Array ( [0] => {{short description|Type of reference work}} [1] => {{Other uses}} [2] => {{pp-semi-indef}} [3] => {{pp-move}} [4] => {{Use mdy dates|date=January 2020}} [5] => {{Use American English|date=September 2020}} [6] => [[File:! Wikimini - Encyclopédie en ligne pour enfants.jpg|thumb|300x300px|Entry for the French word "Amour" (Love) in a paper encyclopedia (''Larousse Universel'') and in an online encyclopedia (Wikimini.org).]] [7] => [[File:Ringelbergius, 'Lucubrationes...KYKLOPEDEIA...' ed. Basel 1541 original.JPG|thumb|right|Title page of ''Lucubrationes'', 1541 edition, one of the first books to use a variant of the word ''encyclopedia'' in the title]] [8] => [9] => An '''encyclopedia''' ([[American English]]) or '''encyclopaedia''' ([[British English]]){{Cite book |title=encyclopedia |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/acref/9780195392883.001.0001/m_en_us1244018 |access-date=2024-01-30 |website=Oxford Reference |language=en |isbn=9780195392883 |last1=Stevenson |first1=Angus |last2=Lindberg |first2=Christine A. |date=October 28, 2010 |publisher=Oup USA }} is a [[reference work]] or [[compendium]] providing summaries of [[knowledge]], either general or special, to a particular field or discipline.{{cite web |title=Encyclopedia. |url=http://library.rcc.edu/riverside/glossaryoflibraryterms.htm#e |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070803182506/http://library.rcc.edu/riverside/glossaryoflibraryterms.htm#e |archive-date=August 3, 2007}} Glossary of Library Terms. Riverside City College, Digital Library/Learning Resource Center. Retrieved on: November 17, 2007.{{cite web |url=https://eiu.libguides.com/ResearchHelp |title=What are Reference Resources? |website=Eastern Illinois University |access-date=December 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221122193111/https://eiu.libguides.com/ResearchHelp |archive-date=November 22, 2022}} Encyclopedias are divided into [[article (publishing)|articles]] or entries that are arranged [[Alphabetical order|alphabetically]] by article name{{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=R. R. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49NZ12icE-QC&q=%22encyclopedic%20dictionary%22%2Bencyclopedia&pg=PA49 |title=Dictionary of Lexicography |last2=James |first2=Gregory |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-14143-7 |page=48 |access-date=July 27, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114034551/https://books.google.com/books?id=49NZ12icE-QC&q=%22encyclopedic%20dictionary%22%2Bencyclopedia&pg=PA49 |archive-date=January 14, 2021 |url-status=}} or by thematic categories, or else are [[hyperlink]]ed and searchable.{{cite web |url=https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/encyclopedia |title=Encyclopedia |website=Merriam-Webster |access-date=December 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220929221816/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/encyclopedia |archive-date=September 29, 2022}} Encyclopedia entries are longer and more detailed than those in most [[dictionary|dictionaries]]. Generally speaking, encyclopedia articles focus on ''[[fact]]ual information'' concerning the subject named in the article's title;{{cite web |last=Bocco |first=Diana |date=August 30, 2022 |title=What is an Encyclopedia? |url=https://www.languagehumanities.org/what-is-an-encyclopedia.htm |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220927200756/https://www.languagehumanities.org/what-is-an-encyclopedia.htm |archive-date=September 27, 2022 |access-date=January 24, 2023 |website=Language Humanities}} this is unlike dictionary entries, which focus on [[Linguistics|linguistic]] information about [[word]]s, such as their [[etymology]], meaning, [[pronunciation]], use, and [[grammar|grammatical]] forms.Béjoint, Henri (2000). [https://books.google.com/books?id=DJ8gwtomUpMC&dq=lexicography%20translated%20encyclopedia%20dictionary&pg=PA30 ''Modern Lexicography''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161230031758/https://books.google.com/books?id=DJ8gwtomUpMC&lpg=PA30&dq=lexicography%20translated%20encyclopedia%20dictionary&pg=PA30 |date=December 30, 2016}}, pp. 30–31. Oxford University Press. {{ISBN|0-19-829951-6}}{{cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopaedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/186603/encyclopaedia |access-date=July 27, 2010 |quote=An English lexicographer, H.W. Fowler, wrote in the preface to the first edition (1911) of ''The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Current English language'' that a dictionary is concerned with the uses of words and phrases and with giving information about the things for which they stand only so far as current use of the words depends upon knowledge of those things. The emphasis in an encyclopedia is much more on the nature of the things for which the words and phrases stand. |archive-date=December 16, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216021641/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/186603/encyclopaedia |url-status=live}}{{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=R. R. K. