Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Study of general and fundamental questions}} [1] => {{Other uses}} [2] => {{Featured article}} [3] => {{pp-semi-indef}} [4] => {{pp-move}} [5] => {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2023}} [6] => [[File:Le Penseur by Rodin (Kunsthalle Bielefeld) 2014-04-10.JPG|alt=Photo of Auguste Rodin's statue The Thinker|thumb|The statue ''[[The Thinker]]'' by [[Auguste Rodin]] is a symbol of philosophical thought.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pratt|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FCHMEAAAQBAJ&pg=RA4-PT31 169]}} | {{harvnb|Morujão|Dimas|Relvas|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ed5BEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA105 105]}} | {{harvnb|Mitias|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=sORjEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA3 3]}} }}|348x348px]] [7] => {{Philosophy sidebar}} [8] => '''Philosophy''' ({{Lang-gr|φιλοσοφία|lit=love of wisdom|label=none}}, in [[Ancient Greek]]) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like [[existence]], [[reason]], [[knowledge]], [[Value (ethics and social sciences)|value]], [[mind]], and [[language]]. It is a rational and critical inquiry that reflects on its own methods and assumptions. [9] => [10] => Historically, many of the individual [[science]]s, such as [[physics]] and [[psychology]], formed part of philosophy. However, they are considered separate academic disciplines in the modern sense of the term. Influential traditions in the [[history of philosophy]] include [[Western philosophy|Western]], [[Islamic philosophy|Arabic–Persian]], [[Indian philosophy|Indian]], and [[Chinese philosophy]]. Western philosophy originated in [[Ancient Greece]] and covers a wide area of philosophical subfields. A central topic in Arabic–Persian philosophy is the relation between reason and [[revelation]]. Indian philosophy combines the [[Spirituality|spiritual]] problem of how to reach [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightenment]] with the exploration of the nature of reality and the ways of arriving at knowledge. Chinese philosophy focuses principally on practical issues in relation to right social conduct, government, and [[self-cultivation]]. [11] => [12] => Major branches of philosophy are [[epistemology]], [[ethics]], [[logic]], and [[metaphysics]]. Epistemology studies what knowledge is and how to acquire it. Ethics investigates moral principles and what constitutes right conduct. Logic is the study of [[Logical reasoning|correct reasoning]] and explores how good [[argument]]s can be distinguished from bad ones. Metaphysics examines the most general features of [[reality]], existence, [[Object (philosophy)|objects]], and [[Property (philosophy)|properties]]. Other subfields are [[aesthetics]], [[philosophy of language]], [[philosophy of mind]], [[philosophy of religion]], [[philosophy of science]], [[philosophy of mathematics]], [[philosophy of history]], and [[political philosophy]]. Within each branch, there are competing [[schools of philosophy]] that promote different principles, theories, or methods. [13] => [14] => Philosophers use a great variety of methods to arrive at philosophical knowledge. They include [[conceptual analysis]], reliance on [[common sense]] and [[intuition]]s, use of [[thought experiments]], analysis of [[ordinary language]], [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|description of experience]], and [[Socratic questioning|critical questioning]]. Philosophy is related to many other fields, including the sciences, [[mathematics]], [[business]], [[law]], and [[journalism]]. It provides an [[interdisciplinary]] perspective and studies the scope and fundamental concepts of these fields. It also investigates their methods and ethical implications. [15] => [16] => {{toclimit|3}} [17] => [18] => == Etymology == [19] => The word ''philosophy'' comes from the [[Ancient Greek]] words {{lang|grc|φίλος}} ({{transl|grc|philos}}) {{gloss|love}} and {{lang|grc|σοφία}} ({{transl|grc|sophia}}) {{gloss|wisdom}}.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=350}} |2={{harvnb|Simpson|2002|loc=Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Jacobs|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Kw9sEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 23]}} }}{{efn|The Ancient Greek ''philosophos'' ('philosopher') was itself possibly borrowed from the [[Ancient Egyptian]] term ''mer-rekh'' (''mr-rḫ'') meaning 'lover of wisdom'.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Herbjørnsrud|2021|p=123}} |2={{harvnb|Herbjørnsrud|2023|p=X}} }}}} Some sources say that the term was coined by the [[pre-Socratic]] philosopher [[Pythagoras]], but this is not certain.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bottin|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FJ7UBP_jYeMC&pg=PA151 151]}} |2={{harvnb|Jaroszyński|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fsZKDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA12 12]}} }} [20] => [21] => [[File:Doctor Zirkel follows Newton's famous steps under the fabled Wellcome V0011942.jpg|alt=Wood engraving of Isaac Newton under an apple tree|thumb|left|upright=0.75|Physics was originally part of philosophy, like [[Isaac Newton]]'s observation of how [[Isaac Newton's apple tree|gravity affects falling apples]].]] [22] => [23] => The word entered the English language primarily from [[Old French]] and [[Anglo-Norman language|Anglo-Norman]] starting around 1175 CE. The French {{lang|fr|philosophie}} is itself a borrowing from the Latin {{lang|la|philosophia}}. The term ''philosophy'' acquired the meanings of "advanced study of the speculative subjects ([[logic]], [[ethics]], [[physics]], and [[metaphysics]])", "deep wisdom consisting of love of truth and virtuous living", "profound learning as transmitted by the ancient writers", and "the study of the fundamental nature of [[knowledge]], [[reality]], and [[existence]], and the basic limits of human understanding".{{multiref |1={{harvnb|OED staff|2022|loc=Philosophy, n.}} |2={{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=350}} }} [24] => [25] => Before the modern age, the term ''philosophy'' was used in a wide sense. It included most forms of [[rational]] inquiry, such as the individual [[sciences]], as its subdisciplines.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ten|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=04yBhMdnd3MC&pg=PA9 9]}} |2={{harvnb|Tuomela|1985|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2Hg9rKafnHsC&pg=PA1 1]}} |3={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-g26ckhZ21wC&pg=PA303 303]}} }} For instance, [[natural philosophy]] was a major branch of philosophy.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kenny|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fn9xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA189 189]}} |2={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-g26ckhZ21wC&pg=PA163 163]}} |3={{harvnb|Cotterell|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hpA4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458 458]}} |4={{harvnb|Maddy|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6_dQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}} }} This branch of philosophy encompassed a wide range of fields, including disciplines like physics, [[chemistry]], and [[biology]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BxbLDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA318 318]}} |2={{harvnb|Ten|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=04yBhMdnd3MC&pg=PA9 9]}} }} An example of this usage is the 1687 book ''[[Philosophiæ Naturalis Principia Mathematica]]'' by [[Isaac Newton]]. This book referred to natural philosophy in its title, but it is today considered a book of physics.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Cotterell|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hpA4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA458 458]}} |2={{harvnb|Maddy|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6_dQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}} |3={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=[https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html Philosophiebegriffe]}} }} [26] => [27] => The meaning of ''philosophy'' changed toward the end of the modern period when it acquired the more narrow meaning common today. In this new sense, the term is mainly associated with philosophical disciplines like metaphysics, epistemology, and ethics. Among other topics, it covers the rational study of reality, knowledge, and values. It is distinguished from other disciplines of rational inquiry such as the empirical sciences and [[mathematics]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century}} |2={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010}} |3={{harvnb|Ten|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=04yBhMdnd3MC&pg=PA9 9]}} |4={{harvnb|AHD Staff|2022}} }} [28] => [29] => == Conceptions of philosophy == [30] => {{see also|Metaphilosophy}} [31] => [32] => === General conception === [33] => The practice of philosophy is characterized by several general features: it is a form of rational inquiry, it aims to be systematic, and it tends to critically reflect on its own methods and presuppositions.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy Lead Section, § Conclusion]}} |2={{harvnb|Quinton|2005|p=702}} |3={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=[https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html Philosophiebegriffe]}} |4={{harvnb|EB Staff|2023a}} |5={{harvnb|OUP Staff|2020}} |6={{harvnb|Adler|2000}} }} It requires attentively thinking long and carefully about the provocative, vexing, and enduring problems central to the human condition.{{sfn|Perry|Bratman|Fischer|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0ndAAQAAIAAJ 4]}} [34] => [35] => The philosophical pursuit of wisdom involves asking general and fundamental questions. It often does not result in straightforward answers but may help a person to better understand the topic, examine their life, dispel confusion, and overcome prejudices and self-deceptive ideas associated with common sense.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Russell|1912|p=91}} |2={{harvnb|Blackwell|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rRrfO14H5i0C&pg=PA148 148]}} |3={{harvnb|Pojman|2009|page=2}} |4={{harvnb|Kenny|2004|p=xv}} |5={{harvnb|Vintiadis|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t8P4DwAAQBAJ&pg=PT137 137]}} }} For example, Socrates stated that "[[the unexamined life is not worth living]]" to highlight the role of philosophical inquiry in understanding one's own existence.{{sfn|Plato|2023|loc=[https://standardebooks.org/ebooks/plato/dialogues/benjamin-jowett/text/apology#apology-text Apology]}}{{sfn|McCutcheon|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vpzCBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA26 26]}} And according to [[Bertrand Russell]], "the man who has no tincture of philosophy goes through life imprisoned in the prejudices derived from common sense, from the habitual beliefs of his age or his nation, and from convictions which have grown up in his mind without the cooperation or consent of his deliberate reason."{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Russell|1912|p=91}} |2={{harvnb|Blackwell|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rRrfO14H5i0C&pg=PA148 148]}} }} [36] => [37] => === Academic definitions === [38] => {{main|Definitions of philosophy}} [39] => Attempts to provide more precise definitions of philosophy are controversial{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Quinton|2005|p=702}} |2={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=[https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html Philosophiebegriffe]}} }} and are studied in [[metaphilosophy]].{{sfn|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=vii, 17}} Some approaches argue that there is a set of essential features shared by all parts of philosophy. Others see only weaker family resemblances or contend that it is merely an empty blanket term.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE 20, 44]|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Mittelstraß|2005|loc=[https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783476021083 Philosophie]}} }} Precise definitions are often only accepted by theorists belonging to a certain [[philosophical movement]] and are revisionistic according to Søren Overgaard et al. in that many presumed parts of philosophy would not deserve the title "philosophy" if they were true.