Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Genus of plants, source of quinine}} [1] => {{Other uses|Cinchona (disambiguation)}} [2] => {{Use dmy dates|date=August 2020}} [3] => {{Automatic taxobox [4] => | image = Cinchona.pubescens01.jpg [5] => | image_caption = ''[[Cinchona pubescens|C. pubescens]]'' [6] => | image_alt = ''[[Cinchona pubescens|C. pubescens]]'' flowers [7] => | display_parents = 2 [8] => | taxon = Cinchona [9] => | authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] [10] => | type_species = ''Cinchona officinalis'' [11] => | type_species_authority = [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] [12] => | subdivision_ranks = Species [13] => | subdivision = around 38 species; see {{slink||Species}} [14] => }} [15] => [16] => '''''Cinchona''''' (pronounced {{IPAc-en|s|ɪ|ŋ|ˈ|k|oʊ|n|ə}} or {{IPAc-en|s|ɪ|n|ˈ|ch|oʊ|n|ə}}{{cite web|url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/cinchona|title=Cinchona (two pronunciations)|publisher=Merriam-Webster, Incorporated|date=2019|access-date=20 September 2019}}) is a [[genus]] of flowering plants in the family [[Rubiaceae]] containing at least 23 species of trees and shrubs. All are native to the [[Tropical Andes|tropical Andean forests]] of western [[South America]]. A few species are reportedly [[naturalization (biology)|naturalized]] in [[Central America]], [[Jamaica]], [[French Polynesia]], [[Sulawesi]], [[Saint Helena]] in the [[South Atlantic]], and [[São Tomé and Príncipe]] off the coast of tropical Africa, and others have been cultivated in [[India]] and [[Java]], where they have formed hybrids. [17] => [18] => ''Cinchona'' has been historically sought after for its medicinal value, as the bark of several species yields [[quinine]] and other [[alkaloid]]s. These were the only effective treatments against [[malaria]] during the height of [[European colonialism]], which made them of great economic and political importance. Trees in the genus are also known as '''fever trees''' because of their antimalarial properties.{{cite OED|fever tree}} [19] => [20] => The artificial [[Quinine total synthesis|synthesis]] of quinine in 1944, an increase in resistant forms of malaria, and the emergence of alternate therapies eventually ended large-scale economic interest in ''Cinchona'' cultivation. ''Cinchona'' alkaloids show promise in treating ''Plasmodium falciparum'' malaria, which has evolved resistance to synthetic drugs. Cinchona plants continue to be revered for their historical legacy; the [[List of national trees|national tree]] of [[Peru]] is in the genus ''Cinchona''.{{cite book |title=Central & South America |publisher=Milliken Pub. Co. |isbn=978-1429122511 |page=130 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_x_qVLf2qw8C&pg=PA129 |author=Deborah Kopka |access-date=15 April 2013 |date=11 January 2011}} [21] => [22] => ==Etymology and common names== [23] => [[Carl Linnaeus]] named the genus in 1742, based on a claim that the plant had cured the wife of the [[Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón|Count of Chinchón]], a Spanish viceroy in [[Lima]], in the 1630s, though the veracity of this story has been disputed. Linnaeus used the Italian spelling ''Cinchona'', but the name Chinchón (pronounced {{IPA-es|tʃinˈtʃon|}} in Spanish) led to [[Clements Markham]] and others proposing a correction of the spelling to ''Chinchona'', and some prefer the pronunciation {{IPAc-en|tʃ|ɪ|n|ˈ|tʃ|oʊ|n|ə}} for the common name of the plant. [[Traditional medicine]] uses from South America known as '''[[Jesuit's bark]]''' and '''Jesuit's powder''' have been traced to ''Cinchona''.{{citation needed|date=April 2021}} [24] => [25] => ==Description== [26] => ''Cinchona'' plants belong to the family Rubiaceae and are large [[shrub]]s or small [[tree]]s with [[evergreen]] foliage, growing {{convert|5|to|15|m|ft|abbr=on}} in height. The [[leaf|leaves]] are opposite, rounded to lanceolate, and 10–40 cm long. The [[flower]]s are white, pink, or red, and produced in terminal [[panicle]]s. The [[fruit]] is a small [[capsule (fruit)|capsule]] containing numerous [[seed]]s. A key character of the genus is that the flowers have marginally hairy corolla lobes. The [[tribe (biology)|tribe]] Cinchoneae includes the genera ''Cinchonopsis'', ''Jossia'', ''Ladenbergia'', ''Remijia'', ''Stilpnophyllum'', and ''Ciliosemina''.{{cite journal|title=Phylogeny of the tribe Cinchoneae (Rubiaceae), its position in Cinchonoideae, and description of a new genus, Ciliosemina |first1=Lennart |last1=Andersson| first2=Alexandre |last2=Antonelli| journal=Taxon| volume=54| issue=1| year=2005| pages=17–28|doi=10.2307/25065412 |jstor=25065412 }} In South America, natural populations of ''Cinchona'' species have geographically distinct distributions. During the 19th century, the introduction of several species into cultivation in the same areas of India and Java, by the English and Dutch East India Company, respectively, led to the formation of [[hybrid (biology)|hybrid]]s.{{cite journal|first=Lennart| last=Andersson| title=A revision of the genus ''Cinchona'' (Rubiaceae-Cinchoneae)|year=1998| journal=Memoirs of the New York Botanical Garden|volume=80|pages=1–75}} [27] => [28] => Linnaeus described the genus based on the species ''Cinchona officinalis'', which is found only in a small region of [[Ecuador]] and is of little medicinal significance.