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49NZ12icE-QC&q=%22encyclopedic%20dictionary%22%2Bencyclopedia&pg=PA49 |title=Dictionary of Lexicography |last2=James |first2=Gregory |publisher=Routledge |year=1998 |isbn=978-0-415-14143-7 |page=49 |quote=In contrast with linguistic information, encyclopedia material is more concerned with the description of objective realities than the words or phrases that refer to them. In practice, however, there is no hard and fast boundary between factual and lexical knowledge. |access-date=July 27, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114034551/https://books.google.com/books?id=49NZ12icE-QC&q=%22encyclopedic%20dictionary%22%2Bencyclopedia&pg=PA49 |archive-date=January 14, 2021 |url-status=}}{{cite book |last=Cowie |first=Anthony Paul |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nhnVF9Or_wMC |title=The Oxford History of English Lexicography, Volume I |publisher=Oxford University Press |year=2009 |isbn=978-0-415-14143-7 |page=22 |quote=An 'encyclopedia' (encyclopaedia) usually gives more information than a dictionary; it explains not only the words but also the things and concepts referred to by the words. |access-date=August 17, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415131818/https://books.google.com/books?id=nhnVF9Or_wMC |archive-date=April 15, 2021 |url-status=}} [10] => [11] => Encyclopedias have existed for around 2,000 years and have evolved considerably during that time as regards language (written in a major international or a vernacular language), size (few or many volumes), intent (presentation of a global or a limited range of knowledge), cultural perspective (authoritative, ideological, didactic, utilitarian), authorship (qualifications, style), readership (education level, background, interests, capabilities), and the technologies available for their production and distribution (hand-written manuscripts, small or large print runs, Internet). As a valued source of reliable information compiled by experts, printed versions found a prominent place in [[libraries]], [[schools]] and other educational institutions. [12] => [13] => The appearance of [[Online encyclopedia|digital and open-source versions]] in the 21st century, such as [[Wikipedia]], has vastly expanded the accessibility, authorship, readership, and variety of encyclopedia entries.{{Cite book |last1=Hunter |first1=Dan |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=kUNpPa-P8BYC&dq=The+appearance+of+digital+and+open-source+versions+in+the+21st+century,+such+as+Wikipedia&pg=PA138 |title=Amateur Media: Social, Cultural and Legal Perspectives |last2=Lobato |first2=Ramon |last3=Richardson |first3=Megan |last4=Thomas |first4=Julian |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-78265-4 |language=en}} [14] => [15] => ==Etymology== [16] => {{Quote box|Indeed, the purpose of an encyclopedia is to collect knowledge disseminated around the globe; to set forth its general system to the men with whom we live, and transmit it to those who will come after us, so that the work of preceding centuries will not become useless to the centuries to come; and so that our offspring, becoming better instructed, will at the same time become more virtuous and happy, and that we should not die without having rendered a service to the human race in the future years to come.|[[Denis Diderot|Diderot]]Denis Diderot; Jean le Rond d'Alembert. [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=did;cc=did;idno=did2222.0000.004;rgn=main;view=text ''Encyclopédie'']. {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20110429032124/http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=did;cc=did;idno=did2222.0000.004;rgn=main;view=text |date=April 29, 2011}}. University of Michigan Library: Scholarly Publishing Office and DLXS. Retrieved on: November 17, 2007.|width=40%}} [17] => [18] => The word ''[[wikt:encyclopedia|encyclopedia]]'' (''encyclo''|''pedia'') comes from the [[Koine Greek]] {{lang|grc|ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία}},[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2007.01.0060%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D10%3Asection%3D1 Ἐγκύκλιος παιδεία] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210209012127/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus:text:2007.01.0060:book%3D1:chapter%3D10:section%3D1 |date=February 9, 2021}}, Quintilian, ''Institutio Oratoria'', 1.10.1, at Perseus Project [[transliterated]] {{transliteration|grc|enkyklios paideia}}, meaning 'general education' from {{transliteration|grc|enkyklios}} ({{lang|grc|ἐγκύκλιος}}), meaning 'circular, recurrent, required regularly, general'[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3De%29gku%2Fklios ἐγκύκλιος] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308213346/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3De)gku%2Fklios |date=March 8, 2021}}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek–English Lexicon'', at Perseus Project and {{transliteration|grc|[[paideia]]}} ({{lang|grc|παιδεία}}), meaning 'education, rearing of a child'; together, the phrase literally translates as 'complete instruction' or 'complete knowledge'.[https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpaidei%2Fa παιδεία] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308034728/http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpaidei%2Fa |date=March 8, 2021}}, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek–English Lexicon'', at Perseus Project However, the two separate words were reduced to a single word due to a scribal errorAccording to some accounts, such as the [http://www.thefreedictionary.com/encyclopedia ''American Heritage Dictionary''] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170819022705/http://www.thefreedictionary.com/encyclopedia |date=August 19, 2017}}, copyists of Latin manuscripts took this phrase to be a single Greek word, {{lang|grc|ἐγκυκλοπαιδεία}} {{transliteration|grc|enkyklopaedia}}. by copyists of a [[Latin]] manuscript edition of [[Quintillian]] in 1470.