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Joll}} |2={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE 20–21, 25, 35, 39]|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} }} [40] => [41] => Some definitions characterize philosophy in relation to its method, like pure reasoning. Others focus on its topic, for example, as the study of the biggest patterns of the world as a whole or as the attempt to answer the big questions.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE 20–22]|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Rescher|2013|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RIx_k41e1xAC 1. The Nature of Philosophy]|pp=1–3}} |3={{harvnb|Nuttall|2013|loc=1. The Nature of Philosophy|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=luc-Hf_bEOIC&pg=PT12 12–13]}} }} Such an approach is pursued by [[Immanuel Kant]], who holds that the task of philosophy is united by four questions: "What can I know?"; "What should I do?"; "What may I hope?"; and "What is the human being?"{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Guyer|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a4T8AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7–8]}} |2={{harvnb|Kant|1998|p=A805/B833}} |3={{harvnb|Kant|1992|p=9:25}} }} Both approaches have the problem that they are usually either too wide, by including non-philosophical disciplines, or too narrow, by excluding some philosophical sub-disciplines.{{sfn|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE 20–22]|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} [42] => [43] => Many definitions of philosophy emphasize its intimate relation to science.{{sfn|Regenbogen|2010|loc=[https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html Philosophiebegriffe]}} In this sense, philosophy is sometimes understood as a proper science in its own right. According to some [[Naturalism (philosophy)|naturalistic philosophers]], such as [[W. V. O. Quine]], philosophy is an empirical yet abstract science that is concerned with wide-ranging empirical patterns instead of particular observations.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE 26–27]|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Hylton|Kemp|2020}} }} Science-based definitions usually face the problem of explaining why philosophy in its long history has not progressed to the same extent or in the same way as the sciences.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE 25–27]|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Chalmers|2015|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/CHAWIT-15 3–4]}} |3={{harvnb|Dellsén|Lawler|Norton|2021|pp=814–815}} }} This problem is avoided by seeing philosophy as an immature or provisional science whose subdisciplines cease to be philosophy once they have fully developed.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=[https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html Philosophiebegriffe]}} |2={{harvnb|Mittelstraß|2005|loc=[https://www.springer.com/de/book/9783476021083 Philosophie]}} |3={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE 27–30]|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} }} In this sense, philosophy is sometimes described as "the midwife of the sciences".{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hacker|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8W1BAQAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6]}} |2={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=[https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html Philosophiebegriffe]}} }} [44] => [45] => Other definitions focus on the contrast between science and philosophy. A common theme among many such conceptions is that philosophy is concerned with [[Meaning (philosophy)|meaning]], [[understanding]], or the clarification of language.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE 34–36]|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Rescher|2013|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RIx_k41e1xAC 1. The Nature of Philosophy]|pp=1–2}} }} According to one view, philosophy is [[conceptual analysis]], which involves finding the [[necessary and sufficient conditions]] for the application of concepts.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE 20–21, 29]|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Nuttall|2013|loc=1. The Nature of Philosophy|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=luc-Hf_bEOIC&pg=PT12 12–13]}} |3={{harvnb|Shaffer|2015|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26602327 555–556]}} }} Another definition characterizes philosophy as ''[[thinking]] about thinking'' to emphasize its self-critical, reflective nature.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|Gilbert|Burwood|2013|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/an-introduction-to-metaphilosophy/what-is-philosophy/9D6F6F1186D1FF68A23B97B17CC810EE 36–37, 43]|loc=What Is Philosophy?}} |2={{harvnb|Nuttall|2013|loc=1. The Nature of Philosophy|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=luc-Hf_bEOIC&pg=PT12 12]}} }} A further approach presents philosophy as a [[linguistic]] therapy. According to [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], for instance, philosophy aims at dispelling misunderstandings to which humans are susceptible due to the confusing structure of [[Natural language|ordinary language]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Regenbogen|2010|loc=[https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html Philosophiebegriffe]}} |2={{harvnb|Joll|loc=Lead Section, § 2c. Ordinary Language Philosophy and the Later Wittgenstein}} |3={{harvnb|Biletzki|Matar|2021}} }} [46] => [47] => [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|Phenomenologists]], such as [[Edmund Husserl]], characterize philosophy as a "rigorous science" investigating [[essence]]s.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Joll|loc=§ 4.a.i}} |2={{harvnb|Gelan|2020|p=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-030-29357-4_6 98]|loc=Husserl's Idea of Rigorous Science and Its Relevance for the Human and Social Sciences}} |3={{harvnb|Ingarden|1975|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-010-1689-6_3 8–11]|loc=The Concept of Philosophy as Rigorous Science}} |4={{harvnb|Tieszen|2005|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2fgQ_fuCcKAC&pg=PA100 100]}} }} They practice a radical [[epoche|suspension]] of theoretical assumptions about reality to get back to the "things themselves", that is, as originally given in experience. They contend that this base-level of experience provides the foundation for higher-order theoretical knowledge, and that one needs to understand the former to understand the latter.{{sfn|Smith|loc=§ 2.b}} [48] => [49] => An early approach found in [[Ancient Greek philosophy|ancient Greek]] and [[Roman philosophy]] is that philosophy is the spiritual practice of developing one's rational capacities.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Banicki|2014|p=[https://philpapers.org/rec/BANPAT 7]}} |2={{harvnb|Hadot|1995|loc=[https://philpapers.org/rec/HADPAA 11. Philosophy as a Way of Life]}} }} This practice is an expression of the philosopher's love of wisdom and has the aim of improving one's [[well-being]] by leading a reflective life.{{sfn|Grimm|Cohoe|2021|pp=[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ejop.12562 236–237]}} For example, the [[Stoics]] saw philosophy as an exercise to train the mind and thereby achieve [[eudaimonia]] and flourish in life.{{sfn|Sharpe|Ure|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LIstEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 76, 80]}} [50] => [51] => == History {{anchor|Historical overview}} == [52] => {{main|History of philosophy}} [53] => As a discipline, the history of philosophy aims to provide a systematic and chronological exposition of philosophical concepts and doctrines.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Copleston|2003|pp=4–6}} |2={{harvnb|Santinello|Piaia|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gC2J3V7_TPUC&pg=PA487 487–488]}} |3={{harvnb|Verene|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hkDX-dxMHpoC&pg=PA6 6–8]}} }} Some theorists see it as a part of [[intellectual history]], but it also investigates questions not covered by intellectual history such as whether the theories of past philosophers are true and have remained philosophically relevant.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Laerke|Smith|Schliesser|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=RssWDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA115 115–118]}} |2={{harvnb|Verene|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hkDX-dxMHpoC&pg=PA6 6–8]}} |3={{harvnb|Frede|2022|p=x}} |4={{harvnb|Beaney|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eMZoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA60 60]}} }} The history of philosophy is primarily concerned with theories based on rational inquiry and argumentation; some historians understand it in a looser sense that includes [[myth]]s, [[Religion|religious teachings]], and proverbial lore.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Scharfstein|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iZQy2lu70bwC&pg=PA1 1–4]}} |2={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Is There Indian Philosophy?}} |3={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=1–3}} |4={{harvnb|Rescher|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2yEvBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA173 173]}} |5={{harvnb|Parkinson|2005|pp=1–2}} }} [54] => [55] => Influential traditions in the history of philosophy include [[Western philosophy|Western]], [[Islamic philosophy|Arabic–Persian]], [[Indian philosophy|Indian]], and [[Chinese philosophy]]. Other philosophical traditions are [[Japanese philosophy]], [[Latin American philosophy]], and [[African philosophy]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=v, 1–12}} |2={{harvnb|Flavel|Robbiano|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=q0KaEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT279 279]}} |3={{harvnb|Solomon|Higgins|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gVgdAAAAQBAJ&pg=PR15 xv–xvi]}} |4={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Contents, Preface}} }} [56] => [57] => === Western === [58] => {{main|Western philosophy}} [59] => [60] => [[File:Aristotle Altemps Inv8575.jpg|thumb|alt=Bust of Aristotle|[[Aristotle]] was a major figure in ancient philosophy and developed a comprehensive system of thought including metaphysics, logic, ethics, politics, and natural science.{{sfn|Shields|2022|loc=Lead Section}}]] [61] => [62] => Western philosophy originated in [[Ancient Greece]] in the 6th century BCE with the [[pre-Socratics]]. They attempted to provide rational explanations of the [[cosmos]] as a whole.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Blackson|2011|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=89zzlbsG1KgC&pg=PT13 Introduction]}} |2={{harvnb|Graham|2023|loc=Lead Section, 1. Presocratic Thought}} |3={{harvnb|Duignan|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MfBS-RXJ5RsC&pg=PA9 9–11]}} }} The philosophy following them was shaped by [[Socrates]] (469–399 BCE), [[Plato]] (427–347 BCE), and [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE). They expanded the range of topics to questions like [[Ethics|how people should act]], [[Epistemology|how to arrive at knowledge]], and what the [[Metaphysics|nature of reality]] and [[mind]] is.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Graham|2023|loc=Lead Section, 2. Socrates, 3. Plato, 4. Aristotle}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Socrates, Plato, Aristotle}} }} The later part of the ancient period was marked by the emergence of philosophical movements, for example, [[Epicureanism]], [[Stoicism]], [[Skepticism]], and [[Neoplatonism]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Long|1986|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=3s6DILqP1MwC&pg=PA1 1]}} |2={{harvnb|Blackson|2011|loc=Chapter 10}} |3={{harvnb|Graham|2023|loc=6. Post-Hellenistic Thought}} }} The medieval period started in the 5th century CE. Its focus was on religious topics and many thinkers used ancient philosophy to explain and further elaborate [[Christian doctrine]]s.