development include the [[Commission for Environmental Cooperation]] (as part of [[NAFTA]]), the [[European Environment Agency]] (EEA), and the [[Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change]] (IPCC). [223] => [224] => ==Environmental protests== [225] => [[File:ClimateCampBAA.jpg|thumb|Climate activists blockade [[British Airports Authority]]'s headquarters for day of action.]] [226] => [[File:March Against Monsanto Vancouver.jpg|thumb|"[[March Against Monsanto]]", Vancouver, Canada, 25 May 2013]] [227] => {{Main|List of environmental protests}} [228] => [229] => Notable environmental protests and campaigns include: [230] => [231] => {{div col|colwidth=18em}} [232] => * [[2010 Xinfa aluminum plant protest]] [233] => * [[Anti-WAAhnsinns Festival]] [234] => * [[Car-Free Days]] [235] => * [[Camp for Climate Action]] [236] => * [[Campaign against Climate Change]] [237] => * [[Climate Rush]] [238] => * [[Cofán people#Oil drilling|Cofán people oil drilling protest (Ecuador)]] [239] => * [[Earth Day]] [240] => * [[Earth First!]] [241] => * [[Earthlife Africa]] [242] => * [[Extinction Rebellion]] [243] => * [[Global Climate Strike (disambiguation)|Global Climate Strike]]s{{Cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2019/sep/27/climate-crisis-6-million-people-join-latest-wave-of-worldwide-protests|title = Climate crisis: 6 million people join latest wave of global protests|website = [[TheGuardian.com]]|date = 27 September 2019}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.vox.com/2019/9/17/20864740/greta-thunberg-youth-climate-strike-fridays-future|title = Greta Thunberg is leading kids and adults from 150 countries in a massive Friday climate strike|date = 17 September 2019}} [244] => * [[Global Day of Action]] [245] => * [[Gurindji Strike]] [246] => * [[Hands off our Forest]] [247] => * [[Homes before Roads]] [248] => * [[(Indigenous) Water protectors|Water Protectors]] [249] => * [[Just Stop Oil]] [250] => * [[Kupa Piti Kungka Tjuta]] [251] => * [[Love Canal protests]] [252] => * [[March Against Monsanto]] [253] => * [[Nevada Desert Experience]] [254] => * [[Plane Mad]] [255] => * [[Plane Stupid]] [256] => * [[Qidong protest]] [257] => * [[Save Manapouri Campaign]] [258] => * [[Say Yes demonstrations]] [259] => * [[Shifang protest]] [260] => * [[Stop Climate Chaos]] [261] => {{div col end}} [262] => [263] => ==Environmentalists== [264] => {{Main|Environmentalist}} [265] => [266] => Notable advocates for [[environmental protection]] and [[sustainability]] include: [267] => [268] => {{div col|colwidth=18em}} [269] => * [[Edward Abbey]] (author) [270] => * [[David Attenborough]] (broadcaster, naturalist) [271] => * [[John James Audubon]] (naturalist) [272] => * [[Judi Bari]] (environmentalist) [273] => * [[Frances Beinecke]] (environmentalist and former president of the [[Natural Resources Defense Council]]) [274] => * [[David Bellamy]] (botanist) [275] => * [[Wendell Berry]] (farmer, philosopher) [276] => * [[Murray Bookchin]] (anarchist, philosopher, social ecologist) [277] => * [[Erin Brockovich]] (environmental lawyer and activist) [278] => * [[David Brower]] (writer, activist) [279] => * [[Lester Brown]] (environmental analyst, author) [280] => * [[Carol Browner]] (lawyer and activist) [281] => * [[Kevin Buzzacott]] (Aboriginal activist) [282] => * [[Berta Caceres]] (environmental and indigenous rights activist) [283] => * [[Helen Caldicott]] (medical doctor) [284] => * [[Rachel Carson]] (biologist, writer) [285] => * [[Majora Carter]] (urban revitalization strategist) [286] => * [[Charles III]] (British Royal Family member) [287] => * [[Barry Commoner]] (biologist, politician) [288] => * [[Jacques-Yves Cousteau]] (explorer, ecologist) [289] => * [[Herman Daly]] ([[Ecological economics|ecological economist]] and [[Steady-state economy#Herman Daly's concept of a steady-state economy|steady-state theorist]]) [290] => * [[Peter Dauvergne]] (political scientist) [291] => * [[Laurie David]] (activist and producer) [292] => * [[Marina DeBris]] (environmental artist) [293] => * [[Leonardo DiCaprio]] (actor and environmentalist){{cite web | title=Leonardo DiCaprio | website=World Wildlife Fund | url=http://www.worldwildlife.org/leaders/leonardo-dicaprio | access-date=31 January 