[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/item/23640#page/451/mode/1up Linné, Carolus von. Genera Plantarum 2nd edition 1743. page 413]Linné, Carolus von. Species Plantarum. 1st edition. 1752. volume 1. page 172.[https://www.biodiversitylibrary.org/page/358191#page/184/mode/1up] Nearly 300 species were later described and named in the genus, but a revision of the genus in 1998 identified only 23 distinct species.[http://www.tropicos.org/Name/40009072?projectid=34 ''Cinchona''.] Selected Rubiaceae Tribes and Genera. Tropicos. Missouri Botanical Garden. [29] => [30] => ==History== [31] => ===Early references=== [32] => The [[Antipyretic|febrifugal]] properties of bark from trees now known to be in the genus ''Cinchona'' were used by many South American cultures prior to European contact,{{Cite journal|last=Crawford|first=Matthew James|date=2014-01-01|title=An Empire's Extract: Chemical Manipulations of Cinchona Bark in the Eighteenth-Century Spanish Atlantic World |journal=Osiris|volume=29|issue=1|pages=215–229|doi=10.1086/678104|pmid=26103756|s2cid=10411353|issn=0369-7827}} [[Society of Jesus|Jesuits]] played a key role in the transfer of remedies from the [[New World]]. [33] => [34] => The traditional story connecting ''Cinchona'' species with malaria treatment was first recorded by Italian physician [[Sebastiano Bado]] in 1663.{{Cite book |last=Bado |first=Sebastiano |title=Anastasis corticis Peruviae, seu Chinae Chinae defensio, Sebastiani Badi Genuensis [...] Contra Ventilationes Ioannis Iacobi Chifletii, gemitusque Vopisci Fortunati Plempii |publisher=Petrus Joannes Calenzani |year=1663 |location=Genoa}}{{Cite journal|last1=Meyer|first1=Christian G.|last2=Marks|first2=Florian|last3=May|first3=Jürgen|date=2004-12-01|title=Editorial: Gin tonic revisited |journal=Tropical Medicine & International Health|language=en|volume=9|issue=12|pages=1239–1240|doi=10.1111/j.1365-3156.2004.01357.x|issn=1365-3156|pmid=15598254|s2cid=24261782|doi-access=free}} It tells of the wife of [[Luis Jerónimo de Cabrera, 4th Count of Chinchón]] and [[Viceroy of Peru]], who fell ill in [[Lima]] with a tertian fever. A Spanish governor advised a traditional remedy, which resulted in a miraculous and rapid cure. The countess then supposedly ordered a large quantity of the bark and took it back to Europe. Bado claimed to have received this information from an Italian named Antonius Bollus, who was a merchant in Peru. Clements Markham identified the countess as Ana de Osorio, but this was shown to be incorrect by Haggis. Ana de Osorio married the Count of Chinchón in August 1621 and died in 1625, several years before the count was appointed viceroy of Peru in 1628. His second wife, Francisca Henriques de Ribera, accompanied him to Peru. Haggis further examined the count's diaries and found no mention of the countess suffering from fever, although the count himself had many malarial attacks. Because of these and numerous other discrepancies, Bado's story has been generally rejected as little more than a legend. [35] => [36] => Quina bark was mentioned by [[Antonio de la Calancha|Fray Antonio de La Calancha]] in 1638 as coming from a tree in [[Loja, Ecuador|Loja]] (Loxa). He noted that bark powder weighing about two coins was cast into water and drunk to cure fevers and "tertians". Jesuit Father [[Bernabé Cobo]] (1582–1657) also wrote on the "fever tree" in 1653. The legend was popularized in English literature by Markham, and in 1874, he also published a "plea for the correct spelling of the genus ''Chinchona''".{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/details/cu31924020106831|title=A memoir of the Lady Ana de Osorio Countess of Chinchon and Vice-queen of Peru|author=Markham, Clements|publisher=Trubner & Co.|year=1874|place=London}}{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/cu31924000273429|title=Peruvian bark. A popular account of the introduction of Chinchona cultivation into British India. 1800-1880|author=Markham, Clements|publisher=John Murray|year=1880|place=London}} Spanish physician and botanist [[Nicolás Monardes]] wrote of a New World bark powder used in Spain in 1574, and another physician, Juan Fragoso, wrote of bark powder from an unknown tree in 1600 that was used for treating various ills. Both identify the sources as trees that do not bear fruit and have heart-shaped leaves; they were suggested to have been referring to ''Cinchona'' species.{{cite journal|doi=10.3366/anh.1995.22.2.169|title=Fragoso, Monardes and pre-Chinchonian knowledge of Cinchona|journal=Archives of Natural History|volume=22|issue=2|pages=169–181|year=1995|last1=Crespo|first1=Fernando I. Ortiz}} [37] => [38] => The name ''quina-quina'' or ''quinquina'' was suggested as an old name for ''Cinchona'' used in Europe and based on the native name used by the [[Quechua people]]. Italian sources spelt ''quina'' as "''cina''", which was a source of confusion with ''[[Smilax]]'' from China.{{Cite journal|doi=10.1002/sce.3730320205|title=The history and importance of cinchona bark as an anti-malarial febrifuge|journal=Science Education|volume=32|issue=2|pages=93–103|year=1948|last1=Bergman|first1=George J|bibcode=1948SciEd..32...93B}} Haggis argued that ''qina'' and Jesuit's bark actually referred to ''Myroxylon peruiferum'', or Peruvian balsam, and that this was an item of importance in Spanish trade in the 1500s. Over time, the bark of ''Myroxylon'' may have been adulterated with the similar-looking bark of what is now known as ''Cinchona''.