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Duignan|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=5HoJ77q1TN8C&pg=PA9 9]}} |2={{harvnb|Lagerlund|2020|p=v}} |3={{harvnb|Marenbon|2023|loc=Lead Section}} |4={{harvnb|MacDonald|Kretzmann|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }}{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Part II: Medieval and Renaissance Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Adamson|2019|pp=3–4}} }} [63] => [64] => The [[Renaissance]] period started in the 14th century and saw a renewed interest in schools of ancient philosophy, in particular [[Platonism]]. [[Renaissance humanism|Humanism]] also emerged in this period.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Parkinson|2005|pp=1, 3}} |2={{harvnb|Adamson|2022|pp=155–157}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Renaissance}} |4={{harvnb|Chambre|Maurer|Stroll|McLellan|2023|loc=Renaissance Philosophy}} }} The modern period started in the 17th century. One of its central concerns was how philosophical and scientific knowledge are created. Specific importance was given to the [[Rationalism|role of reason]] and [[Empiricism|sensory experience]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=The Rise of Modern Thought; The Eighteenth-century Enlightenment}} |2={{harvnb|Anstey|Vanzo|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2LytEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA236 236–237]}} }} Many of these innovations were used in the [[Age of Enlightenment|Enlightenment movement]] to challenge traditional authorities.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=The Eighteenth-Century Enlightenment}} |2={{harvnb|Kenny|2006|pp=90–92}} }} Several attempts to develop comprehensive systems of philosophy were made in the 19th century, for instance, by [[German idealism]] and [[Marxism]].{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Nineteenth Century}} Influential developments in 20th-century philosophy were the emergence and application of [[formal logic]], the focus on the [[Linguistic turn|role of language]] as well as [[pragmatism]], and movements in [[continental philosophy]] like phenomenology, [[existentialism]], and [[post-structuralism]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Twentieth Century}} |2={{harvnb|Livingston|2017|loc=[https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/overview/twentieth-century-philosophy/v-1/sections/analytic-and-continental-philosophy 6. 'Analytic' and 'Continental' Philosophy]}} |3={{harvnb|Silverman|Welton|1988|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pHd0VtVBn1UC&pg=PA5 5–6]}} }} The 20th century saw a rapid expansion of academic philosophy in terms of the number of philosophical publications and philosophers working at [[academic institution]]s.{{sfn|Grayling|2019|loc=Philosophy in the Twentieth Century}} There was also a noticeable growth in the number of [[female philosophers]], but they still remained underrepresented.{{sfn|Waithe|1995|pp=xix–xxiii}} [65] => [66] => === Arabic–Persian === [67] => {{main|Islamic philosophy|Iranian philosophy}} [68] => [[File:Avicenna_Portrait_on_Silver_Vase_-_Museum_at_BuAli_Sina_(Avicenna)_Mausoleum_-_Hamadan_-_Western_Iran_(7423560860).jpg|thumb|alt=Portrait of Avicenna on a Silver Vase|Portrait of [[Avicenna]] on a silver vase. He was one of the most influential philosophers of the [[Islamic Golden Age]].]] [69] => Arabic–Persian philosophy arose in the early 9th century CE as a response to discussions in the [[Kalam|Islamic theological tradition]]. Its classical period lasted until the 12th century CE and was strongly influenced by ancient Greek philosophers. It employed their ideas to elaborate and interpret the teachings of the [[Quran]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Adamson|Taylor|2004|p=1}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2020}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Arabic–Persian Philosophy}} |4={{harvnb|Adamson|2016|pp=5–6}} }} [70] => [71] => [[Al-Kindi]] (801–873 CE) is usually regarded as the first philosopher of this tradition. He translated and interpreted many works of Aristotle and Neoplatonists in his attempt to show that there is a harmony between [[reason]] and [[faith]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Esposito|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6VeCWQfVNjkC&pg=PA246 246]}} |2={{harvnb|Nasr|Leaman|2013|loc=11. Al-Kindi}} |3={{harvnb|Nasr|2006|pp=109–110}} |4={{harvnb|Adamson|2020|loc=Lead Section}} }} [[Avicenna]] (980–1037 CE) also followed this goal and developed a comprehensive philosophical system to provide a rational understanding of reality encompassing science, religion, and mysticism.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Gutas|2016}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Ibn Sina (Avicenna)}} }} [[Al-Ghazali]] (1058–1111 CE) was a strong critic of the idea that reason can arrive at a true understanding of reality and God. He formulated a detailed [[The Incoherence of the Philosophers|critique of philosophy]] and tried to assign philosophy a more limited place besides the teachings of the Quran and mystical insight.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Adamson|2016|pp=140–146}} |2={{harvnb|Dehsen|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cU7cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75]}} |3={{harvnb|Griffel|2020|loc=Lead Section, 3. Al-Ghazâlî's "Refutations" of Falsafa and Ismâ’îlism, 4. The Place of Falsafa in Islam}} }} Following Al-Ghazali and the end of the classical period, the influence of philosophical inquiry waned.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Ibn Rushd (Averroes)}} |2={{harvnb|Kaminski|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KDUyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA32 32]}} }} [[Mulla Sadra]] (1571–1636 CE) is often regarded as one of the most influential philosophers of the subsequent period.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Rizvi|2021|loc=Lead Section, 3. Metaphysics, 4. Noetics — Epistemology and Psychology}} |2={{harvnb|Chamankhah|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2GGtDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA73 73]}} }} The increasing influence of Western thought and institutions in the 19th and 20th centuries gave rise to the intellectual movement of [[Islamic modernism]], which aims to understand the relation between traditional Islamic beliefs and modernity.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moaddel|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Dk6BLopmn3gC&pg=PA1 1–2]}} |2={{harvnb|Masud|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LxKrBgAAQBAJ&pg=PA237 237–238]}} |3={{harvnb|Safi|2005|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/modernism-islamic-modernism Lead Section]}} }} [72] => [73] => === Indian === [74] => {{main|Indian philosophy}} [75] => [76] => One of the distinguishing features of Indian philosophy is that it integrates the exploration of the nature of reality, the ways of arriving at knowledge, and the [[Spirituality|spiritual]] question of how to reach [[Enlightenment in Buddhism|enlightenment]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smart|2008|p=3}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Indian Philosophy}} }} It started around 900 BCE when the [[Vedas]] were written. They are the foundational scriptures of [[Hinduism]] and contemplate issues concerning the relation between the [[Ātman (Hinduism)|self]] and [[Brahman|ultimate reality]] as well as the question of how [[Jiva|souls]] are reborn based on their [[Karma|past actions]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, the Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Indian Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Pooley|Rothenbuhler|2016|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eY_2DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1468 1468]}} |4={{harvnb|Andrea|Overfield|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x5-aBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA71 71]}} }} This period also saw the emergence of non-Vedic teachings, like [[Buddhism]] and [[Jainism]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=The Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Ruether|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MQFvAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA57 57]}} }} Buddhism was founded by [[Gautama Siddhartha]] (563–483 BCE), who challenged the Vedic idea of a [[Anicca|permanent self]] and proposed [[Noble Eightfold Path|a path]] to liberate oneself from [[Duḥkha|suffering]]. Jainism was founded by [[Mahavira]] (599–527 BCE), who emphasized [[ahiṃsā|non-violence]] as well as respect toward all forms of life.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=The Ancient Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Vallely|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=B105DQAAQBAJ&pg=PA609 609–610]}} |3={{harvnb|Gorisse|2023|loc=Lead Section}} }} [77] => [78] => The subsequent classical period started roughly 200 BCE{{efn|The exact periodization is disputed with some sources suggesting it started as early as 500 BCE, while others argue it began as late as 200 CE.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Phillips|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=z02WEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA324 324]}} | {{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview}} | {{harvnb|Glenney|Silva|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gH6JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT77 77]}} }}}} and was characterized by the emergence of the six [[Astika|orthodox schools of Hinduism]]: [[Nyaya|Nyāyá]], [[Vaiśeṣika]], [[Sāṃkhya]], [[Yoga]], [[Mīmāṃsā]], and [[Vedanta]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, The Classical Period of Indian Philosophy, The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Glenney|Silva|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gH6JDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT77 77]}} |3={{harvnb|Adamson|Ganeri|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NCbTDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA101 101–102]}} }} The school of [[Advaita Vedanta]] developed later in this period. It was systematized by [[Adi Shankara]] ({{circa|700}}–750 CE), who held that [[Monism|everything is one]] and that the impression of a universe consisting of many distinct entities is an [[Maya (religion)|illusion]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=The Medieval Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Dalal|2021|loc=Lead Section, 2. Metaphysics}} |3={{harvnb|Menon|loc=Lead Section}} }} A slightly different perspective was defended by [[Ramanuja]] (1017–1137 CE),{{efn|These dates are traditionally cited but some recent scholars suggest that his life ran from 1077 to 1157.{{sfn|Ranganathan|loc=1. Rāmānuja's Life and Works}}}} who founded the school of [[Vishishtadvaita Vedanta]] and argued that individual entities are real as aspects or parts of the underlying unity.{{sfn|Ranganathan|loc=Lead Section, 2c. Substantive Theses}} He also helped to popularize the [[Bhakti movement]], which taught [[Bhakti|devotion toward the divine]] as a spiritual path and lasted until the 17th to 18th centuries CE.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ranganathan|loc=4. Rāmānuja's Soteriology}} |2={{harvnb|Kulke|Rothermund|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=V0GEtXp-GsUC&pg=PA139 139]}} |3={{harvnb|Seshadri|1996|p=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/4403749 297]}} |4={{harvnb|Jha|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4gdoEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA217 217]}} }} The modern period began roughly 1800 CE and was shaped by encounters with Western thought.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perrett|2016|loc=Indian Philosophy: A Brief Historical Overview, the Modern Period of Indian Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2023}} }} Philosophers tried to formulate comprehensive systems to harmonize diverse philosophical and religious teachings. For example, [[Swami Vivekananda]] (1863–1902 CE) used the teachings of Advaita Vedanta to argue that all the different religions are valid paths toward the one divine.