2016}} [294] => * [[Sylvia Earle]] (marine biologist) [295] => * [[Paul R. Ehrlich]] (population biologist) [296] => * [[Hans-Josef Fell]] (German [[Alliance '90/The Greens|Green Party]] member) [297] => * [[Jane Fonda]] (actor) [298] => * [[Josh Fox]] (filmmaker, environmental activist) [299] => * [[Mizuho Fukushima]] (politician, activist) [300] => * [[Peter Garrett]] (musician, politician) [301] => * [[Jane Goodall]] (primatologist, anthropologist, and [[United Nations Messengers of Peace|UN Messenger of Peace]]) [302] => * [[Lois Gibbs]] (Founder of the Center for Health, Environment and Justice) [303] => * [[Al Gore]] (former [[Vice President of the United States]]) [304] => * [[Daryl Hannah]] (activist) [305] => * [[James Hansen]] (scientist) [306] => * [[Garrett Hardin]] (ecologist, ecophilosopher) [307] => * [[Denis Hayes]] (environmentalist and [[solar power]] advocate) [308] => * [[Julia Butterfly Hill]] (activist) [309] => * [[Robert Hunter (journalist)|Robert Hunter]] (journalist, co-founder and first president of [[Greenpeace]]) [310] => * [[Tetsunari Iida]] (sustainable energy advocate) [311] => * [[Lisa P. Jackson]] (chemical engineer and former administrator of the [[United States Environmental Protection Agency]]) [312] => * [[Naomi Klein]] (writer, activist) [313] => * [[Winona LaDuke]] (environmentalist) [314] => * [[Aldo Leopold]] (ecologist) [315] => * [[A. Carl Leopold]] (plant physiologist) [316] => * [[James Lovelock]] (scientist) [317] => * [[Amory Lovins]] (energy policy analyst) [318] => * [[Hunter Lovins]] (environmentalist) [319] => * [[Caroline Lucas]] (politician) [320] => * [[Wangari Maathai]] (activist and [[Nobel laureate]]) [321] => * [[Jarid Manos]] (CEO of the Great Plains Restoration Council) [322] => * [[Xiuhtezcatl Martinez]] (environmental activist, hip-hop artist) [323] => * [[Bill McKibben]] (writer, activist) [324] => * [[David McTaggart]] (activist) [325] => * [[Chico Mendes]] (activist) [326] => * [[Joni Mitchell]] (musician, environmental activist) [327] => * [[George Monbiot]] (journalist) [328] => * [[John Muir]] (naturalist, activist) [329] => * [[Ralph Nader]] (activist) [330] => * [[Gaylord Nelson]] (politician) [331] => * [[Alan Pears]] ([[environmental consultant]] and [[Efficient energy use|energy efficiency pioneer]]) [332] => * [[Gifford Pinchot]] (first chief of the [[United States Forest Service|USFS]]) [333] => * [[Jonathon Porritt]] (politician) [334] => * [[John Wesley Powell]] (second director of the [[United States Geological Survey|USGS]]) [335] => * [[Barbara Pyle]] (documentarian and executive producer of ''[[Captain Planet and the Planeteers]]'') [336] => * [[Phil Radford]] (environmental, clean energy and democracy advocate, [[Greenpeace]] Executive Director) [337] => * [[Bonnie Raitt]] (musician) [338] => * [[Theodore Roosevelt]] (former [[President of the United States]]) [339] => * [[Habiba Sarobi]] (politician and activist) [340] => * [[E. F. Schumacher]] (author of ''[[Small Is Beautiful]]'') [341] => * [[Vandana Shiva]] (ecofeminist and activist) [342] => * [[Marina Silva]] (politician and activist) [343] => * [[Alicia Silverstone]] (activist and author of ''[[The Kind Diet]]'') [344] => * [[Lauren Singer]] (activist and entrepreneur) [345] => * [[Swami Sundaranand]] (Yogi, photographer, and mountaineer) [346] => * [[Cass Sunstein]] (environmental lawyer) [347] => * [[David Suzuki]] (scientist, broadcaster) [348] => * [[Henry David Thoreau]] (writer, philosopher) [349] => * [[Greta Thunberg]] (environmentalist) [350] => * [[Stewart Udall]] (former [[United States Secretary of the Interior]]) [351] => * [[Jo Valentine, Baroness Valentine|Jo Valentine]] (politician and activist) [352] => * [[Dominique Voynet]] (politician and environmentalist) [353] => * [[Christopher O. Ward]] (water infrastructure expert) [354] => * [[Alice Waters]] (activist and restaurateur) [355] => * [[Gabriel Willow]] (environmental educator, naturalist) [356] => * [[Howard Zahniser]] (author of the 1964 [[Wilderness Act]]) [357] => [358] => {{div col end}} [359] => [360] => ===Assassinations=== [361] => [[File:GuyBradley1905.jpg|thumb|Early American game warden [[Guy Bradley]], who was killed in 1905 while attempting to stop a bird poacher near [[Flamingo, Florida]]]] [362] => {{See also|List of environmental activists assassinated}} [363] => [364] => Every year, more than 100 environmental activists are murdered throughout the world.