{{cite book |last=Franklin-Brown |first=Mary |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=oG8ttUuJrgUC&pg=PA8 |title=Reading the world: encyclopedic writing in the scholastic age |publisher=The University of Chicago Press |year=2012 |isbn=9780226260709 |location=Chicago London |page=8}} The copyists took this phrase to be a single Greek word, {{Lang|el-latn|enkyklopaedia}}, with the same meaning, and this spurious Greek word became the [[Neo-Latin]] word {{Lang|la|encyclopaedia}}, which in turn came into English. Because of this compounded word, fifteenth-century readers since have often, and incorrectly, thought that the Roman authors Quintillian and [[Natural History (Pliny)|Pliny]] described an ancient genre.{{cite book |last=König |first=Jason |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mfPXAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |title=Encyclopaedism from antiquity to the Renaissance |publisher=Cambridge University Press |year=2013 |isbn=978-1-107-03823-3 |location=New York |page=1}} [19] => [20] => ==Characteristics== [21] => {{original research|section|date=April 2022}} [22] => [23] => The modern encyclopedia evolved from the [[dictionary]] in the 18th century; this lineage can be seen in the alphabetical order of print encyclopedias.As explained by Richard Yeo, ''Encyclopaedic Visions: Scientific Dictionaries and Enlightenment Culture'' (Cambridge: University Press, 2001 {{ISBN|978-0-521-15292-1}} Historically, both encyclopedias and dictionaries have been compiled by well-educated, well-informed content [[expert]]s, but they are significantly different in structure. A dictionary is a linguistic work that primarily focuses on an alphabetical listing of [[words]] and their [[definitions]]. [[Synonym]]ous words and those related by the subject matter are to be found scattered around the dictionary, giving no obvious place for in-depth treatment. Thus, a dictionary typically provides limited [[information]], [[wikt:Analysis|analysis]] or background for the word defined. While it may offer a definition, it may leave the reader lacking in [[understanding]] the meaning, significance or limitations of a [[Term (language)|term]], and how the term relates to a broader field of knowledge. [24] => [25] => To address those needs, an encyclopedia article is typically not limited to simple definitions, and is not limited to defining an individual word, but provides a more extensive meaning for a ''subject or [[list of academic disciplines|discipline]]''. In addition to defining and listing synonymous terms for the topic, the article can treat the topic's more extensive meaning in more depth and convey the most relevant accumulated knowledge on that subject. An encyclopedia article also often includes many [[map]]s and [[illustration]]s, as well as [[bibliography]] and [[statistics]]. An encyclopedia is, theoretically, not written to convince, although one of its goals is indeed to convince its reader of its veracity. [26] => [27] => Wikipedia co-founder [[Jimmy Wales]] has said that the goal of an encyclopedia should be to provide "the sum of all human knowledge, but sum meaning summary."{{Cite web |last=Fridman |first=Lex |date=2023-06-18 |title=Transcript for Jimmy Wales: Wikipedia {{!}} Lex Fridman Podcast #385 |url=https://lexfridman.com/jimmy-wales-transcript/ |access-date=2023-06-18 |website=Lex Fridman |language=en-US}} [28] => [29] => In addition, sometimes books or reading lists are compiled from a compendium of articles (either wholly or partially taken) from a specific encyclopedia. [30] => [31] => === Four major elements === [32] => [33] => Four major elements define an encyclopedia: its subject matter, its scope, its method of organization, and its method of production: [34] => [35] => # Encyclopedias can be general, containing articles on topics in every field (the English-language ''[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]'' and German ''[[Brockhaus Enzyklopädie|Brockhaus]]'' are well-known examples). General encyclopedias may contain guides on how to do a variety of things, as well as embedded dictionaries and [[gazetteer]]s.{{Citation needed|date=February 2010}} There are also encyclopedias that cover a wide variety of topics from a particular cultural, ethnic, or national perspective, such as the ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'' or ''[[Encyclopaedia Judaica]]''. [36] => # Works of encyclopedic scope aim to convey the important accumulated knowledge for their subject domain, such as an encyclopedia of [[medicine]], [[philosophy]] or [[law]]. Works vary in the breadth of material and the depth of discussion, depending on the [[target audience]]. [37] => # Some systematic methods of organization is essential to making an encyclopedia usable for reference. There have historically been two main methods of organizing printed encyclopedias: the [[alphabetical order|alphabetical]] method (consisting of several separate articles, organized in alphabetical order) and