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Banhatti|1995|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jK5862eV7_EC&pg=PA151 151–154]}} |2={{harvnb|Bilimoria|2018|pp=529–531}} |3={{harvnb|Rambachan|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=b9EJBQG3zqUC&pg=PA91 91–92]}} }} [79] => [80] => === Chinese === [81] => {{main|Chinese philosophy}} [82] => [83] => [[File:Half Portraits of the Great Sage and Virtuous Men of Old - Confucius.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of Confucius|The teachings of [[Confucius]] on ethics and society shaped subsequent Chinese philosophy.]] [84] => [85] => Chinese philosophy is particularly interested in practical questions associated with right social conduct, government, and [[self-cultivation]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=3, 70–71}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023}} |4={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |5={{harvnb|Cua|2009|pp=43–45}} |6={{harvnb|Wei-Ming|loc=Lead Section}} }} Many [[Hundred Schools of Thought|schools of thought]] emerged in the 6th century BCE in competing attempts to resolve the political turbulence of that period. The most prominent among them were [[Confucianism]] and [[Daoism]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Perkins|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KMQeAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA486 486–487]}} |2={{harvnb|Ma|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kFoGCwAAQBAJ&pg=PR14 xiv]}} |3={{harvnb|Botz-Bornstein|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_-rMEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT61 61]}} }} Confucianism was founded by [[Confucius]] (551–479 BCE). It focused on different forms of moral [[virtue]]s and explored how they lead to harmony in society.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Smart|2008|pp=70–76}} |3={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=1b. Confucius (551-479 B.C.E.) of the Analects}} |4={{harvnb|Boyd|Timpe|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OIskEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA64 64–66]}} |5={{harvnb|Marshev|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DPQTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA100 100–101]}} }} Daoism was founded by [[Laozi]] (6th century BCE) and examined how humans can live in harmony with nature by following the [[Dao]] or the natural order of the universe.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=Lead Section, § Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Slingerland|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gSReaja3V3IC&pg=PA77 77–78]}} |3={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} }} Other influential early schools of thought were [[Mohism]], which developed an early form of altruistic [[consequentialism]],{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=1c. Mozi (c. 470–391 B.C.E.) and Mohism}} |3={{harvnb|Defoort|Standaert|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Vdl0smlDVtEC&pg=PA35 35]}} }} and [[Legalism (Chinese philosophy)|Legalism]], which emphasized the importance of a strong state and strict laws.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=Chinese Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Kim|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ckG8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA161 161]}} |3={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=2a. Syncretic Philosophies in the Qin and Han Periods}} }} [86] => [87] => Buddhism was introduced to China in the 1st century CE and diversified into [[Chinese Buddhism|new forms of Buddhism]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=§ Early Buddhism in China}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=§ Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} }} Starting in the 3rd century CE, the school of [[Xuanxue]] emerged. It interpreted earlier Daoist works with a specific emphasis on metaphysical explanations. [[Neo-Confucianism]] developed in the 11th century CE. It systematized previous Confucian teachings and sought a metaphysical foundation of ethics.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=4b. Neo-Confucianism: The Original Way of Confucius for a New Era}} |2={{harvnb|EB Staff|2017|loc=§ Periods of Development of Chinese Philosophy}} }} The modern period in Chinese philosophy began in the early 20th century and was shaped by the influence of and reactions to Western philosophy. The emergence of [[Chinese Marxism]]—which focused on [[class struggle]], [[socialism]], and [[communism]]—resulted in a significant transformation of the political landscape.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Littlejohn|2023|loc=5. The Chinese and Western Encounter in Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Jiang|2009|pp=473–480}} |3={{harvnb|Qi|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nxWkAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA99 99–100]}} |4={{harvnb|Tian|2009|pp=512–513}} }} Another development was the emergence of [[New Confucianism]], which aims to modernize and rethink Confucian teachings to explore their compatibility with democratic ideals and modern science.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Van Norden|2022|loc=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/wang-yangming/#Infl § 6. Influence]}} |2={{harvnb|Redse|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Dqq8CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21–22]}} |3={{harvnb|Makeham|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6TCBDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA94 94–95]}} }} [88] => [89] => === Other traditions === [90] => Traditional Japanese philosophy assimilated and synthesized ideas from different traditions, including the indigenous [[Shinto]] religion and Chinese and Indian thought in the forms of Confucianism and Buddhism, both of which entered Japan in the 6th and 7th centuries. Its practice is characterized by active interaction with reality rather than disengaged examination.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kasulis|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 3.2 Confucianism, § 3.3 Buddhism}} |2={{harvnb|Kasulis|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }} Neo-Confucianism became an influential school of thought in the 16th century and the following [[Edo period]] and prompted a greater focus on language and the natural world.{{multiref|{{harvnb|Kasulis|2022|loc=§ 4.3 Edo-period Philosophy (1600–1868)}}|{{harvnb|Kasulis|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }} The [[Kyoto School]] emerged in the 20th century and integrated Eastern spirituality with Western philosophy in its exploration of concepts like absolute nothingness (''zettai-mu''), place (''basho''), and the [[self]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Davis|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Absolute Nothingness: Giving Philosophical Form to the Formless}} |2={{harvnb|Kasulis|2022|loc=§ 4.4.2 Modern Academic Philosophies}} }} [91] => [92] => Latin American philosophy in the [[Pre-Columbian era|pre-colonial period]] was practiced by indigenous civilizations and explored questions concerning the nature of reality and the role of humans.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Gracia|Vargas|2018|loc=Lead Section, § 1. History}} |2={{harvnb|Stehn|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Indigenous Period}} |3={{harvnb|Maffie}}}} It has similarities to [[Indigenous American philosophy|indigenous North American philosophy]], which covered themes such as the interconnectedness of all things.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Arola|2011|pp=[https://academic.oup.com/edited-volume/28241/chapter-abstract/213354161?redirectedFrom=fulltext 562–563]}} |2={{harvnb|Rivera Berruz|2019|p=72}} }} Latin American philosophy during the [[European colonization of the Americas|colonial period]], starting around 1550, was dominated by religious philosophy in the form of [[scholasticism]]. Influential topics in the post-colonial period were [[positivism]], the [[philosophy of liberation]], and the exploration of identity and culture.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Gracia|Vargas|2018|loc=Lead Section, § 1. History}} |2={{harvnb|Stehn|loc=Lead Section, § 4. Twentieth Century}} }} [93] => [94] => Early African philosophy, like [[Ubuntu philosophy]], was focused on community, morality, and ancestral ideas.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Grayling|2019|loc=African Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Chimakonam|2023|loc=Lead Section, 6. Epochs in African Philosophy}} |3={{harvnb|Mangena|loc=Lead Section}} }} Systematic African philosophy emerged at the beginning of the 20th century. It discusses topics such as [[ethnophilosophy]], [[négritude]], [[pan-Africanism]], Marxism, [[postcolonialism]], the role of cultural identity, and the critique of [[Eurocentrism]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Chimakonam|2023|loc=Lead Section, 1. Introduction, 5. The Movements in African Philosophy, 6. Epochs in African Philosophy}} |2={{harvnb|Bell|Fernback|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=1NuSAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA44 44]}} |3={{harvnb|Coetzee|Roux|1998|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8iz90Qo8G_oC&pg=PA88 88]}} }} [95] => [96] => == Core branches == [97] => {{See also|Outline of philosophy#Branches of philosophy|Outline of philosophy#Philosophical schools of thought}} [98] => [99] => Philosophical questions can be grouped into several branches. These groupings allow philosophers to focus on a set of similar topics and interact with other thinkers who are interested in the same questions. Epistemology, ethics, logic, and metaphysics are sometimes listed as the main branches.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Brenner|1993|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DFoFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT16 16]}} |2={{harvnb|Palmquist|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NOKjGp7NHtUC&pg=PA800 800]}} |3={{harvnb|Jenicek|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=kWC1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA31 31]}} }} There are many other subfields besides them and the different divisions are neither exhaustive nor mutually exclusive. For example, political philosophy, ethics, and [[aesthetics]] are sometimes linked under the general heading of [[value theory]] as they investigate [[normative]] or evaluative aspects.{{sfn|Schroeder|2021|loc=Lead Section: "In its broadest sense, 'value theory' is a catch-all label used to encompass all branches of moral philosophy, social and political philosophy, aesthetics, and sometimes feminist philosophy and the philosophy of religion – whatever areas of philosophy are deemed to encompass some 'evaluative' aspect."}} Furthermore, philosophical inquiry sometimes overlaps with other disciplines in the natural and social sciences, religion, and mathematics.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kenny|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=fn9xDwAAQBAJ&pg=PR20 20]}} |2={{harvnb|Lazerowitz|Ambrose|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LupI-JzfRZAC&pg=PA9 9]}} }} [100] => [101] => === Epistemology === [102] => {{Main|Epistemology}} [103] => Epistemology is the branch of philosophy that studies knowledge. It is also known as ''theory of knowledge'' and aims to understand what knowledge is, how it arises, what its limits are, and what value it has. It further examines the nature of [[truth]], [[belief]], [[Justification (epistemology)|justification]], and [[Reason|rationality]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Martinich|Stroll|2023|loc=Lead Section, The Nature of Epistemology}} |2={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=Lead Section}} |3={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead Section}} |4={{harvnb|Greco|2021|loc=Article Summary}} }} Some of the questions addressed by epistemologists include "By what method(s) can one acquire knowledge?"; "How is truth established?"; and "Can we prove causal relations?"{{sfn|Mulvaney|2009|p=ix}} [104] => [105] => Epistemology is primarily interested in [[declarative knowledge]] or knowledge of facts, like knowing that Princess Diana died in 1997. But it also investigates [[practical knowledge]], such as knowing how to ride a bicycle, and [[knowledge by acquaintance]], for example, knowing a celebrity personally.