{{cite web|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2016/jun/20/environmental-activist-murders-global-witness-report|title=Environmental activist murders set record as 2015 became deadliest year|first=Oliver|last=Holmes|date=20 June 2016|website=the Guardian|access-date=15 April 2018}} Most recent deaths are in Brazil, where activists combat logging in the Amazon rainforest.{{cite news|last1=Ulmanu|first1= Monica|last2=Evans|first2=Alan|last3=Brown|first3=Georgia|title=37 environmental defenders have been killed so far in 2018|url= https://www.theguardian.com/environment/ng-interactive/2018/feb/27/the-defenders-recording-the-deaths-of-environmental-defenders-around-the-world|access-date=26 May 2018|work=The Guardian|date=May 2018}} [365] => [366] => 116 environmental activists were [[assassinate]]d in 2014,{{cite web|url=http://grist.org/news/map-116-environmental-activists-were-killed-in-just-one-year/|title=Map: 116 environmental activists were killed in just one year|date=5 March 2016|website=Grist.org|access-date=25 September 2016}} and 185 in 2015. This represents more than two environmentalists assassinated every week in 2014 and three every week in 2015.{{cite web|url=http://time.com/3827939/environmental-activists-killed-2014-global-witness/|title= Environmental Activists Killed in Record Numbers in 2014|first=David|last= Stout|website=Time.com|date = 20 April 2015}}{{Cite web|url=https://www.globalwitness.org/en/campaigns/environmental-activists/dangerous-ground/|title=On Dangerous Ground: Killings of land and environmental defenders in 2015 |work = Global Witness|date = 20 June 2016}} More than 200 environmental activists were assassinated worldwide between 2016 and early 2018.{{cite news |title=Cambodian forest defenders killed after confronting illegal loggers|url=https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2018/jan/31/cambodian-forest-defenders-killed-after-confronting-illegal-loggers|access-date=2 February 2018|work=The Guardian|date=31 January 2018}} A 2020 incident saw several rangers murdered in the Congo Rainforest by poaching squads. Occurrences like this are relatively common, and account for a large number of deaths.{{Cite news|last= Dahir|first=Abdi Latif |date=25 April 2020|title=12 Rangers Among 17 Killed in Congo Park Ambush |language= en-US|work=The New York Times|url= https://www.nytimes.com/2020/04/25/world/africa/congo-virunga-national-park-attack.html|access-date=29 May 2020|issn=0362-4331}} [367] => [368] => ==In popular culture== [369] => {{Further|Climate change in popular culture|Environmentalism in music}} [370] => * The [[United States Forest Service|U.S. Forest Service]] created [[Smokey the Bear]] in 1944; he appeared in countless posters, radio and television programs, movies, press releases, and other guises to warn about forest fires.Ellen Earnhardt Morrison, ''Guardian of the Forest: A History of Smokey Bear and the Cooperative Forest Fire Prevention Program'' (1995) [371] => * The comic strip ''[[Mark Trail]]'', by environmentalist [[Ed Dodd]], began in 1946; it still appears weekly in 175 newspapers. [372] => * The children's animated show ''[[Captain Planet and the Planeteers]]'', created by [[Ted Turner]] and [[Barbara Pyle]] in 1989 to inform children about environmental issues. The show aired for six seasons and 113 episodes, in 100 countries worldwide from 1990 to 1996.{{cite web|url=http://www.barbarapyle.com/captain/|title=Barbara Pyle, with Ted Turner created the animated action series Captain Planet and the Planeteers.