organization by [[hierarchy|hierarchical]] categories. The former method is today the more common, especially for general works. The fluidity of [[electronic media]], however, allows new possibilities for multiple methods of organization of the same content. Further, electronic media offer new capabilities for search, [[Subject indexing|indexing]] and [[cross reference]]. The [[epigraph (literature)|epigraph]] from [[Horace]] on the title page of the 18th century ''Encyclopédie'' suggests the importance of the structure of an encyclopedia: "What grace may be added to commonplace matters by the power of order and connection." [38] => # As modern multimedia and the information age have evolved, new methods have emerged for the collection, verification, summation, and presentation of information of all kinds. Projects such as [[Everything2]], [[Encarta]], [[h2g2]], and [[Wikipedia]] are examples of new forms of the encyclopedia as [[information retrieval]] becomes simpler. The method of production for an encyclopedia historically has been supported in both for-profit and non-profit contexts, such was the case of the ''[[Great Soviet Encyclopedia]]'' mentioned above which was entirely state-sponsored, while the ''Britannica'' was supported as a for-profit institution. [39] => [40] => === Encyclopedic dictionaries === [41] => [42] => Some works entitled "dictionaries" are similar to encyclopedias, especially those concerned with a particular field (such as the ''[[Dictionary of the Middle Ages]]'', the ''[[Dictionary of American Naval Fighting Ships]]'', and ''[[Black's Law Dictionary]]''). The ''[[Macquarie Dictionary]],'' Australia's national dictionary, became an [[encyclopedic dictionary]] after its first edition in recognition of the use of proper nouns in common communication, and the words derived from such proper nouns. [43] => [44] => === Differences between encyclopedias and dictionaries === [45] => [46] => There are some broad differences between encyclopedias and dictionaries. Most noticeably, encyclopedia articles are longer, fuller and more thorough than entries in most general-purpose dictionaries. There are differences in content as well. Generally speaking, dictionaries provide [[linguistics|linguistic]] information about words themselves, while encyclopedias focus more on the things for which those words stand. Thus, while dictionary entries are inextricably fixed to the word described, encyclopedia articles can be given a different entry name. As such, dictionary entries are not fully translatable into other languages, but encyclopedia articles can be. [47] => [48] => In practice, however, the distinction is not concrete, as there is no clear-cut difference between factual, "encyclopedic" information and linguistic information such as appear in dictionaries.{{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=R. R. K. |last2=James |first2=Gregory |year=1998 |title=Dictionary of Lexicography |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-14143-7 |pages=48–49 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49NZ12icE-QC&q=%22encyclopedic%20dictionary%22%2Bencyclopedia&pg=PA49 |access-date=July 27, 2010 |quote=Usually these two aspects overlap – encyclopedic information being difficult to distinguish from linguistic information – and dictionaries attempt to capture both in the explanation of a meaning{{nbsp}}... |archive-date=January 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114034551/https://books.google.com/books?id=49NZ12icE-QC&q=%22encyclopedic%20dictionary%22%2Bencyclopedia&pg=PA49 |url-status=live}}{{cite book |last=Béjoint |first=Henri |year=2000 |title=Modern Lexicography |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-829951-6 |page=31 |quote=The two types, as we have seen, are not easily differentiated; encyclopedias contain information that is also to be found in dictionaries, and vice versa.}} Thus encyclopedias may contain material that is also found in dictionaries, and vice versa. In particular, dictionary entries often contain factual information about the thing named by the word. [49] => [50] => == Pre-modern encyclopedias == [51] => {{Main|History of encyclopedias}} [52] => [[Image:naturalishistoria.jpg|thumb|upright=.8|''Naturalis Historiæ'', 1669 edition, title page]] [53] => [54] => The earliest encyclopedic work to have survived to modern times is the {{Lang|la|[[Naturalis Historia]]}} of [[Pliny the Elder]], a [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] statesman living in the 1st century AD.{{cite web |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/encyclopaedia/History-of-encyclopaedias |title=History of Encyclopaedias |website=Britannica |access-date=December 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221006151548/https://www.britannica.com/topic/encyclopaedia/History-of-encyclopaedias |archive-date=October 6, 2022}}{{cite web |url=https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/12/encyclopedias-are-time-capsules/419619/ |title=Encyclopedias Are Time Capsules |last=Nobel |first=Justin |date=December 9, 2015 |website=The Atlantic |access-date=December 17, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221205195631/https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2015/12/encyclopedias-are-time-capsules/419619/ |archive-date=December 5, 2022}} He compiled a work of 37 chapters covering [[natural