{{cite journal| title=Fundamental errors in the early history of ''Cinchona''| author=Haggis, A.W.| journal=Bulletin of the History of Medicine| volume=10|issue=3–4| year=1941| pages=417–459, 568–592 |url=https://archive.org/details/b2982381x}} Gradually, the adulterant became the main product that was the key therapeutic ingredient used in malarial therapy. The bark was included as ''Cortex Peruanus'' in the [[Pharmacopoeia|London Pharmacopoeia]] in 1677. [39] => [40] => ===Economic significance=== [41] => [[File:Cortex_peruvianus_Leeuwenhoek.jpg|thumb|''Cortex peruvianus'' study by [[Antonie van Leeuwenhoek]], 1706]] [42] => The "fever tree" was finally described carefully by astronomer [[Charles Marie de la Condamine]], who visited [[Quito]] in 1735 on a quest to measure an [[Meridian arc|arc of the meridian]]. The species he described, ''Cinchona officinalis'', however, was found to be of little therapeutic value. The first living plants seen in Europe were ''C. calisaya'' plants grown at the ''Jardin des Plantes'' from seeds collected by [[Hugh Algernon Weddell]] from [[Bolivia]] in 1846.{{cite book|url=https://archive.org/stream/manualofcinchona00kinguoft#page/n7/mode/2up|title=A manual of ''Cinchona'' cultivation in India|author=King, George|publisher=Government Press|year=1880|edition=2|place=Calcutta|pages=1–2}} [[José Celestino Mutis]], physician to the Viceroy of Nueva Granada, Pedro Messia de la Cerda, gathered information on cinchona in [[Colombia]] from 1760 and wrote a manuscript, ''El Arcano de la Quina'' (1793), with illustrations. He proposed a Spanish expedition to search for plants of commercial value, which was approved in 1783 and was continued after his death in 1808 by his nephew Sinforoso Mutis.{{Cite journal|last=Kirkbride Jr.|first=Joseph H.|date=1982|title=The Cinchona Species of Jose Celestino Mutis|journal=Taxon|volume=31|issue=4|pages=693–697|jstor=219686|doi=10.2307/1219686}} As demand for the bark increased, the trees in the forests began to be destroyed. To maintain their monopoly on cinchona bark, Peru and surrounding countries began outlawing the export of cinchona seeds and saplings beginning in the early 19th century.{{cite journal|title=A critical review of the basic facts in the history of ''Cinchona'' |author=Jaramillo-Arango, Jaime| pages=272–311| year=1949| journal=Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Botany|volume= 53|issue=352|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1949.tb00419.x}} [43] => [44] => The colonial European powers eventually considered growing the plant in other parts of the tropics. The French mission of 1743, of which de la Condamine was a member, lost their cinchona plants when a wave took them off their ship. The [[Dutch Empire|Dutch]] sent [[Justus Carl Hasskarl|Justus Hasskarl]], who brought plants that were then cultivated in Java from 1854. English explorer Clements Markham went to collect plants that were introduced in [[Sri Lanka]] and the Nilgiris of southern India in 1860.{{cite book |last=Rice |first=Benjamin Lewis |title=Mysore: A Gazetteer Compiled for Government Vol. 1 |year=1897 |publisher=Westminster: A Constable |pages=892 |url=https://archive.org/stream/mysoregazetteerc01rice#page/n199/mode/2up/ }} The main species introduced were ''[[Cinchona succirubra|C. succirubra]]'', or red bark, (now ''C. pubescens'') as its sap turned red on contact with air, and ''[[Cinchona calisaya]]''. The alkaloids quinine and cinchonine were extracted by [[Pierre Joseph Pelletier]] and [[Joseph Bienaimé Caventou]] in 1820. Two more key alkaloids, quinidine and cinchonidine, were later identified and it became a routine in quinology to examine the contents of these components in assays. The yields of quinine in the cultivated trees were low and time was needed to develop sustainable methods to extract bark. [45] => [46] => In the meantime, [[Charles Ledger]] and his native assistant [[Manuel Incra Mamani]] collected another species from Bolivia. Mamani was caught and beaten by Bolivian officials, leading to his death, but Ledger obtained seeds of high quality. These seeds were offered to the British, who were uninterested, leading to the rest being sold to the Dutch. The Dutch saw their value and multiplied the stock. The species later named ''[[Cinchona calisaya|Cinchona ledgeriana]]''{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1095-8339.1885.tb00567.x|title=Remarks on ''Cinchona ledgeriana'' as a Species|journal=Journal of the Linnean Society of London, Botany|volume=21|issue=136|pages=374–380|year=1885|last1=Holmes|first1=Edward Morell|url=https://zenodo.org/record/1433049}} yielded 8 to 13% quinine in bark grown in Dutch Indonesia, which effectively outcompeted the British Indian production. Only later did the English see the value and sought to obtain the seeds of ''C. ledgeriana'' from the Dutch.{{cite journal | journal=Bulletin of the New York Academy of Medicine|year=1943| author=Russell, Paul F.