|website=www.barbarapyle.com|access-date=15 April 2018|archive-date=6 August 2017|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170806163052/http://www.barbarapyle.com/captain/|url-status=dead}} [373] => * In 1974, [[Spokane, Washington|Spokane]], [[State of Washington|Washington]], became one of the smallest cities ever to host a [[World's Fair]]. From Saturday, 4 May, to Sunday, 3 November 1974, Spokane hosted [[Expo 74]], the first world's fair to focus on the environment. The theme of Expo 74 was "Celebrating Tomorrow's Fresh New Environment." (In 1982, [[Knoxville, Tennessee|Knoxville]], [[Tennessee]], was another small city to host a world's fair: [[1982 World's Fair|Expo '82]], with the theme, "Energy Turns the World.") [374] => * ''[[FernGully: The Last Rainforest]]'' is an animated motion picture released in 1992, which focuses exclusively on the environment. The movie is based on a book under the same title by Diana Young. In 1998, a sequel, ''[[FernGully 2: The Magical Rescue]]'', was introduced. [375] => * [[Miss Earth]] is one of the [[Big Four international beauty pageants]]. (The other three are [[Miss Universe]], [[Miss International]], and [[Miss World]].) Out of these four beauty pageants, Miss Earth is the only international beauty pageant that promotes "environmental awareness." The reigning titleholders dedicate their year to promote specific projects and often address issues concerning the environment and other [[global issues]] through school tours, tree planting activities, street campaigns, coastal clean ups, speaking engagements, shopping mall tours, media guesting, environmental fair, storytelling programs, eco-fashion shows, and other environmental activities. The Miss Earth winner is the spokesperson for the [[Miss Earth Foundation]], the [[United Nations Environment Programme]] (UNEP) and other environmental organizations. The Miss Earth Foundation also works with the environmental departments and ministries of participating countries, various private sectors and corporations, as well as [[Greenpeace]] and the [[World Wildlife Foundation]] (WWF). [376] => * Another area of environmentalism is to use art to raise awareness about misuse of the environment.{{cite web|title='Washed Up' Art Exhibition Raises Awareness of Plastic Pollution|url=https://www.wilson.edu/washed-art-exhibition-raises-awareness-plastic-pollution-0|publisher=Wilson College|access-date=2 October 2017|date=4 April 2016}}{{cite web|title=Unmasking Pollution with Climate Art|url=http://newsroom.unfccc.int/climate-action/art4climate-unmasking-pollution-with-climate-art/|website=UN Climate Change: Climate Action|publisher=United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change|access-date=2 October 2017}}{{cite news|last1=Cerini|first1=Marianna|title=How limited edition sneakers designed by Kanye West are helping people breathe in China|url=http://www.cnn.com/style/article/sneaker-pollution-mask-designer/index.html|access-date=2 October 2017|agency=CNN|publisher=CNN|date=7 December 2016}} One example is [[trashion]], using trash to create clothes, jewelry, and other objects for the home. [[Marina DeBris]] is one trashion artist, who focuses on ocean and beach trash to design clothes and for fund raising, education. [377] => [378] => ==Criticism and alternative views== [379] => [380] => When environmentalism first became popular during the early 20th century, the focus was wilderness protection and wildlife preservation. These goals reflected the interests of the movement's initial, primarily white middle and upper class supporters, including through viewing preservation and protection via a lens that failed to appreciate the centuries-long work of indigenous communities who had lived without ushering in the types of environmental devastation these settler colonial "environmentalists" now sought to mitigate. The actions of many mainstream environmental organizations still reflect these early principles.Sandler, R., & Phaedra, P. (2007). Environmental justice and environmentalism. (pp. 27-55). Numerous low-income minorities felt isolated or negatively impacted by the movement, exemplified by the Southwest Organizing Project's (SWOP) Letter to the Group of 10, a letter sent to major environmental organizations by several local environmental justice activists."SWOP Letter to the Group of 10 ." Southwest Organizing Project. N.p.. Web. 7 May 2013. <[http://www.swop.net/node/26]>. {{webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100514131800/http://www.swop.net/node/26|date=14 May 2010}} The letter argued that the environmental movement was so concerned about cleaning up and preserving nature that it ignored the negative side-effects that doing so caused communities nearby, namely less job growth. In addition, the [[NIMBY]] movement has transferred [[locally unwanted land use]]s (LULUs) from middle-class neighborhoods to poor communities with large minority populations. Therefore, vulnerable communities with fewer political opportunities are more often exposed to hazardous waste and toxins.