history]], architecture, medicine, [[geography]], geology, and all aspects of the world around him. This work became very popular in [[Classical antiquity|Antiquity]], was one of the first classical manuscripts to be printed in 1470, and has remained popular ever since as a source of information on the [[Ancient Rome|Roman]] world, and especially [[Roman art]], [[Roman technology]] and [[Roman engineering]]. [55] => [56] => [[File:Isidore de Séville.jpg|thumb|left|150px|Isidore of Seville author of Etymologiae (10th. century [[Ottonian dynasty|Ottonian]] manuscript)]] [57] => The Spanish scholar [[Isidore of Seville]] was the first Christian writer to try to compile a ''[[summa]]'' of universal knowledge, the ''[[Etymologiae]]'' ({{Circa|600–625}}), also known by classicists as the ''Origines'' (abbreviated ''Orig''.). This encyclopedia—the first such Christian [[epitome]]—formed a huge compilation of 448 chapters in 20 booksMacFarlane 1980:4; MacFarlane translates ''Etymologiae'' viii. based on hundreds of classical sources, including the {{Lang|la|Naturalis Historia}}. Of the ''Etymologiae'' in its time it was said ''quaecunque fere sciri debentur'', "practically everything that it is necessary to know".Braulio, ''Elogium'' of Isidore appended to Isidore's ''[[De viris illustribus]]'', heavily indebted itself to [[Jerome]]. Among the areas covered were: [[grammar]], [[rhetoric]], [[mathematics]], [[geometry]], [[music]], [[astronomy]], [[medicine]], [[law]], the [[Roman Catholic Church|Catholic Church]] and [[heretical]] sects, [[pagan]] [[philosopher]]s, [[language]]s, [[cities]], [[animal]]s and [[bird]]s, the [[Earth|physical world]], [[geography]], [[architecture|public buildings]], [[road]]s, [[metals]], [[rock (geology)|rock]]s, [[agriculture]], [[ship]]s, [[clothes]], [[food]], and [[tool]]s. [58] => [59] => Another Christian encyclopedia was the ''Institutiones divinarum et saecularium litterarum'' of [[Cassiodorus]] (543–560) dedicated to the Christian divinity and the seven liberal arts. The encyclopedia of [[Suda]], a massive 10th-century Byzantine encyclopedia, had 30,000 entries, many drawing from ancient sources that have since been lost, and often derived from medieval [[Christianity|Christian]] compilers. The text was arranged alphabetically with some slight deviations from common vowel order and placed in the Greek alphabet. [60] => [[File:Image of Yongle Encyclopedia.jpg|thumb|The ''[[Yongle Encyclopedia]]'']] [61] => From India, the [[Siribhoovalaya]] (Kannada: ಸಿರಿಭೂವಲಯ), dated between 800 A.D. to 15th century, is a work of [[Kannada]] literature written by [[Kumudendu Muni]], a Jain monk. It is unique because rather than employing alphabets, it is composed entirely in [[Kannada numerals]]. Many philosophies which existed in the Jain classics are eloquently and skillfully interpreted in the work. [62] => [63] => The enormous encyclopedic work in China of the ''[[Four Great Books of Song]]'', compiled by the 11th century during the early [[Song dynasty]] (960–1279), was a massive literary undertaking for the time. The last encyclopedia of the four, the ''[[Prime Tortoise of the Record Bureau]]'', amounted to 9.4 million [[Chinese characters]] in 1,000 written volumes. The ''[[Yongle Encyclopedia]]'' (completed 1408) comprised 11,095 volumes. [64] => [65] => There were many great encyclopedists throughout Chinese history, including the scientist and statesman [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–1095) with his ''[[Dream Pool Essays]]'' of 1088; the statesman, inventor, and agronomist [[Wang Zhen (official)|Wang Zhen]] (active 1290–1333) with his ''Nong Shu'' of 1313; and [[Song Yingxing]] (1587–1666) with his ''Tiangong Kaiwu''. Song Yingxing was termed the "[[Denis Diderot|Diderot]] of China" by British historian [[Joseph Needham]].Needham, Volume 5, Part 7, 102. [66] => [67] => == Printed encyclopedias == [68] => Before the advent of the printing press, encyclopedic works were all hand-copied and thus rarely available, beyond wealthy patrons or monastic men of learning: they were expensive, and usually written for those extending knowledge rather than those using it. [69] => During the [[Renaissance]], the creation of [[printing]] allowed a wider diffusion of encyclopedias and every scholar could have his or her copy. The ''[[De expetendis et fugiendis rebus]]'' by [[Giorgio Valla]] was posthumously printed in 1501 by [[Aldo Manuzio]] in [[Venice]]. This work followed the traditional scheme of liberal arts. However, Valla added the translation of ancient Greek works on mathematics (firstly by [[Archimedes]]), newly discovered and translated. The ''Margarita Philosophica'' by [[Gregor Reisch]], printed in 1503, was a complete encyclopedia explaining the [[seven liberal arts]]. [70] => [71] => Financial, commercial, legal, and intellectual factors changed the size of encyclopedias. Middle classes had more time to read and encyclopedias helped them to learn more. Publishers wanted to increase their output so some countries like Germany started selling books missing alphabetical sections, to publish faster. Also, publishers could not afford all the resources by themselves, so multiple publishers would come together with their resources to create better encyclopedias. Later, rivalry grew, causing copyright to occur due to weak underdeveloped laws. [72] => [[John Harris (writer)|John Harris]] is often credited with introducing