| title=Malaria and its influence on world health|pages=599–630|volume=19| issue=9| pmid=19312337| pmc=1934033}}{{Cite journal|last=Williams|first=Donovan|date=1962|title=Clements Robert Markham and the Introduction of the Cinchona Tree into British India, 1861|jstor=1792039|journal=The Geographical Journal|volume=128|issue=4|pages=431–442|doi=10.2307/1792039|bibcode=1962GeogJ.128..431W }} [47] => [48] => [[Francesco Torti]] used the response of fevers to treatment with ''Cinchona'' as a system of classification of fevers or a means for diagnosis. Its use in the effective treatment of malaria brought an end to treatment by [[bloodletting]] and long-held ideas of [[humorism]] from [[Galen]].{{cite book|title=Quinine's predecessor: Francesco Torti and the early history of cinchona|author=Jarcho, Saul|publisher=Johns Hopkins University Press|year=1993|place=Baltimore}} Clements Markham was knighted for his role in establishing ''Cinchona'' species in Indonesia. Hasskarl was knighted with the Dutch order of the Lion.{{Cite journal|last1=Roth|first1=Klaus|last2=Streller|first2=Sabine|title=From Pharmacy to the Pub — A Bark Conquers the World: Part 1 |journal=ChemViews|language=en|doi=10.1002/chemv.201300056|year=2013|doi-access=}} [49] => [50] => ==Ecology== [51] => ''Cinchona'' species are used as food plants by the [[larva]]e of some [[lepidoptera]]n species, including [[Engrailed (moth)|the engrailed]], [[Moduza procris|the commander]], and members of the genus ''[[Endoclita]]'', including ''[[Endoclita damor|E. damor]]'', ''[[Endoclita purpurescens|E. purpurescens]]'', and ''[[Endoclita sericeus|E. sericeus]]''. [52] => [53] => ''[[Cinchona pubescens|C.pubescens]]'' has grown uncontrolled on some islands, such as the [[Galapagos]], where it has posed the risk of outcompeting native plant species.{{cite journal|doi=10.1111/j.1526-100X.2010.00657.x|title=Resilience of Native Plant Community Following Manual Control of Invasive ''Cinchona pubescens'' in Galápagos|journal=Restoration Ecology|volume=18|pages=103–112|year=2010|last1=Jäger|first1=Heinke|last2=Kowarik|first2=Ingo|bibcode=2010ResEc..18S.103J |s2cid=32394835 }} [54] => [55] => [[File:Cinchona officinalis 001.JPG|thumb|right|''Cinchona officinalis'', the harvested bark]] [56] => [[File:Peru offers a branch of cinchona to Science (17th century engraving).jpg|thumb|right|[[Peru]] offers a branch of cinchona to [[science]] (from a 17th-century [[engraving]]).]] [57] => [[File:Cinchona calisaya - Köhler–s Medizinal-Pflanzen-179.jpg|thumb|A 19th-century illustration of ''Cinchona calisaya'']] [58] => [59] => ==Traditional medicine== [60] => {{See also|Quinine}} [61] => {{Main|Jesuit's bark}} [62] => [63] => Whether cinchona bark was used in any traditional medicines within Andean Indigenous groups when it first came to notice by Europeans is unclear. Since its first confirmed medicinal record in the early 17th century, it has been used as a treatment for malaria. This use was popularised in Europe by the Spanish colonisers of South America. The bark contains [[alkaloids]], including [[quinine]] and [[quinidine]].{{cite book|doi=10.1016/B978-0-12-800874-4.00014-3|chapter=Drugs and Drug Leads Based on Natural Products for Treatment and Prophylaxis of Malaria|title=Evidence-Based Validation of Herbal Medicine|year=2015|last1=Christensen|first1=Søren Brøgger|pages=307–319|isbn=9780128008744}} Cinchona is the only economically practical source of quinine, a drug that is still recommended for the treatment of ''falciparum'' [[malaria]].{{cite book|title=Guidelines for the treatment of malaria|edition=2| year=2010| publisher=World Health Organization|url=http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241547925_eng.pdf?ua=1 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20141029131049/http://whqlibdoc.who.int/publications/2010/9789241547925_eng.pdf?ua=1 |url-status=dead |archive-date=29 October 2014 }}{{cite journal|doi=10.1186/1475-2875-10-144|pmid=21609473|pmc=3121651|title=Quinine, an old anti-malarial drug in a modern world: Role in the treatment of malaria|journal=Malaria Journal|volume=10|pages=144|year=2011|last1=Achan|first1=Jane|last2=Talisuna|first2=Ambrose O|last3=Erhart|first3=Annette|last4=Yeka|first4=Adoke|last5=Tibenderana|first5=James K|last6=Baliraine|first6=Frederick N|last7=Rosenthal|first7=Philip J|last8=d'Alessandro|first8=Umberto |doi-access=free }} [64] => [65] => === Europe === [66] => Italian botanist [[Pietro Castelli]] wrote a pamphlet noteworthy as being the first Italian publication to mention the ''Cinchona'' species. By the 1630s (or 1640s, depending on the reference), the bark was being exported to Europe. In the late 1640s, the method of use of the bark was noted in the ''[[Schedula Romana]].'' The Royal Society of London published in its first year (1666) "An account of Dr. Sydenham's book, entitled, Methodus curandi febres . . ."''Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society'',1, 1210–1213 https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/abs/10.1098/rstl.1665.0092 [67] => [68] => English King [[Charles II of England|Charles II]] called upon Robert Talbor, who had become famous for his miraculous malaria cure.See: [69] => * Paul Reiter (2000) "From Shakespeare to Defoe: Malaria in England in the Little Ice Age," ''Emerging Infectious Diseases'', '''6''' (1) : 1-11. Available on-line at: [https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2627969/pdf/10653562.pdf National Center for Biotechnology Information]. [70] => * Robert Talbor (1672) ''Pyretologia: a Rational Account of the Cause and Cures of Agues.'' [71] => * Robert Talbor (1682) ''The English Remedy: Talbor's Wonderful Secret for Curing of Agues and Feavers.'' Because at that time the bark was in religious controversy, Talbor gave the king the bitter bark decoction in great secrecy. The treatment gave the king complete relief from the malaria fever. In return, Talbor was offered membership of the prestigious [[Royal College of Physicians]].{{Cite journal|last=Thompson|first=C. J. S.|date=1928|title=The History and Lore of Cinchona|jstor=25331045|journal=The British Medical Journal|volume=2|issue=3547|pages=1188–1190|doi=10.1136/bmj.2.3547.1188|s2cid=220147336}} [72] => [73] => In 1679, Talbor was called by the King of France, [[Louis XIV]], whose son was suffering from malarial fever. After a successful treatment, Talbor was rewarded by the king with 3,000 gold crowns and a lifetime pension for this prescription. Talbor was asked to keep the entire episode secret. After Talbor's death, the French king published this formula: seven grams of rose leaves, two ounces of lemon juice and a strong decoction of the cinchona bark served with wine. Wine was used because some alkaloids of the cinchona bark are not soluble in water, but are soluble in the ethanol in wine. In 1681 ''[[Água de Inglaterra]]'' was introduced into Portugal from England by Dr. Fernando Mendes who, similarly, "received a handsome gift from ([[Peter II of Portugal|King Pedro]]) on condition that he should reveal to him the secret of its composition and withhold it from the public".{{cite journal |last1=D'Esaguy |first1=Augusto |title=Água de Inglaterra |journal=Bulletin of the Institute of the History of Medicine |date=May 1936 |volume=4 |issue=5 |pages=404–408 |jstor=44438162 }} [74] => [75] => In 1738, ''Sur l'arbre du quinquina'', a paper written by [[Charles Marie de La Condamine]], lead member of the [[French Geodesic Mission|expedition, along with Pierre Godin and Louis Bouger]] that was sent to Ecuador to determine the length of a degree of the 1/4 of [[meridian arc]] in the neighbourhood of the [[equator]], was published by the [[French Academy of Sciences]]. In it he identified three separate species.{{cite book [76] => | chapter-url=http://www.henriettesherbal.com/eclectic/usdisp/cinchona.html [77] => | editor=Joseph P. Remington, Horatio C. Wood [78] => | year=1918 [79] => | title=The Dispensatory of the United States of America [80] => | chapter=Cinchona [81] => }} [82] => [83] => === Homeopathy === [84] => The birth of [[homeopathy]] was based on cinchona bark testing. The founder of homeopathy, [[Samuel Hahnemann]], when translating [[William Cullen]]'s ''[[Materia medica]]'', noticed Cullen had written that Peruvian bark was known to cure intermittent fevers.{{cite book [85] => | title=Professor Cullen's treatise of the materia medica [86] => | author=William Cullen, Benjamin Smith Barton [87] => | url=https://archive.org/details/2548017RX2.nlm.nih.gov [88] => | quote=peruvian. [89] => | publisher=Edward Parker [90] => | year=1812 [91] => }} [92] => Hahnemann took daily a large, rather than homeopathic, dose of Peruvian bark. After two weeks, he said he felt malaria-like symptoms. This idea of "like cures like" was the starting point of his writings on homeopathy. Hahnemann's symptoms have been suggested by researchers, both homeopaths and skeptics, as being an indicator of his hypersensitivity to quinine.{{cite journal|last=Julian|first=F. Bennett|year=1935|title=Art and Fashion in Medicine|journal=British Medical Journal|volume=1|issue=3872|pages=620–621|pmc=2459939|doi=10.1136/bmj.1.3872.620-b}} [93] => [94] => ===Widespread cultivation=== [95] => The bark was very valuable to Europeans in expanding their access to and exploitation of resources in distant colonies and at home. Bark gathering was often environmentally destructive, destroying huge expanses of trees for their bark, with difficult conditions for low wages that did not allow the indigenous bark gatherers to settle debts even upon death.{{cite book | author=Taussig, M.|title=''Shamanism, Colonialism and the Wild Man''| url=https://archive.org/details/shamanismcolonia0000taus| url-access=registration|year=1987|publisher=University of Chicago Press|isbn=9780226790121}} [96] => [97] => Further exploration of the [[Amazon Basin]] and the economy of trade in various species of the bark in the 18th century is captured by Lardner Gibbon: [98] => [99] =>
... this bark was first gathered in quantities in 1849, though known for many years. The best quality is not quite equal to that of Yungas, but only second to it. There are four other classes of inferior bark, for some of which the bank pays fifteen dollars per quintal. The best, by law, is worth fifty-four dollars. The freight to Arica is seventeen dollars the mule load of three quintals. Six thousand quintals of bark have already been gathered from Yuracares. The bank was established in the year 1851. [[w:Haenke|Mr. [Thaddäus] Haenke]] mentioned the existence of cinchona bark on his visit to Yuracares in 1796 [100] => :— ''Exploration of the Valley of the Amazon'', by Lieut. [[Lardner Gibbon]], USN. Vol. II, Ch. 6, pp. 146–47.