{{Cite journal [381] => | last=Gerrard [382] => | first=Michael B. [383] => | title=The Victims of NIMBY [384] => | journal=Fordham Urban Law Journal [385] => | location=New York, NY [386] => | date=1993–1994 [387] => | url=http://heinonline.org/HOL/Page?handle=hein.journals/frdurb21&div=25&g_sent=1#505 [388] => }} [389] => This has resulted in the [[PIBBY]] principle, or at least the PIMBY (Place-in-minorities'-backyard), as supported by the United Church of Christ's study in 1987.{{Cite journal [390] => |last = Roberts [391] => |first = R. Gregory [392] => |title = Environmental Justice and Community Empowerment: Learning from the Civil Rights Movement [393] => |journal = American University Law Review [394] => |location = Washington D.C. [395] => |date = October 1998 [396] => |url = http://www.wcl.american.edu/journal/lawrev/48/pdf/roberts.pdf?rd=1 [397] => |url-status = dead [398] => |archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20090326050221/http://www.wcl.american.edu/journal/lawrev/48/pdf/roberts.pdf?rd=1 [399] => |archive-date = 26 March 2009 [400] => }} [401] => [402] => [403] => {{anchor|Environmental elitism}} [404] => As a result, some minorities have viewed the environmental movement as elitist. Environmental elitism manifested itself in three different forms: [405] => [406] => # ''Compositional'' – Environmentalists are from the middle and upper class. [407] => # ''Ideological'' – The reforms benefit the movement's supporters but impose costs on nonparticipants. [408] => # ''Impact'' – The reforms have "regressive social impacts". They disproportionately benefit environmentalists and harm underrepresented populations.{{Cite journal [409] => | last=Morrison [410] => | first=Denton|title=Environmentalism and elitism: a conceptual and empirical analysis [411] => | journal=Environmental Management|location=New York [412] => | date=September 1986 [413] => | doi=10.1007/BF01866762 [414] => | volume=10 [415] => | issue=5| pages=581–589| bibcode=1986EnMan..10..581M| s2cid=153561660}} [416] => [417] => [418] => Many environmentalists believe that human interference with 'nature' should be restricted or minimised as a matter of urgency (for the sake of life, or the planet, or just for the benefit of the human species),Huesemann, Michael H., and Joyce A. Huesemann (2011). [http://www.newtechnologyandsociety.org ''Technofix: Why Technology Won't Save Us or the Environment''], New Society Publishers, Gabriola Island, British Columbia {{ISBN|0-86571-704-4}}, 464 pp. whereas [[environmental skeptics]] and anti-environmentalists do not believe that there is such a need.Bakari, Mohamed El-Kamel. "Globalization and Sustainable Development: False Twins?." New Global Studies 7.3: 23–56. One can also regard oneself as an environmentalist and believe that human 'interference' with 'nature' should be ''increased''.Neil Paul Cummins "An Evolutionary Perspective on the Relationship Between Humans and Their Surroundings: Geoengineering, the Purpose of Life & the Nature of the Universe", Cranmore Publications, 2012. Nevertheless, there is a risk that the shift from emotional environmentalism into the technical management of natural resources and hazards could decrease the touch of humans with nature, leading to less concern with environment preservation.{{cite web|url=http://pt.scribd.com/doc/119009229/Environment-Professional-and-the-Touch-with-Nature |last= Vasconcelos|first= Vitor Vieira|title = The Environment Professional and the Touch with Nature|work = Qualit@s|volume = 1|pages = 1–10|date = 2011 |via =Pt.scribd.com |url-access = limited}} Increasingly, typical conservation rhetoric is being replaced with restoration approaches and larger landscape initiatives that seek to create more holistic impacts.