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=Lead Section, 2. What Is Knowledge?}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead Section, 1. Kinds of Knowledge}} |3={{harvnb|Colman|2009a|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095705926;jsessionid=A19D30BFCF6E02A0F21A87B805F10DEE Declarative Knowledge]}} }} [106] => [107] => One area in epistemology is the ''[[analysis of knowledge]]''. It assumes that declarative knowledge is a combination of different parts and attempts to identify what those parts are. An influential theory in this area claims that knowledge has three components: it is a ''belief'' that is ''justified'' and ''true''. This theory is controversial and the difficulties associated with it are known as the [[Gettier problem]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Martinich|Stroll|2023|loc=The Nature of Knowledge}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead Section, 2. The Nature of Propositional Knowledge}} }} Alternative views state that knowledge requires additional components, like the absence of luck; different components, like the manifestation of [[Epistemic virtue|cognitive virtues]] instead of justification; or they deny that knowledge can be analyzed in terms of other phenomena.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ichikawa|Steup|2018|loc=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/knowledge-analysis/#GettProb § 3. The Gettier Problem, § 11. Knowledge First]}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=§ 2d. The Gettier Problem}} }} [108] => [109] => Another area in epistemology asks how people acquire knowledge. Often-discussed sources of knowledge are [[perception]], [[introspection]], [[memory]], [[inference]], and [[testimony]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=5. Sources of Knowledge and Justification}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=Lead Section, 4a. Sources of Knowledge}} }} According to [[empiricists]], all knowledge is based on some form of experience. Rationalists reject this view and hold that some forms of knowledge, like [[innate knowledge]], are not acquired through experience.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hetherington|loc=[https://iep.utm.edu/knowledg/#SH3c § 3c. Knowing Purely by Thinking]}} |2={{harvnb|Blackburn|2008|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095750220;jsessionid=BA317C21431AFF040A4F793D75E18752 Empiricism]}} |3={{harvnb|Blackburn|2008|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100405393;jsessionid=8337F6C845B873723233E9AEDB1025BC Rationalism]}} }} The [[regress problem]] is a common issue in relation to the sources of knowledge and the justification they offer. It is based on the idea that beliefs require some kind of reason or evidence to be justified. The problem is that the source of justification may itself be in need of another source of justification. This leads to an [[infinite regress]] or [[circular reasoning]]. [[Foundationalist]]s avoid this conclusion by arguing that some sources can provide justification without requiring justification themselves.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=4. The Structure of Knowledge and Justification}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=3. The Nature of Justification}} }} Another solution is presented by [[coherentist]]s, who state that a belief is justified if it coheres with other beliefs of the person.{{sfn|Olsson|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Coherentism Versus Foundationalism}} [110] => [111] => Many discussions in epistemology touch on the topic of [[philosophical skepticism]], which raises doubts about some or all claims to knowledge. These doubts are often based on the idea that knowledge requires absolute certainty and that humans are unable to acquire it.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Steup|Neta|2020|loc=6. The Limits of Cognitive Success}} |2={{harvnb|Truncellito|loc=4. The Extent of Human Knowledge}} |3={{harvnb|Johnstone|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=IBbQtkyrLE4C&pg=PA52 52]}} }} [112] => [113] => === Ethics === [114] => {{Main|Ethics}} [115] => [[File:JohnStuartMill.jpg|thumb|alt=Drawing of John Stuart Mill|"The utilitarian doctrine is, that happiness is desirable, and the only thing desirable, as an end; all other things being only desirable as means to that end." — [[John Stuart Mill]], ''[[Utilitarianism (book)|Utilitarianism]]'' (1863){{sfn|Mill|1863|p=[https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Utilitarianism/Chapter_4 51]}}]] [116] => [117] => Ethics, also known as moral philosophy, studies what constitutes right [[Action (philosophy)|conduct]]. It is also concerned with the moral [[values (philosophy)|evaluation]] of character traits and institutions. It explores what the standards of [[morality]] are and how to live a good life.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|pp=325–326}} |2={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=379–380}} |3={{harvnb|Lambert|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gNytEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT26 26]}} }} Philosophical ethics addresses such basic questions as "Are moral obligations relative?"; "Which has priority: well-being or obligation?"; and "What gives life meaning?"{{sfn|Mulvaney|2009|pp=vii–xi}} [118] => [119] => The main branches of ethics are [[meta-ethics]], [[normative ethics]], and [[applied ethics]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Jeanes|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BNUBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT66 66]}} |3={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=379–380}} }} Meta-ethics asks abstract questions about the nature and sources of morality. It analyzes the meaning of ethical concepts, like ''right action'' and ''[[obligation]]''. It also investigates whether ethical theories can be [[Moral relativism|true in an absolute sense]] and how to acquire knowledge of them.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Jeanes|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BNUBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT66 66]}} |3={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=390–391}} |4={{harvnb|Sayre-McCord|2023|loc=Lead Section}} }} Normative ethics encompasses general theories of how to distinguish between right and wrong conduct. It helps guide moral decisions by examining what moral obligations and rights people have. Applied ethics studies the consequences of the general theories developed by normative ethics in specific situations, for example, in the workplace or for medical treatments.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Barsky|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jqIzhD2lzj0C&pg=PA3 3]}} |3={{harvnb|Jeanes|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BNUBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT66 66]}} |4={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=379–380, 390–391}} }} [120] => [121] => Within contemporary normative ethics, consequentialism, [[deontology]], and [[virtue ethics]] are influential schools of thought.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=382, 386–388}} }} ''Consequentialists'' judge actions based on their consequences. One such view is [[utilitarianism]], which argues that actions should increase overall happiness while minimizing suffering. ''Deontologists'' judge actions based on whether they follow moral duties, such as abstaining from lying or killing. According to them, what matters is that actions are in tune with those duties and not what consequences they have. ''Virtue theorists'' judge actions based on how the moral character of the agent is expressed. According to this view, actions should conform to what an ideally virtuous agent would do by manifesting virtues like [[generosity]] and [[honesty]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=1. Applied Ethics as Distinct from Normative Ethics and Metaethics}} |2={{harvnb|Nagel|2006|pp=382, 386–388}} |3={{harvnb|Hursthouse|Pettigrove|2022|loc=1.2 Practical Wisdom}} }} [122] => [123] => === Logic === [124] => {{Main|Logic}} [125] => [126] => Logic is the study of [[Logical reasoning|correct reasoning]]. It aims to understand how to distinguish good from bad [[argument]]s.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hintikka|2019}} |2={{harvnb|Haack|1978|loc=Philosophy of Logics}} }} It is usually divided into formal and [[informal logic]]. Formal logic uses [[formal language|artificial languages]] with a precise symbolic representation to investigate arguments. In its search for exact criteria, it examines the structure of arguments to determine whether they are correct or incorrect. Informal logic uses non-formal criteria and standards to assess the correctness of arguments. It relies on additional factors such as content and context.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Blair|Johnson|2000|pp=94–96}} |2={{harvnb|Walton|1996}} |3={{harvnb|Tully|2005|p=532}} |4={{harvnb|Johnson|1999|pp=265–267}} |5={{harvnb|Groarke|2021}} }} [127] => [128] => Logic examines a variety of arguments. [[Deductive arguments]] are mainly studied by formal logic. An argument is deductively [[Validity (logic)|valid]] if the truth of its [[premise]]s ensures the truth of its conclusion. Deductively valid arguments follow a [[rule of inference]], like ''[[modus ponens]]'', which has the following [[logical form]]: "''p''; if ''p'' then ''q''; therefore ''q''". An example is the argument "today is Sunday; if today is Sunday then I don't have to go to work today; therefore I don't have to go to work today".{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Velleman|2006|pp=8, 103}} |2={{harvnb|Johnson-Laird|2009|pp=[https://wires.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/wcs.20 8–10]}} |3={{harvnb|Dowden|2020|pp=334–336, 432}} }} [129] => [130] => The premises of non-deductive arguments also support their conclusion, although this support does not guarantee that the conclusion is true.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dowden|2020|pp=432, 470}} |2={{harvnb|Anshakov|Gergely|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OuyQgE_gf2QC&pg=PA128 128]}} }} One form is [[inductive reasoning]]. It starts from a set of individual cases and uses generalization to arrive at a universal law governing all cases. An example is the inference that "all ravens are black" based on observations of many individual black ravens.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Vickers|2022}} |2={{harvnb|Nunes|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xZuSxo4JxoAC 2066–2069]|loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}} |3={{harvnb|Dowden|2020|pp=432–449, 470}} }} Another form is [[abductive reasoning]]. It starts from an observation and concludes that the best explanation of this observation must be true. This happens, for example, when a doctor diagnoses a disease based on the observed symptoms.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Douven|2022}} |2={{harvnb|Koslowski|2017|pp=366–368|loc=Abductive Reasoning and Explanation}} |3={{harvnb|Nunes|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xZuSxo4JxoAC 2066–2069]|loc=Logical Reasoning and Learning}} }} [131] => [132] => Logic also investigates incorrect forms of reasoning. They are called ''[[fallacies]]'' and are divided into [[Formal fallacy|formal]] and [[informal fallacies]] based on whether the source of the error lies only in the form of the argument or also in its content and context.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Hansen|2020}} |2={{harvnb|Dowden|2023}} |3={{harvnb|Dowden|2020|p=290}} |4={{harvnb|Vleet|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UCFYUGRG5dcC&pg=PR9 ix]}} }} [133] => [134] => === Metaphysics === [135] => {{Main|Metaphysics}} [136] => [[File:Aristotle, Metaphysics, Incunabulum.jpg|upright=0.9|thumb|left|alt=Incunabulum showing the beginning of Aristotle's ''Metaphysics''|The beginning of [[Metaphysics (Aristotle)|Aristotle's ''Metaphysics'']] in an [[incunabulum]] decorated with hand-painted miniatures.]] [137] => [138] => Metaphysics is the study of the most general features of [[reality]], such as existence, [[Object (philosophy)|objects]] and their [[Property (philosophy)|properties]], [[Mereology|wholes and their parts]], [[space]] and [[time]], [[Event (philosophy)|events]], and [[Causality|causation]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023}} |2={{harvnb|Craig|1998}} |3={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Metaphysics}} }} There are disagreements about the precise definition of the term and its meaning has changed throughout the ages.