[101] => [102] => It was estimated that the British Empire incurred direct losses of 52 to 62 million pounds a year due to malaria sickness each year. It was therefore of great importance to secure the supply of the cure.{{Cite journal|last=Cowan|first=J. M.|date=1929|title=Cinchona in the Empire. Progress and prospects of its cultivation|jstor=42598886|journal=Empire Forestry Journal|volume=8|issue=1|pages=45–53}} In 1860, a British expedition to South America led by [[Clements Markham]] smuggled back cinchona seeds and plants, which were introduced in several areas of British India and Sri Lanka. In India, it was planted in Ootacamund by [[William Graham McIvor]]. In Sri Lanka, it was planted in the [[Hakgala Botanical Garden]] in January 1861.{{cite web|title=Hakgala garden|url=http://www.agridept.gov.lk/institutes_sub_more.php?id=123&mMenu=Botanic%20Gardens&sMenu=National%20Botanic%20Gardens%20%28NBG%20%29|publisher=Department of Agriculture, Government of Sri Lanka|access-date=11 June 2010}}{{Dead link|date=July 2019 |bot=InternetArchiveBot |fix-attempted=yes }} [[James Taylor (Ceylon)|James Taylor]], the pioneer of tea planting in Sri Lanka, was one of the pioneers of cinchona cultivation.{{cite news|last=Fry|first=Carolyn|title=The Kew Gardens of Sri Lanka|url=http://www.timesonline.co.uk/tol/travel/article1289534.ece|work=Travel|publisher=Timesonline, UK|access-date=11 June 2010 | location=London | date=6 January 2007}} By 1883, about {{convert|64000|acre|km2}} were in cultivation in Sri Lanka, with exports reaching a peak of 15 million pounds in 1886. The cultivation (initially of ''[[Cinchona succirubra|C. succirubra]]'' (now ''C. pubescens'') and later of ''C. calisaya''{{Cite journal|last=Gammie|first=J. A.|date=1888|title=Manufacture of Quinine in India|journal=Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)|volume=1888|issue=18|pages=139–144|doi=10.2307/4114959|jstor=4114959}}) was extended through the work of [[George King (botanist)|George King]] and others into the hilly terrain of [[Darjeeling District]] of [[West Bengal|Bengal]]. Cinchona factories were established at Naduvattam in the Nilgiris and at [[Mungpoo]], Darjeeling, West Bengal. Quinologists were appointed to oversee the extraction of alkaloids with John Broughton in the Nilgiris and C.H. Wood at Darjeeling. Others in the position included David Hooper and John Eliot Howard.{{Cite journal|date=1931|title=Introduction of Cinchona to India|jstor=4102564|journal=Bulletin of Miscellaneous Information (Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew)|volume=1931|issue=3|pages=113–117|doi=10.2307/4102564}}{{cite book| title=A manual of ''Cinchona'' cultivation in India|author=King, George|year=1876| publisher=Government Press|place= Calcutta|url=https://archive.org/details/b24906682}} [103] => [[File:Cinchona.pubescens03.jpg|thumb|''[[Cinchona pubescens|C. pubescens]]'' fruit]] [104] => [105] => In 1865, "New Virginia" and "Carlota Colony" were established in [[Mexico]] by [[Matthew Fontaine Maury]], a former Confederate in the [[American Civil War]]. Postwar Confederates were enticed there by Maury, now the "Imperial Commissioner of Immigration" for [[Maximilian I of Mexico|Emperor Maximillian]] of Mexico, and Archduke of Habsburg. All that survives of those two colonies are the flourishing groves of ''cinchonas'' established by Maury using seeds purchased from England. These seeds were the first to be introduced into Mexico.Sources: ''Life of Maury'' by Diane Corbin and ''Scientist of the Sea'' by Frances Leigh Williams. [106] => [107] => The cultivation of cinchona led from the 1890s to a decline in the price of quinine, but the quality and production of raw bark by the Dutch in Indonesia led them to dominate world markets. The producers of processed drugs in Europe (especially Germany{{Cite journal|last1=van der Hoogte|first1=Arjo Roersch|last2=Pieters|first2=Toine|date=2015|title=Science, industry and the colonial state: a shift from a German- to a Dutch-controlled cinchona and quinine cartel (1880–1920)|journal=History and Technology|volume=31|pages=2–36|doi=10.1080/07341512.2015.1068005|s2cid=153489022}}), however, bargained and caused fluctuations in prices, which led to a Dutch-led Cinchona Agreement in 1913 that ensured a fixed price for producers. A ''Kina Bureau'' in Amsterdam regulated this trade.{{cite journal|doi=10.1016/j.endeavour.2013.10.002|pmid=24287061|title=Building the world's supply of quinine: Dutch colonialism and the origins of a global pharmaceutical industry|journal=Endeavour|volume=38|issue=1|pages=8–18|year=2014|last1=Goss|first1=Andrew}} [108] => [109] => During [[World War II]], the Japanese conquered Java and the United States lost access to the cinchona plantations that supplied war-critical quinine medication. Botanical expeditions called [[Cinchona Missions]]{{cite web | url = http://botany.si.edu/colls/expeditions/expedition_page.cfm?ExpedName=17 | title = Cinchona Missions Expedition (1942–1944) | work = [[National Museum of Natural History]]: Historical Expeditions | publisher = [[Smithsonian Institution]] | access-date = 25 March 2017}} were launched between 1942 and 1944 to explore promising areas of South America in an effort to locate cinchona species that contained quinine and could be harvested for quinine production. As well as being ultimately successful in their primary aim, these expeditions also identified new species of plants and created a new chapter in international relations between the United States and other nations in the [[Americas]].