{{Cite web|title=Conservation: History and Future |work = EnvironmentalScience.org|url=https://www.environmentalscience.org/conservation|first=Matthew|last = Mason}} [419] => [420] => In the 2000s, American author, film director, medical graduate and intellect [[Michael Crichton]] criticized environmentalism as being religiously motivated rather than grounded in [[empirical evidence]], arguing that [[climate change]] was a natural part of Earth's history and had been occurring long before humans dominated the planet. Also claiming to argue from his minor education in anthropology, he stated that religion was a part of human social make-up and that if it was suppressed, it would simply re-emerge in another form. With the decline of Christianity and Church attendance in the Western world, environmentalism has become more popular according to him, which he termed as "the religion of urban atheists".Crichton, Michael. "Environmentalism as religion." speech to the Commonwealth Club of San Francisco, CA (2003).Berry, Evan. "Religious environmentalism and environmental religion in America." Religion Compass 7.10 (2013): 454-466.Garreau, Joel. "Environmentalism as Religion." The New Atlantis 28 (2010): 61-74.Nelson, Robert H. "Environmental religion: a theological critique." Case W. Res. L. Rev. 55 (2004): 51. [421] => [422] => Others seek a balance that involves both caring deeply for the environment while letting science guide human actions affecting it. Such an approach would avoid the emotionalism which, for example, anti-[[genetically modified organism|GMO]] activism has been criticized for, and protect the integrity of science. Planting trees, for another example, can be emotionally satisfying but should also involve being conscious of [[ecological]] concerns such as the effect on [[water cycle]]s and the use of nonnative, potentially invasive species.{{cite magazine |last=Das |first=Dibakar |date=September–October 2020 |title=When Environmentalism Clashes with Science |url= |magazine=[[Skeptical Inquirer]] |location=Amherst, New York |publisher=[[Center for Inquiry]] |volume=44 |issue=5 |pages=54–55 |access-date=}} [423] => [424] => ==See also== [425] => {{div col|colwidth=25em}} [426] => [427] => * [[Anti-environmentalism]] [428] => * [[Bright green environmentalism]] [429] => * [[Climate movement]] [430] => * [[Conservation movement]] [431] => * [[Ecomodernism]] [432] => * [[Ecosia]] [433] => * [[Ecotage]] [434] => * [[Ecotechnology]] [435] => * [[Environmental history of the United States]] [436] => * [[Environmental planning]] [437] => * [[Environmental, social, and governance]] [438] => * [[Environmental studies]] [439] => * [[Environmental technology]] [440] => * [[Greening]] [441] => * [[Green building]] [442] => * [[Human ecology]] [443] => * [[Human impact on the environment]] [444] => * [[List of climate scientists]] [445] => * [[List of women climate scientists and activists]] [446] => * [[Nature conservation]] [447] => * [[Outline of environmentalism]] [448] => * [[Radical environmentalism]] [449] => * [[Religion and environmentalism]] [450] => * [[Sustainability]] [451] => * [[Tree planting]] [452] => [453] => {{div col end}} [454] => [455] => ==References== [456] => {{Reflist}} [457] => [458] => ==Further reading== [459] => {{Refbegin|30em}} [460] => * Borowy, Iris. "Before UNEP: who was in charge of the global environment? The struggle for institutional responsibility 1968–72." ''Journal of Global History'' 14.1 (2019): 87–106. [461] => * Daynes, Byron W., and Glen Sussman, eds. ''White House Politics and the Environment: Franklin D. Roosevelt to George W. Bush'' (Texas A&M University Press; 2010) 300 pages; evaluates how 12 presidents helped or hindered the cause of environmental protection. [462] => * Johnson, Erik W., and Scott Frickel, (2011). "Ecological Threat and the Founding of U.S. National Environmental Movement Organizations, 1962–1998," ''Social Problems'' 58 (Aug. 2011), 305–29. [463] => * {{cite book |last=Lear |first=Linda |title=Rachel Carson: Witness for Nature |url=https://archive.org/details/rachelcarsonwitn00lear |url-access=registration |publisher=Henry Holt and Company |location=New York |year=1997 |isbn=978-0-8050-3428-8 }} [464] => * {{cite web [465] => | last = Martell [466] => | first = Luke [467] => | url = http://www.sussex.ac.uk/Users/ssfa2/ecology.html [468] => | title = Ecology and Society: An Introduction [469] => | publisher = Polity Press, 1994 [470] => }} [471] => * [[John McCormick (political scientist)|John McCormick]]. 