{{sfn|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=Lead Section}} Metaphysicians attempt to answer basic questions including "[[Why is there something rather than nothing?]]"; "Of what does reality ultimately consist?"; and "Are humans free?"{{sfn|Mulvaney|2009|pp=ix–x}} [139] => [140] => Metaphysics is sometimes divided into general metaphysics and specific or special metaphysics. General metaphysics investigates being as such. It examines the features that all entities have in common. Specific metaphysics is interested in different kinds of being, the features they have, and how they differ from one another.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023}} |2={{harvnb|Craig|1998}} |3={{harvnb|Gracia|1999|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=PrUkAQAAMAAJ& 149]}} }} [141] => [142] => An important area in metaphysics is [[ontology]]. Some theorists identify it with general metaphysics. Ontology investigates concepts like [[being]], [[Becoming (philosophy)|becoming]], and reality. It studies the [[categories of being]] and asks what exists on the most fundamental level.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Haaparanta|Koskinen|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=yz8sko5zVyUC&pg=PA454 454]}} |2={{harvnb|Fiet|2022|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=nK1jEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA133 133]}} |3={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Metaphysics}} |4={{harvnb|van Inwagen|Sullivan|Bernstein|2023|loc=1. The Word 'Metaphysics' and the Concept of Metaphysics}} }} Another subfield of metaphysics is [[philosophical cosmology]]. It is interested in the essence of the world as a whole. It asks questions including whether the universe has a beginning and an end and whether it was created by something else.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Metaphysics}} |2={{harvnb|Coughlin|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QPFoAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15]}} }} [143] => [144] => A key topic in metaphysics concerns the question of whether reality only consists of physical things like matter and energy. Alternative suggestions are that mental entities (such as [[soul]]s and [[experience]]s) and [[Abstract and concrete|abstract entities]] (such as numbers) exist apart from physical things. Another topic in metaphysics concerns the problem of [[Identity (philosophy)|identity]]. One question is how much an entity can change while still remaining the same entity.{{sfn|Audi|2006|loc=§ Metaphysics}} According to one view, entities have [[essence|essential]] and [[Accident (philosophy)|accidental features]]. They can change their accidental features but they cease to be the same entity if they lose an essential feature.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Robertson Ishii|Atkins|2023|loc=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/essential-accidental/ Lead Section]}} |2={{harvnb|Espín|Nickoloff|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=k85JKr1OXcQC&pg=PA8 8]}} }} A central distinction in metaphysics is between [[particular]]s and [[universals]]. Universals, like the color red, can exist at different locations at the same time. This is not the case for particulars including individual persons or specific objects.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Lowe|2005|p=683}} |2={{harvnb|Kuhlmann|2010|loc=Ontologie: 4.2.1 Einzeldinge und Universalien}} }} Other metaphysical questions are whether the past [[Determinism|fully determines]] the present and what implications this would have for the existence of [[free will]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kane|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=i7PG-Vk824UC&pg=PA22 22–23]}} |2={{harvnb|Kane|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LRV-Tzcry8EC&pg=RA3-PT258 258]}} }} [145] => [146] => === Other major branches === [147] => {{See also|List of philosophies}} [148] => There are many other subfields of philosophy besides its core branches. Some of the most prominent are aesthetics, philosophy of language, philosophy of mind, philosophy of religion, philosophy of science, and political philosophy.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Stambaugh|1987|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/environment/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/philosophy-overview Philosophy: An Overview]}} |2={{harvnb|Phillips|2010|p=16}} |3={{harvnb|Ramos|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=y2XkGpGBzbsC&pg=PA4 4]}} |4={{harvnb|Shand|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uoCh8mpbZO4C&pg=PA9 9–10]}} }} [149] => [150] => [[Aesthetics]] in the philosophical sense is the field that studies the nature and appreciation of [[beauty]] and other aesthetic properties, like [[the sublime]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smith|Brown|Duncan|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QkmqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174 174]}} |2={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NObaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122–123]}} |3={{harvnb|Janaway|2005|p=9|loc=Aesthetics, History Of}} }} Although it is often treated together with the [[Aesthetics#Aesthetics and the philosophy of art|philosophy of art]], aesthetics is a broader category that encompasses other aspects of experience, such as natural beauty.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Nanay|2019|p=4}} |2={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NObaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122–123]}} }} In a more general sense, aesthetics is "critical reflection on art, culture, and [[nature]]".{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kelly|1998|p=ix}} |2={{harvnb|Riedel|1999}} }} A key question in aesthetics is whether beauty is an objective feature of entities or a subjective aspect of experience.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NObaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122–123]}} |2={{harvnb|Sartwell|2022|loc=[https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/beauty/ Lead Section, 1. Objectivity and Subjectivity]}} }} Aesthetic philosophers also investigate the nature of aesthetic experiences and [[aesthetic judgment|judgments]]. Further topics include the essence of [[works of art]] and the processes involved in creating them.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Smith|Brown|Duncan|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QkmqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT174 174]}} |2={{harvnb|McQuillan|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NObaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA122 122–123]}} }} [151] => [152] => The [[philosophy of language]] studies the nature and function of [[language]]. It examines the concepts of [[Meaning (philosophy)|meaning]], [[reference]], and truth. It aims to answer questions such as how words are related to things and how language affects human [[thought]] and understanding. It is closely related to the disciplines of logic and linguistics.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Language}} |2={{harvnb|Russell|Fara|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=czr880lvAPIC&pg=PR2 ii, 1–2]}} |3={{harvnb|Blackburn|2022|loc=Lead Section}} }} The philosophy of language rose to particular prominence in the early 20th century in [[analytic philosophy]] due to the works of [[Frege]] and Russell. One of its central topics is to understand how sentences get their meaning. There are two broad theoretical camps: those emphasizing the formal [[truth conditions]] of sentences{{efn|The truth conditions of a sentence are the circumstances or states of affairs under which the sentence would be true.{{sfn|Birner|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9pQ3KPKY1hkC&pg=PT33 33]}}}} and those investigating circumstances that determine when it is suitable to use a sentence, the latter of which is associated with [[speech act theory]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Wolf|2023|loc=§§ 1.a-b, 3–4}} |2={{harvnb|Ifantidou|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4bKKAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT12 12]}} }} [153] => [154] => The [[philosophy of mind]] studies the nature of mental phenomena and how they are related to the physical world.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Lowe|2000|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mH12kYm1RKAC&pg=PA1 1–2]}} |2={{harvnb|Crumley|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Yf4eAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2–3]}} }} It aims to understand different types of [[conscious]] and [[Unconscious mind|unconscious]] [[mental states]], like [[belief]]s, [[desire]]s, [[intention]]s, [[feeling]]s, [[sense|sensations]], and free will.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Mind}} |2={{harvnb|Heidemann|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6pTJAwAAQBAJ&pg=PT140 140]}} }} An influential intuition in the philosophy of mind is that there is a distinction between the inner experience of objects and their existence in the external world. The [[mind-body problem]] is the problem of explaining how these two types of thing—mind and matter—are related. The main traditional responses are [[materialism]], which assumes that matter is more fundamental; [[idealism]], which assumes that mind is more fundamental; and [[Mind–body dualism|dualism]], which assumes that mind and matter are distinct types of entities. In contemporary philosophy, another common view is [[Functionalism (philosophy of mind)|functionalism]], which understands mental states in terms of the functional or causal roles they play.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Heil|2013|pp=1–3, 9, 12–13}} |2={{harvnb|Weir|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jUXAEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT10 10–11]}} |3={{harvnb|Shiraev|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=r4xBJXxnnx8C&pg=PA83 83–84]}} |4={{harvnb|Polger|loc=Lead Section}} }} The mind-body problem is closely related to the [[hard problem of consciousness]], which asks how the physical brain can produce [[Qualia|qualitatively subjective experiences.]]{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Heil|2013|pp=1–3, 12–13}} |2={{harvnb|Weisberg|loc=Lead Section, 1. Stating the Problem}} }} [155] => [156] => The [[philosophy of religion]] investigates the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments associated with [[religion]]. It critically reflects on what religion is, how to define the [[divine]], and whether one or more gods exist. It also includes the discussion of [[worldview]]s that reject religious doctrines.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Taliaferro|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 5.2}} |2={{harvnb|Burns|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YWU9DwAAQBAJ i, 1–3]}} |3={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Religion}} |4={{harvnb|Meister|loc=Lead Section}} }} Further questions addressed by the philosophy of religion are: "How are we to interpret religious language, if not literally?";{{sfn|Taliaferro|2023|loc=§ 1}} "Is divine omniscience compatible with free will?";{{sfn|Taliaferro|2023|loc=§ 5.1.1}} and, "Are the great variety of world religions in some way compatible in spite of their apparently contradictory theological claims?"{{sfn|Taliaferro|2023|loc=§ 6}} It includes topics from nearly all branches of philosophy.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Taliaferro|2023|loc=Introduction}} |2={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Religion}} }} It differs from [[theology]] since theological debates typically take place within one religious tradition, whereas debates in the philosophy of religion transcend any particular set of theological assumptions.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bayne|2018|pp=1–2}} |2={{harvnb|Louth|Thielicke|2014}} }} [157] => [158] => The [[philosophy of science]] examines the fundamental concepts, assumptions, and problems associated with science. It reflects on what science is and how to distinguish it from [[pseudoscience]]. It investigates the methods employed by scientists, how their application can result in knowledge, and on what assumptions they are based. It also studies the purpose and implications of science.