{{cite journal | title = The Cinchona Program (1940–1945): science and imperialism in the exploitation of a medicinal plant | first = Nicolás | last = Cuvi | journal = Dynamis | issn = 0211-9536 | volume = 31 | issue = 1 | pages = 183–206 | publisher = Granada | year = 2011| doi = 10.4321/S0211-95362011000100009 | pmid = 21936230 | doi-access = free | hdl = 10481/77458 | hdl-access = free }} [110] => [111] => ==Chemistry== [112] => ===Cinchona alkaloids=== [113] => [[File:Cinchona alkaloids.svg|thumb|General structure of ''Cinchona'' alkaloids]] [114] => The bark of trees in this genus is the source of a variety of [[alkaloid]]s, the most familiar of which is [[quinine]], an [[antipyretic]] (antifever) agent especially useful in treating malaria.{{sfn|Chisholm|1911}}{{sfn|EA|1920}} For a while the extraction of a mixture of alkaloids from the cinchona bark, known in India as the cinchona febrifuge, was used. The alkaloid mixture or its sulphated form mixed in alcohol and sold as quinetum was however very bitter and caused nausea, among other side effects.{{cite journal|pmc=5130665|year=1878|title=Cinchona Febrifuge|journal=The Indian Medical Gazette|volume=13|issue=4|pages=107–108|pmid=28997438}} [115] => [116] => Cinchona alkaloids include: [117] => * [[cinchonine]] and [[cinchonidine]] ([[stereoisomer]]s with R1 = [[Vinyl group|vinyl]], R2 = [[hydrogen]]) [118] => * [[quinine]] and [[quinidine]] ([[stereoisomer]]s with R1 = vinyl, R2 = [[methoxy]]) [119] => * [[dihydroquinine]] and [[dihydroquinidine]] (stereoisomers with R1 = [[ethyl group|ethyl]], R2 = methoxy) [120] => [121] => They find use in [[organic chemistry]] as [[organocatalyst]]s in [[asymmetric synthesis]]. [122] => [123] => ===Other chemicals=== [124] => Alongside the alkaloids, many cinchona barks contain [[cinchotannic acid]], a particular [[tannin]], which by oxidation rapidly yields a dark-coloured phlobaphene{{cite book [125] => | chapter-url=http://chestofbooks.com/health/materia-medica-drugs/Textbook-Materia-Medica/Cinchona-Bark-Cortex-Cinchonae-Part-3.html [126] => | chapter=Cinchona Bark (Cortex Cinchonae). Part 3 [127] => | title=A Text Book of Materia Medica, Being An Account of the More Important Crude Drugs of Vegetable And Animal Origin [128] => | author= Henry G. Greenish [129] => | asin=B000J31E44 [130] => | publisher=J. & A. Churchill [131] => | year=1920 [132] => }} [133] => called red cinchonic,{{cite book [134] => | chapter-url=http://chestofbooks.com/health/materia-medica-drugs/The-Essentials-Therapeutics/Cinchonaceae-Part-2.html [135] => | title=Essentials of Materia Medica And Therapeutics [136] => | author=Alfred Baring Garrod [137] => | isbn=978-1-4326-8837-0 [138] => | chapter=Cinchonaceae. Part 2 [139] => | publisher=Kessinger Publishing [140] => | year=2007 [141] => }} [142] => cinchono-fulvic acid, or cinchona red.{{cite book [143] => | title=Encyclopædia Britannica [144] => | year=1902 [145] => | chapter-url=http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/Q/QUI/quinine.html [146] => | edition=10 [147] => | chapter=Quinine [148] => | title-link=Encyclopædia Britannica [149] => }} [150] => [151] => [152] => In 1934, efforts to make malaria drugs cheap and effective for use across countries led to the development of a standard called "totaquina" proposed by the Malaria Commission of the [[League of Nations]]. Totaquina required a minimum of 70% crystallizable alkaloids, of which at least 15% was to be quinine with not more than 20% amorphous alkaloids.{{cite journal|doi=10.1038/145458b0|title=Totaquina|journal=Nature|volume=145|issue=3673|pages=458|year=1940|bibcode=1940Natur.145R.458.|doi-access=free}}{{cite journal| title=The Preparation, Analysis and Standardisation of Totaquina| author1=Groothoff, A.| author2=Henry, T.A.| journal= Rivista di Malariologia |year=1933 |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=87–91}} [153] => [154] => ==Species== [155] => There are at least 24 species of ''Cinchona'' recognized by botanists.{{cite journal|last1=Maldonado|first1=Carla|last2=Persson|first2=Claes|last3=Alban|first3=Joaquina|last4=Antonelli|first4=Alexandre|last5=Rønsted|first5=Nina|year=2017|title=Cinchona anderssonii (Rubiaceae), a new overlooked species from Bolivia|url=http://antonelli-lab.net/pdf/Maldonado_etal_Phytotaxa_2017.pdf|journal=Phytotaxa|volume=297|issue=2|pages=203|doi=10.11646/phytotaxa.297.2.8|access-date=19 March 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180319151703/http://antonelli-lab.net/pdf/Maldonado_etal_Phytotaxa_2017.pdf|archive-date=19 March 2018|url-status=dead}} There are likely several unnamed species and many intermediate forms that have arisen due to the plants' tendency to [[Hybrid (biology)|hybridize]]. [156] => {{div col|colwidth=30em}} [157] => * ''[[Cinchona anderssonii]]'' Maldonado [158] => * ''[[Cinchona antioquiae]]'' L.Andersson [159] => * ''[[Cinchona asperifolia]]'' Wedd. [160] => * ''[[Cinchona barbacoensis]]'' H.Karst. [161] => * ''[[Cinchona calisaya]]'' [[Hugh Algernon Weddell|Wedd.]] {{efn|The variety of Calisayan cinchona introduced to the [[Dutch East Indies]] was also sometimes distinguished as ''[[Cinchona pahudiana]]'',{{sfnp|''EB''|1878|p=781}} named in honor of the Dutch colonial minister [[C.F. Pahud]].