1995. The Global Environmental Movement. John Wiley. London. 312 pp. {{ISBN|9780471949404}} {{OCLC|33832322}} [472] => * de Steiguer, J. Edward. 2006. ''The Origins of Modern Environmental Thought.'' University of Arizona Press. Tucson. 246 pp. {{ISBN|9780816524617}} [473] => * [[Adam Tooze|Tooze, Adam]], "Democracy and Its Discontents", ''[[The New York Review of Books]]'', vol. LXVI, no. 10 (6 June 2019), pp. 52–53, 56–57. "Democracy has no clear answer for the mindless operation of [[bureaucracy|bureaucratic]] and [[technology|technological power]]. We may indeed be witnessing its extension in the form of [[artificial intelligence]] and [[robotics]]. Likewise, after decades of dire warning, the environmental problem remains fundamentally unaddressed.... Bureaucratic overreach and environmental catastrophe are precisely the kinds of slow-moving existential challenges that democracies deal with very badly.... Finally, there is the threat du jour: [[corporation]]s and the technologies they promote." (pp. 56–57.) [474] => * Verweij, Marco; Thompson, Michael (eds), 2006, ''Clumsy Solutions for a Complex World: Governance, Politics and Plural Perceptions'', Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, {{ISBN|978-0-230-00230-2}} [475] => * Vogel, David. ''California Greenin': How the Golden State Became an Environmental Leader'' (2018) 280 pp [http://eh.net/?s=vogel+david online review] [476] => * Woodhouse, Keith M. "The Politics of Ecology: Environmentalism and Liberalism in the 1960s," ''Journal for the Study of Radicalism,'' Volume 2, Number 2, 2009, pp. 53–84 [477] => * [[World Bank Group|World Bank]], 2003, [http://go.worldbank.org/3I9K0DUDC0 "Sustainable Development in a Dynamic World: Transforming Institutions, Growth, and Quality of Life"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20080517054610/http://go.worldbank.org/3I9K0DUDC0 |date=17 May 2008 }}, World Development Report 2003, [[International Bank for Reconstruction and Development]] and Oxford University Press. [478] => {{Refend}} [479] => [480] => ==External links== [481] => {{Sister project links}} [482] => * {{curlie|Society/Issues/Environment|Environment}} [483] => * [https://open.library.ubc.ca/collections/westland ''Westland''] – A Canadian television series (1984–2007) on a broad range of environmental issues, from the UBC Library Digital Collections [484] => * [https://earthdirectory.net/ ''The Directory of Environmental Websites''] [485] => [486] => {{Environmentalism}}{{Environmental social science}} [487] => {{Environmental science}} [488] => {{Sustainability}} [489] => {{Portal bar|Climate change|Earth sciences|Ecology|Environment|Philosophy|Politics|Renewable energy|Society|Trees}} [490] => {{Authority control}} [491] => [492] => [[Category:Environmentalism| ]] [493] => [[Category:Green politics]] [494] => [[Category:Habitat]] [495] => [[Category:Environmental social science concepts]] [496] => [[Category:1920s neologisms]] [] => )
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Environmentalism

Environmentalism, also known as environmental rights, is a social and political ideology focused on the protection of the environment and conservation of natural resources. It advocates for sustainable practices and aims to address environmental issues such as pollution, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and climate change.

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It advocates for sustainable practices and aims to address environmental issues such as pollution, deforestation, loss of biodiversity, and climate change. The movement originated in the 19th century as a response to industrialization and has since grown into a global force, with various organizations, campaigns, and policies promoting environmental awareness and action. Environmentalism encompasses a wide range of approaches, from grassroots activism to legal frameworks and international agreements. It has also sparked debates around economic development, human rights, and the balance between conservation and human needs. Overall, environmentalism seeks to ensure a healthy and sustainable future for both humans and the planet.

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