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Science}} |2={{harvnb|Kitcher|2023}} |3={{harvnb|Losee|2001|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lQN6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–3]}} |4={{harvnb|Wei|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=U2wNEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA127 127]}} |5={{harvnb|Newton-Smith|2000|pp=2–3}}}} Some of its questions are "What counts as an adequate explanation?";{{sfn|Newton-Smith|2000|pp=7}} "Is a scientific law anything more than a description of a regularity?";{{sfn|Newton-Smith|2000|pp=5}} and "Can some special sciences be explained entirely in the terms of a more general science?"{{sfn|Papineau|2005|pp=855–856}} It is a vast field that is commonly divided into the philosophy of the [[natural sciences]] and the philosophy of the [[social sciences]], with further subdivisions for each of the individual sciences under these headings. How these branches are related to one another is also a question in the philosophy of science. Many of its philosophical issues overlap with the fields of metaphysics or epistemology.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Papineau|2005|p=852}} |2={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=§ Philosophy of Science}} }} [159] => [160] => [[Political philosophy]] is the philosophical inquiry into the fundamental principles and ideas governing political systems and societies. It examines the basic concepts, assumptions, and arguments in the field of [[politics]]. It investigates the nature and purpose of [[government]] and compares its different forms.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8–9]}} |2={{harvnb|Moseley|loc=Lead Section}} |3={{harvnb|Duignan|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ye-cAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA5 5–6]}} |4={{harvnb|Bowle|Arneson|2023|loc=Lead Section}} |5={{harvnb|McQueen|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ho5KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 162]}} }} It further asks under what circumstances the use of political power is [[Political legitimacy|legitimate]], rather than a form of simple violence.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8–9]}} |2={{harvnb|Howard|2010|p=4}} }} In this regard, it is concerned with the distribution of political power, social and material goods, and [[legal rights]].{{sfn|Wolff|2006|pp=1–2}} Other topics are [[justice]], [[liberty]], [[Social equality|equality]], [[sovereignty]], and [[nationalism]].{{sfn|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8–9]}} Political philosophy involves a general inquiry into normative matters and differs in this respect from [[political science]], which aims to provide empirical descriptions of actually existing states.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moseley|loc=Lead Section}} |2={{harvnb|Molefe|Allsobrook|2021|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wKQeEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA8 8–9]}} }} Political philosophy is often treated as a subfield of ethics.{{sfn|Audi|2006|loc=§ Subfields of Ethics}} Influential schools of thought in political philosophy are [[liberalism]], [[conservativism]], socialism, and [[anarchism]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Moseley|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Political Schools of Thought}} |2={{harvnb|McQueen|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ho5KEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA162 162]}} }} [161] => [162] => == Methods == [163] => {{main|Philosophical methodology}} [164] => Methods of philosophy are ways of conducting philosophical inquiry. They include techniques for arriving at philosophical knowledge and justifying philosophical claims as well as principles used for choosing between competing theories.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McKeon|2002|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/religion/encyclopedias-almanacs-transcripts-and-maps/methodology-philosophy Lead Section, § Summation ]}} |2={{harvnb|Overgaard|D'Oro|2017|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology/introduction/03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48 1, 4–5]|loc=Introduction}} |3={{harvnb|Mehrtens|2010|loc=[https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html Methode/Methodologie]}} }} A great variety of methods have been employed throughout the history of philosophy. Many of them differ significantly from the methods used in the [[natural sciences]] in that they do not use experimental data obtained through measuring equipment.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2010|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wilaDwAAQBAJ Introduction]|p=9}} |2={{harvnb|Williamson|2020}} |3={{harvnb|Ichikawa|2011}} }} The choice of one's method usually has important implications both for how philosophical theories are constructed and for the arguments cited for or against them.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Overgaard|D'Oro|2017|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology/introduction/03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48 1, 3–5]|loc=Introduction}} |2={{harvnb|Nado|2017|pp=[https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s40961-017-0116-8 447–449, 461–462]}} |3={{harvnb|Dever|2016|loc=[https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199668779-e-34 3–6]}} }} This choice is often guided by epistemological considerations about what constitutes philosophical [[evidence]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2010|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wilaDwAAQBAJ Introduction]|pp=9–11}} |2={{harvnb|Overgaard|D'Oro|2017|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology/introduction/03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48 3]|loc=Introduction}} |3={{harvnb|Dever|2016|pp=[https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199668779.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780199668779-e-34 3–4]|loc=What Is Philosophical Methodology?}} }} [165] => [166] => Methodological disagreements can cause conflicts among philosophical theories or about the answers to philosophical questions. The discovery of new methods has often had important consequences both for how philosophers conduct their research and for what claims they defend.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2015|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1 1–2, 5]|loc=Introduction and Historical Overview}} |2={{harvnb|Mehrtens|2010|loc=[https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html Methode/Methodologie]}} |3={{harvnb|Overgaard|D'Oro|2017|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-philosophical-methodology/introduction/03C3CBE35E1E1FD54E29AD2D5E1C4D48 1, 3–5]|loc=Introduction}} }} Some philosophers engage in most of their theorizing using one particular method while others employ a wider range of methods based on which one fits the specific problem investigated best.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Williamson|2020}} |2={{harvnb|Singer|1974|pp=420–421}} |3={{harvnb|Venturinha|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Td3BAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA76 76]}} |4={{harvnb|Walsh|Teo|Baydala|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=8JxcAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA68 68]}} }} [167] => [168] => Conceptual analysis is a common method in analytic philosophy. It aims to clarify the meaning of concepts by analyzing them into their component parts.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Eder|Lawler|van Riel|2020|pp=915}} |2={{harvnb|Shaffer|2015|pp=[https://www.jstor.org/stable/26602327 555–556]}} |3={{harvnb|Audi|2006|loc=[https://www.encyclopedia.com/philosophy-and-religion/philosophy/philosophy-terms-and-concepts/philosophy § Philosophical Methods]}} }} Another method often employed in analytic philosophy is based on [[common sense]]. It starts with commonly accepted beliefs and tries to draw unexpected conclusions from them, which it often employs in a negative sense to criticize philosophical theories that are too far removed from how the average person sees the issue.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Ichikawa|2011}} |2={{harvnb|Reynolds|2010|pp=[https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1467-9191.2010.00361.x 231–232]}} |3={{harvnb|EB Staff|2007}} }} It is similar to how [[ordinary language philosophy]] approaches philosophical questions by investigating how ordinary language is used.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Mehrtens|2010|loc=[https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html Methode/Methodologie]}} |2={{harvnb|Parker-Ryan|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Introduction}} |3={{harvnb|EB Staff|2022}} }} [169] => [170] => [[File:Trolley Problem.svg|thumb|upright=1.25|alt=Diagram depicting a trolley that is headed towards a group of people. There is an alternate track with only one person and a switch to change tracks.|The [[trolley problem]] is a thought experiment that investigates the moral difference between doing and allowing harm. This issue is explored in an imaginary situation in which a person can sacrifice a single person by redirecting a trolley to save a group of people.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Woollard|Howard-Snyder|2022|loc=§ 3. The Trolley Problem and the Doing/Allowing Distinction}} |2={{harvnb|Rini|loc=§ 8. Moral Cognition and Moral Epistemology}} }}]] [171] => [172] => Various methods in philosophy give particular importance to [[intuition]]s, that is, non-inferential impressions about the correctness of specific claims or general principles.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2015|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1 11–12]|loc=Introduction and Historical Overview}} |2={{harvnb|Duignan|2009}} }} For example, they play an important role in [[thought experiment]]s, which employ [[counterfactual thinking]] to evaluate the possible consequences of an imagined situation. These anticipated consequences can then be used to confirm or refute philosophical theories.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Brown|Fehige|2019|loc=Lead Section}} |2={{harvnb|Goffi|Roux|2011|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/GOFOTV 165, 168–169]}} |3={{harvnb|Eder|Lawler|van Riel|2020|pp=915–916}} }} The method of [[reflective equilibrium]] also employs intuitions. It seeks to form a [[Coherentism|coherent]] position on a certain issue by examining all the relevant beliefs and intuitions, some of which often have to be deemphasized or reformulated to arrive at a coherent perspective.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Daly|2015|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1057/9781137344557_1 12–13]|loc=Introduction and Historical Overview}} |2={{harvnb|Daniels|2020|loc=Lead Section, § 1. The Method of Reflective Equilibrium}} |3={{harvnb|Little|1984|pp=[https://philpapers.org/rec/LITREA-2 373–375]}} }} [173] => [174] => Pragmatists stress the significance of concrete practical consequences for assessing whether a philosophical theory is true.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McDermid|loc=Lead Section}} |2={{harvnb|Legg|Hookway|2021|loc=Lead Section}} }} According to the [[pragmatic maxim]] as formulated by [[Charles Sanders Peirce]], the idea a person has of an object is nothing more than the totality of practical consequences they associate with this object. Pragmatists have also used this method to expose disagreements as merely verbal, that is, to show they make no genuine difference on the level of consequences.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McDermid|loc=Lead Section, § 2a. A Method and A Maxim}} |2={{harvnb|Legg|Hookway|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 2. The Pragmatic Maxim: Peirce}} }} [175] => [176] => Phenomenologists seek knowledge of the realm of appearance and the structure of human experience. They insist upon the first-personal character of all experience and proceed by suspending theoretical judgments about the external world. This technique of phenomenological reduction is known as "bracketing" or [[Bracketing (phenomenology)|epoché]]. The goal is to give an unbiased description of the appearances of things.