the now-familiar alphabetic format in 1704 with his English ''Lexicon Technicum: Or, A Universal English Dictionary of Arts and Sciences: Explaining not only the Terms of Art, but the Arts Themselves'' – to give its full title. Organized alphabetically, its content does indeed contain an explanation not merely of the terms used in the arts and sciences, but of the arts and sciences themselves. [[Isaac Newton|Sir Isaac Newton]] contributed his only published work on chemistry to the second volume of 1710. [73] => [74] => === ''Encyclopédie'' === [75] => {{excerpt|Encyclopédie|only=paragraphs|templates=-See Wiktionary}} [76] => [77] => === ''Encyclopædia Britannica'' === [78] => {{excerpt|Encyclopædia Britannica|only=paragraphs}} [79] => [80] => === ''Brockhaus Enzyklopädie'' === [81] => {{excerpt|Brockhaus Enzyklopädie|only=paragraphs}} [82] => [83] => ===Encyclopedias in the United States=== [84] => In the United States, the 1950s and 1960s saw the introduction of several large popular encyclopedias, often sold on installment plans. The best known of these were ''[[World Book]]'' and ''[[Funk and Wagnalls]]''. As many as 90% were sold [[door to door]].{{cite web |url=https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/commentary/ct-perspec-flash-encyclopedia-world-book-britannica-1210-20171205-story.html |title=Long before Google, there was the encyclopedia |last=Grossman |first=Ron |date=December 7, 2017 |website=Chicago Tribune |access-date=December 9, 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20221022091053/https://www.chicagotribune.com/opinion/commentary/ct-perspec-flash-encyclopedia-world-book-britannica-1210-20171205-story.html |archive-date=October 22, 2022}} Jack Lynch says in his book ''[[You Could Look It Up]]'' that encyclopedia salespeople were so common that they became the butt of jokes. He describes their sales pitch saying, "They were selling not books but a lifestyle, a future, a promise of social mobility." A 1961 ''World Book'' ad said, "You are holding your family's future in your hands right now," while showing a feminine hand holding an order form.{{cite web |last=Onion |first=Rebecca |date=June 3, 2016 |title=How Two Artists Turn Old Encyclopedias Into Beautiful, Melancholy Art |website=Slate |url=https://slate.com/human-interest/2016/06/how-two-artists-turn-old-encyclopedias-into-beautiful-melancholy-art.html |access-date=September 23, 2019 |archive-date=September 23, 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190923122858/https://slate.com/human-interest/2016/06/how-two-artists-turn-old-encyclopedias-into-beautiful-melancholy-art.html |url-status=live}} As of the 1990s, two of the most prominent encyclopedias published in the United States were ''[[Collier's Encyclopedia]]'' and ''[[Encyclopedia Americana]]''.{{cite book |last=Kister |first=K. F. |url=https://archive.org/details/kistersbestencyc00kist |title=Kister's Best Encyclopedias: A Comparative Guide to General and Specialized Encyclopedias |date=1994 |publisher=Oryx Press |isbn=0-89774-744-5 |edition=2nd |location=Phoenix, Arizona |pages=23 |author-link=Kenneth Kister}} [85] => [86] => == Digital encyclopedias == [87] => === Physical media === [88] => By the late 20th century, encyclopedias were being published on [[CD-ROM]]s for use with [[personal computers]]. This was the usual way computer users accessed encyclopedic knowledge from the 1980s and 1990s. Later, [[DVD]] discs replaced CD-ROMs, and by the mid-2000s, [[internet encyclopedias]] were dominant and replaced disc-based software encyclopedias. [89] => [90] => CD-ROM encyclopedias were usually a [[macOS]] or [[Microsoft Windows]] (3.0, 3.1 or 95/98) application on a CD-ROM disc. The user would execute the encyclopedia's software program to see a menu that allowed them to start browsing the encyclopedia's articles, and most encyclopedias also supported a way to search the contents of the encyclopedia. The article text was usually [[hyperlink]]ed and also included [[photograph]]s, [[Digital audio|audio]] clips (for example in articles about historical speeches or musical instruments), and [[video clip]]s. In the CD-ROM age, the video clips had usually a low resolution, often 160x120 or 320x240 pixels. Such encyclopedias which made use of photos, audio and video were also called [[Multimedia|multimedia encyclopedias]]. [91] => [92] => [[Microsoft]]'s ''[[Encarta]]'', launched in 1993, was a landmark example as it had no printed equivalent. Articles were supplemented with video and audio files as well as numerous high-quality images. After sixteen years, Microsoft discontinued the Encarta line of products in 2009.{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://encarta.msn.com/guide_page_FAQ/FAQ.html |title=Important Notice: MSN Encarta to be Discontinued |publisher=MSN Encarta |archiveurl=https://web.archive.org/web/20091027213618/http://encarta.msn.com/guide_page_FAQ/FAQ.html |archivedate=2009-10-27 |url-status=dead}} Other examples of CD-ROM encyclopedia are [[Grolier]] Multimedia Encyclopedia and ''Britannica''. [93] => [94] => Digital encyclopedias enable "Encyclopedia Services" (such as [[Wikimedia Enterprise]]) to facilitate programmatic access to the content.