}} [162] => * ''[[Cinchona capuli]]'' L.Andersson [163] => * ''[[Cinchona fruticosa]]'' L.Andersson [164] => * ''[[Cinchona glandulifera]]'' Ruiz & Pav. [165] => * ''[[Cinchona hirsuta]]'' Ruiz & Pav. [166] => * ''[[Cinchona krauseana]]'' L.Andersson [167] => * ''[[Cinchona lancifolia]]'' Mutis [168] => * ''[[Cinchona lucumifolia]]'' Pav. ex Lindl. [169] => * ''[[Cinchona macrocalyx]]'' Pav. ex DC. [170] => * ''[[Cinchona micrantha]]'' Ruiz & Pav. [171] => * ''[[Cinchona mutisii]]'' Lamb. [172] => * ''[[Cinchona nitida]]'' Ruiz & Pav. [173] => * ''[[Cinchona officinalis]]'' [[Carl Linnaeus|L.]] [174] => * ''[[Cinchona parabolica]]'' Pav. in J.E.Howard [175] => * ''[[Cinchona pitayensis]]'' (Wedd.) Wedd. [176] => * ''[[Cinchona pubescens]]'' [[Martin Vahl|Vahl]] [177] => * ''[[Cinchona pyrifolia]]'' L.Andersson [178] => * ''[[Cinchona rugosa]]'' Pav. in J.E.Howard [179] => * ''[[Cinchona scrobiculata]]'' Humb. & Bonpl. [180] => * ''[[Cinchona villosa]]'' Pav. ex Lindl. [181] => {{div col end}} [182] => [183] => ==See also== [184] => * [[History of malaria]] [185] => * [[Cinchonism]] [186] => [187] => ==Notes== [188] => {{Notelist}} [189] => {{Reflist}} [190] => [191] => ==References== [192] => [193] => * Gänger, Stefanie. ''A Singular Remedy: Cinchona across the Atlantic World, 1751–1820'' (Cambridge University Press, 2021) [http://www.h-net.org/reviews/showrev.php?id=59209 online book review] [194] => * {{cite Americana |wstitle=Cinchona Bark |volume=6 |ref={{harvid|EA|1920}}}} [195] => * {{cite EB9 |mode=cs2 |last=Paton |first=James |wstitle=Cinchona |volume=5 |ref={{harvid|EB|1878}}|pages=780–2 }} [196] => * {{cite EB1911 |mode=cs2 |wstitle=Cinchona |volume=6 |pages=369–70 }} [197] => * {{cite journal |last=Druilhe |first=P. |display-authors=etal |title=Activity of a Combination of Three ''Cinchona'' Bark Alkaloids against ''Plasmodium falciparum'' ''in vitro'' |journal=Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy |volume= 32 |issue= 2 |pages=250–254 |doi=10.1128/aac.32.2.250 |pmid=3284455 |year=1988 |pmc=172144 }} [198] => * {{citation |last=Ruiz López |first=Hipólito |author-link=Hipólito Ruiz López |editor-last=Schultes |editor-first=Richard Evans |editor2=María José Nemry von Thenen de Jaramillo-Arango |ref=none |publisher=Timber Press |date=1998 |title=The Journals of Hipólito Ruiz: Spanish Botanist in Peru and Chile 1777–1788 }} [199] => [200] => ==External links== [201] => {{Commons category|Cinchona}} [202] => {{Commons category multi|Cinchona calisaya|Cinchona pubescens}} [203] => * Burba, J. [http://www.lib.umn.edu/bell/tradeproducts/cinchonabark Cinchona Bark]. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150220231849/https://www.lib.umn.edu/bell/tradeproducts/cinchonabark |date=20 February 2015 }}. University of Minnesota Libraries. [204] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20140131201459/http://www.mhhe.com/biosci/pae/botany/botany_map/articles/article_08.html Using Bark to Cure the Bite]. Botany Global Issues Map. McGraw Hill. [205] => * [http://siarchives.si.edu/collections/siris_arc_307000 Cinchona Project Field Books, 1938–1965] from the [[Smithsonian Institution Archives]] [206] => [207] => ===Articles=== [208] => * [http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20200527-the-tree-that-changed-the-world-map "The tree that changed the world map]", By Vittoria Traverso, 28 May 2020, BBC.com. [209] => {{Taxonbar|from=Q160090}} [210] => {{Authority control}} [211] => [212] => [[Category:Cinchona| ]] [213] => [[Category:Rubiaceae genera]] [214] => [[Category:Medicinal plants of South America]] [215] => [[Category:Quinine]] [216] => [[Category:Antimalarial agents]] [217] => [[Category:Tropical flora]] [218] => [[Category:Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus]] [] => )
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Cinchona

Cinchona is a genus of flowering plants in the family Rubiaceae. It consists of approximately 25 species of evergreen shrubs and trees native to the Andean region of South America.

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It consists of approximately 25 species of evergreen shrubs and trees native to the Andean region of South America. The most well-known species is Cinchona officinalis, commonly known as the quinine tree. The bark of the Cinchona tree contains alkaloids, particularly quinine, which has been used for centuries to treat malaria. The discovery of its medicinal properties in the 17th century led to a boom in demand for Cinchona bark, which stimulated the establishment of plantations in various parts of the world, including India and Java. The cultivation and trade of Cinchona bark played a significant role in shaping colonial history and the global economy. Apart from its medicinal use, Cinchona is also valued for its ornamental qualities. The trees bear clusters of small, fragrant flowers in various colors, and their glossy leaves add visual interest to gardens and landscapes. The Wikipedia page on Cinchona provides detailed information about the botanical characteristics, distribution, and cultural significance of the genus. It also covers the history of cinchona cultivation, including the challenges faced by plantations, such as diseases and competition from synthetic drugs. Furthermore, the page highlights ongoing research and conservation efforts to protect and sustain the diverse species of Cinchona in their native habitats. In conclusion, the Wikipedia page on Cinchona offers a comprehensive overview of this important plant genus, encompassing its medicinal uses, historical significance, and biological diversity.

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