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Cogan|loc=Lead Section, § 5. The Structure, Nature and Performance of the Phenomenological Reduction}} |2={{harvnb|Mehrtens|2010|loc=[https://meiner.de/enzyklopadie-philosophie-14071.html Methode/Methodologie]}} |3={{harvnb|Smith|2018|loc=Lead Section, § 1. What Is Phenomenology?}} |4={{harvnb|Smith|loc=Lead Section, § 2.Phenomenological Method}} }} [177] => [178] => [[Methodological naturalism]] places great emphasis on the empirical approach and the resulting theories found in the natural sciences. In this way, it contrasts with methodologies that give more weight to pure reasoning and introspection.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Fischer|Collins|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4VuhCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}} |2={{harvnb|Fisher|Sytsma|2023|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=C83bEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT9 Projects and Methods of Experimental Philosophy]}} |3={{harvnb|Papineau|2023|loc=§ 2. Methodological Naturalism}} }} [179] => [180] => == Relation to other fields == [181] => Philosophy is closely related to many other fields. It is sometimes understood as a metadiscipline that clarifies their nature and limits. It does this by critically examining their basic concepts, background assumptions, and methods. In this regard, it plays a key role in providing an [[interdisciplinary]] perspective. It bridges the gap between different disciplines by analyzing which concepts and problems they have in common. It shows how they overlap while also delimiting their scope.{{sfn|Audi|2006|pp=332–337}} Historically, most of the individual sciences originated from philosophy.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Tuomela|1985|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2Hg9rKafnHsC&pg=PA1 1]}} |2={{harvnb|Grant|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-g26ckhZ21wC&pg=PA303 303]}} }} [182] => [183] => The influence of philosophy is felt in several fields that require difficult practical decisions. In [[medicine]], philosophical considerations related to [[bioethics]] affect issues like whether an [[embryo]] is already a [[Personhood|person]] and under what conditions [[abortion]] is morally permissible. A closely related philosophical problem is how humans should treat other animals, for instance, whether it is acceptable to use non-human animals as food or for [[animal experiments|research experiments]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, § 3. Bioethics}} |2={{harvnb|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=4–5}} |3={{harvnb|Uniacke|2017|pp=34–35}} |4={{harvnb|Crary|2013|pp=321–322}} }} In relation to [[business]] and professional life, philosophy has contributed by providing ethical frameworks. They contain guidelines on which business practices are morally acceptable and cover the issue of [[corporate social responsibility]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Business Ethics, § 5. Professional Ethics}} |2={{harvnb|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=4–5}} |3={{harvnb|Uniacke|2017|pp=34–35}} }} [184] => [185] => Philosophical inquiry is relevant to many fields that are concerned with what to believe and how to arrive at evidence for one's beliefs.{{sfn|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=51–53}} This is a key issue for the sciences, which have as one of their prime objectives the creation of scientific knowledge. Scientific knowledge is based on [[empirical evidence]] but it is often not clear whether empirical observations are neutral or already [[Theory-ladenness|include theoretical assumptions]]. A closely connected problem is whether the available [[Underdetermination|evidence is sufficient]] to decide between competing theories.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Bird|2010|pp=5–6, 8–9}} |2={{harvnb|Rosenberg|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VAzy5bGCcs0C&pg=PA129 129, 155]}} }} Epistemological problems in relation to the [[law]] include what counts as evidence and how much evidence is required to find a person [[Guilt (law)|guilty]] of a crime. A related issue in [[journalism]] is how to ensure truth and [[Journalistic objectivity|objectivity]] when reporting on events.{{sfn|Audi|2006|pp=332–337}} [186] => [187] => In the fields of [[theology]] and religion, there are many doctrines associated with the existence and nature of God as well as rules governing correct behavior. A key issue is whether a rational person should believe these doctrines, for example, whether [[revelation]] in the form of holy books and [[religious experience]]s of the divine are sufficient evidence for these beliefs.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Clark|2022|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Reason/Rationality}} |2={{harvnb|Forrest|2021|loc=Lead Section}} |3={{harvnb|Dougherty|2014|pp=97–98}} }} [188] => [189] => [[File:JudithButler2013_(cropped).jpg|thumb|upright|alt=Photo of Judith Butler|[[Judith Butler]] is one of the philosophers responsible for the cultural influence of philosophy on the feminist movement.]] [190] => Philosophy in the form of logic has been influential in the fields of mathematics and [[computer science]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Kakas|Sadri|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=wQVqCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA588 588]}} |2={{harvnb|Li|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_ZQ9BQAAQBAJ&pg=PR9 ix–x]}} |3={{harvnb|Nievergelt|2015|pp=v–vi}} }} Further fields influenced by philosophy include [[psychology]], [[sociology]], linguistics, [[education]], and [[the arts]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Audi|2006|pp=332–37}} |2={{harvnb|Murphy|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=qmUPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA138 138]}} |3={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, Table of Contents}} |4={{harvnb|Frankena|Raybeck|Burbules|2002|loc=§ Definition}} }} The close relation between philosophy and other fields in the contemporary period is reflected in the fact that many philosophy graduates go on to work in related fields rather than in philosophy itself.{{sfn|Cropper|1997}} [191] => [192] => In the field of politics, philosophy addresses issues such as how to assess whether a government policy is just.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Dittmer|loc=Lead Section, § 6. Social Ethics, Distributive Justice, and Environmental Ethics}} |2={{harvnb|Lippert-Rasmussen|2017|pp=4–5}} }} Philosophical ideas have prepared and shaped various political developments. For example, ideals formulated in [[Enlightenment philosophy]] laid the foundation for [[constitutional democracy]] and played a role in the [[American Revolution]] and the [[French Revolution]].{{sfn|Bristow|2023|loc=Lead Section, § 2.1 Political Theory}} Marxist philosophy and its exposition of communism was one of the factors in the [[Russian Revolution]] and the [[Chinese Communist Revolution]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Pipes|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=aXX0DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA29 29]}} |2={{harvnb|Wolff|Leopold|2021|loc=§ 9. Marx's Legacy}} |3={{harvnb|Shaw|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=H7uZDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT124 124]}} }} In India, [[Mahatma Gandhi]]'s [[Satyagraha#Ahimsa and satyagraha|philosophy of non-violence]] shaped the [[Indian independence movement]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Singh|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=d0CgBAAAQBAJ&pg=PT83 83]}} |2={{harvnb|Bondurant|1988|pp=23–24}} }} [193] => [194] => An example of the cultural and critical role of philosophy is found in its influence on the [[feminist]] movement through philosophers such as [[Mary Wollstonecraft]], [[Simone de Beauvoir]], and [[Judith Butler]]. It has shaped the understanding of key concepts in feminism, for instance, the meaning of [[gender]], how it differs from [[biological sex]], and what role it plays in the formation of [[personal identity]]. Philosophers have also investigated the concepts of justice and [[Social equality|equality]] and their implications with respect to the [[sexism|prejudicial treatment of women]] in [[patriarchy|male-dominated societies]].{{multiref |1={{harvnb|McAfee|2018|loc=Lead Section, 2.1 Feminist Beliefs and Feminist Movements}} |2={{harvnb|Ainley|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bJFCAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA294 294–296]}} |3={{harvnb|Hirschmann|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ZinYQ0vgFEsC&pg=PA148 148–151]}} |4={{harvnb|McAfee|Garry|Superson|Grasswick|2023|loc=Lead Section, 1. What Is Feminism?}}}} [195] => [196] => The idea that philosophy is useful for many aspects of life and society is sometimes rejected. According to one such view, philosophy is mainly undertaken for its own sake and does not make significant contributions to existing practices or external goals.{{multiref |1={{harvnb|Jones|Bos|2007|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=g6x_AgAAQBAJ&pg=PT56 56]}} |2={{harvnb|Rickles|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rSrfDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT9 9]}} |3={{harvnb|Lockie|2015|pp=24–28}} }} [197] => [198] => == See also == [199] => {{Main|Outline of philosophy}} [200] => {{Portal|Philosophy}} [201] => {{cols}} [202] => * [[List of important publications in philosophy]] [203] => * [[List of philosophical problems]] [204] => * [[List of philosophy awards]] [205] => * [[List of philosophy journals]] [206] => * [[List of years in philosophy]] [207] => * [[Lists of philosophers]] [208] => {{colend}} [209] => [210] => == References == [211] => === Notes === [212] => {{notelist}} [213] => [214] => === Citations === [215] => {{reflist|22em}} [216] => [217] => ===Bibliography=== [218] => [220] => 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Philosophy

Philosophy is a field of study that encompasses the fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, ethics, and reality. It seeks to understand the nature of knowledge, truth, reason, morality, and various other aspects of human life and the universe.

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It seeks to understand the nature of knowledge, truth, reason, morality, and various other aspects of human life and the universe. Philosophy examines these questions through critical thinking, reasoned argumentation, and logical analysis. Dating back to ancient Greece, philosophy has evolved into multiple branches including metaphysics, epistemology, ethics, logic, aesthetics, and political philosophy. Metaphysics explores the fundamental nature of reality and existence, while epistemology investigates the nature of knowledge and how it can be acquired. Ethics explores the concepts of right and wrong, moral values, and human behavior. Logic studies reasoning and argumentation, aiming to discern valid conclusions from premises. Aesthetics examines concepts of beauty, art, and perception, while political philosophy delves into issues of governance, justice, and social organization. Throughout history, philosophers have developed various approaches and schools of thought to tackle these questions. These include rationalism, empiricism, existentialism, pragmatism, and many others. Well-known philosophers such as Socrates, Aristotle, Descartes, Kant, Nietzsche, and Marx have made significant contributions to the field, shaping the course of philosophical thinking. Philosophy also intersects with other disciplines such as science, mathematics, and literature. It encourages critical examination and inquiry, challenging assumptions and seeking truth through logical arguments. The study of philosophy enhances skills such as critical thinking, problem-solving, and clear communication, making it applicable to various academic fields and everyday life. Overall, the Wikipedia page on philosophy provides a comprehensive overview of the discipline, its history, branches, influential thinkers, and its relevance to human understanding and inquiry.

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