{{cite web |title=Encyclopedia Service Are About To Become A Huge Market |url=https://www.stillwatercurrent.com/encyclopedia-service-are-about-to-become-a-huge-market-investopedia-techpedia-wikipedia-baidu-baike/ |website=www.stillwatercurrent.com |access-date=27 September 2021 |archive-date=September 27, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210927161417/https://www.stillwatercurrent.com/encyclopedia-service-are-about-to-become-a-huge-market-investopedia-techpedia-wikipedia-baidu-baike/ |url-status=live}} [95] => [96] => === Online === [97] => {{Excerpt|Online encyclopedia}} [98] => [99] => ==== Free encyclopedias ==== [100] => {{Redirect|Free encyclopedia|the website that uses the term as its motto|Wikipedia}} [101] => [[File:Otros enciclopedias libres from EL.png|thumb|List of other free encyclopedias, from Enciclopedia Libre.]] [102] => The concept of a free encyclopedia began with the [[Interpedia]] proposal on [[Usenet]] in 1993, which outlined an Internet-based [[online encyclopedia]] to which anyone could submit content that would be freely accessible. Early projects in this vein included [[Everything2]] and [[Open Site]]. In 1999, [[Richard Stallman]] proposed the [[GNUPedia]], an online encyclopedia which, similar to the [[GNU operating system]], would be a "generic" resource. The concept was very similar to Interpedia, but more in line with Stallman's [[GNU]] philosophy. [103] => [104] => It was not until [[Nupedia]] and later [[Wikipedia]] that a stable free encyclopedia project was able to be established on the Internet. [105] => [106] => The [[English Wikipedia]], which was started in 2001, became the world's largest encyclopedia in 2004 at the 300,000 article stage.[http://linuxreviews.org/news/2004/07/07_3000k/ "Wikipedia Passes 300,000 Articles making it the worlds largest encyclopedia"] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20070927210350/http://linuxreviews.org/news/2004/07/07_3000k/ |date=September 27, 2007}}, ''Linux Reviews'', 2004 Julich y 7. By late 2005, Wikipedia had produced over two million articles in more than 80 languages with content licensed under the [[copyleft]] [[GNU Free Documentation License]]. {{As of|August 2009|post=,}} Wikipedia had over 3 million articles in English and well over 10 million combined articles in over 250 languages. Today, Wikipedia has [[Special:Statistics|{{NUMBEROFARTICLES}}]] articles in English, over 60 million combined articles in over 300 languages, and over 250 million combined pages including project and discussion pages.{{Cite web |title=List of Wikipedias - Meta |url=https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/List_of_Wikipedias |access-date=2023-08-20 |website=meta.wikimedia.org |language=en}} [107] => [108] => Since 2002, other free encyclopedias appeared, including [[Hudong]] (2005–) and [[Baidu Baike]] (2006–) in Chinese, and Google's [[Knol]] (2008–2012) in English. Some MediaWiki-based encyclopedias have appeared, usually under a license compatible with Wikipedia, including [[Enciclopedia Libre Universal en Español|Enciclopedia Libre]] (2002–2021) in Spanish and [[Conservapedia]] (2006–), [[Scholarpedia]] (2006–), and [[Citizendium]] (2007–) in English, the latter of which had become inactive by 2014.{{Cite book |last=Herring |first=Mark Youngblood |title=Are libraries obsolete? an argument for relevance in the digital age |date=2014 |publisher=McFarland & Company |isbn=978-0-7864-7356-4 |location=Jefferson, N.C}} [109] => [110] => ==See also== [111] => {{portal|Literature|Education}} [112] => {{div col|colwidth=20em}} [113] => * [[Bibliography of encyclopedias]] [114] => * [[Biographical dictionary]] [115] => * [[Encyclopedic knowledge]] [116] => * [[Encyclopedism]] [117] => * [[Fictitious entry]] [118] => * [[History of science and technology]] [119] => * [[Lexicography]] [120] => * [[Library science]] [121] => * [[Lists of encyclopedias]] [122] => * [[Thesaurus]] [123] => * [[Speculum literature]] [124] => {{div col end}} [125] => [126] => ==Notes== [127] => {{reflist}} [128] => [129] => ==References== [130] => {{refbegin}} [131] => * {{cite web |title=encyclopedia |website=Online Etymology Dictionary |url=https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=encyclopedia |access-date=2020-05-13 |archive-date=March 8, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210308154841/https://www.etymonline.com/search?q=encyclopedia |url-status=live }} [132] => * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Encyclopaedia |encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/186603/encyclopaedia |access-date=July 27, 2010 |archive-date=December 16, 2010 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20101216021641/https://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/186603/encyclopaedia |url-status=live }} [133] => * {{cite book |last=Béjoint |first=Henri |year=2000 |title=Modern Lexicography |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-829951-6}} [134] => * C. Codoner, S. Louis, M. Paulmier-Foucart, D. Hüe, M. Salvat, A. Llinares, ''L'Encyclopédisme. Actes du Colloque de Caen'', A. Becq (dir.), Paris, 1991. [135] => * {{cite book |editor1-last=Bergenholtz |editor1-first=H. |editor2-last=Nielsen |editor2-first=S. |editor3-last=Tarp |editor3-first=S. |year=2009 |title=Lexicography at a Crossroads: Dictionaries and Encyclopedias Today, Lexicographical Tools Tomorrow |publisher=Peter Lang |isbn=978-3-03911-799-4}} [136] => * {{cite book |last=Blom |first=Phillip |year=2004 |title=Enlightening the World: Encyclopédie, the Book that Changed the Course of History |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |location=New York; Basingstoke |isbn=978-1-4039-6895-1 |oclc=57669780}} [137] => * {{cite book |last=Collison |first=Robert Lewis |year=1966 |title=Encyclopaedias: Their History Throughout the Ages |edition=2nd |publisher=Hafner |location=New York, London |oclc=220101699}} [138] => * {{cite book |last=Cowie |first=Anthony Paul |year=2009 |title=The Oxford History of English Lexicography, Volume I |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-415-14143-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=nhnVF9Or_wMC |access-date=August 17, 2010 |archive-date=April 15, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210415131818/https://books.google.com/books?id=nhnVF9Or_wMC |url-status=live }} [139] => * {{cite book |last=Darnton |first=Robert |year=1979 |title=The business of enlightenment: a publishing history of the Encyclopédie, 1775–1800 |publisher=Belknap Press |location=Cambridge |isbn=978-0-674-08785-9 |url=https://archive.org/details/Business_201507 }} [140] => * {{cite book |last1=Hartmann |first1=R. R. K. |last2=James |first2=Gregory |year=1998 |title=Dictionary of Lexicography |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-14143-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=49NZ12icE-QC&q=%22encyclopedic%20dictionary%22%2Bencyclopedia&pg=PA49 |access-date=July 27, 2010 |archive-date=January 14, 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210114034551/https://books.google.com/books?id=49NZ12icE-QC&q=%22encyclopedic%20dictionary%22%2Bencyclopedia&pg=PA49 |url-status=live }} [141] => * {{cite book |editor-last=Kafker |editor-first=Frank A. |year=1981 |title=Notable encyclopedias of the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries: nine predecessors of the Encyclopédie |publisher=Voltaire Foundation |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-7294-0256-9 |oclc=10645788}} [142] => * {{cite book |editor-last=Kafker |editor-first=Frank A. |year=1994 |title=Notable encyclopedias of the late eighteenth century: eleven successors of the Encyclopédie |publisher=Voltaire Foundation |location=Oxford |isbn=978-0-7294-0467-9 |oclc=30787125}} [143] => * {{cite book |last=Needham |first=Joseph |year=1986 |title=Science and Civilization in China |chapter=Part 7, Military Technology; the Gunpowder Epic |publisher=Caves Books Ltd. |location=Taipei |isbn=978-0-521-30358-3 |oclc=59245877 |volume=5 – Chemistry and Chemical Technology}} [144] => * {{cite journal |last=Rosenzweig |first=Roy |author-link=Roy Rosenzweig |date=June 2006 |title=Can History Be Open Source? Wikipedia and the Future of the Past |journal=Journal of American History |issn=1945-2314 |jstor=4486062 |doi=10.2307/4486062 |volume=93 |issue=1 |pages=117–46 |url=http://chnm.gmu.edu/essays-on-history-new-media/essays/?essayid=42 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100425130754/http://chnm.gmu.edu/essays-on-history-new-media/essays/?essayid=42 |archive-date=April 25, 2010 }} [145] => * {{cite book |last=Ioannides |first=Marinos |date=2006 |title=The e-volution of information communication technology in cultural heritage: where hi-tech touches the past: risks and challenges for the 21st century |publisher=Archaeolingua |location=Budapest |isbn=963-8046-73-2 |oclc=218599120}} [146] => * {{cite book |last=Walsh |first=S. Padraig |year=1968 |title=Anglo-American general encyclopedias: a historical bibliography, 1703–1967 |publisher=Bowker |location=New York |oclc=577541 |page=270}} [147] => * {{cite book |last=Yeo |first=Richard R. |year=2001 |title=Encyclopaedic visions: scientific dictionaries and enlightenment culture |publisher=Cambridge University Press |location=Cambridge, New York |isbn=978-0-521-65191-2 |oclc=45828872 |url=http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/history-ideas-and-intellectual-history/encyclopaedic-visions-scientific-dictionaries-and-enlightenment-culture?format=HB |access-date=April 15, 2014 |archive-date=April 16, 2014 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140416064030/http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/history-ideas-and-intellectual-history/encyclopaedic-visions-scientific-dictionaries-and-enlightenment-culture?format=HB |url-status=live }} [148] => {{refend}} [149] => [150] => ==External links== [151] => {{Wiktionary|encyclopedia|encyclopaedia|encyclopedic}} [152] => {{Commons category|Encyclopedias}} [153] => {{Wikisource portal|Encyclopedias}} [154] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20060114061155/http://www.educ.fc.ul.pt/hyper/eng/index.html Encyclopaedia and Hypertext] [155] => * [http://www.accuracyproject.org/cbe-errors-books.html Internet Accuracy Project] – Biographical errors in encyclopedias and almanacs [156] => * [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=did;cc=did;idno=did2222.0000.004;rgn=main;view=text "Encyclopedia"] – Diderot's article on the Encyclopedia from the original ''[[Encyclopédie]]''. [157] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080615051823/http://www.dm.unipi.it/~tucci/index.html ''De expetendis et fugiendis rebus''] – First Renaissance encyclopedia [158] => * [http://kennedy.byu.edu/staff/peterson/multivol/multibooks.html Errors and inconsistencies in several printed reference books and encyclopedias]; {{webarchive |url=https://web.archive.org/web/20010718235527/http://kennedy.byu.edu/staff/peterson/Multivol/Multibooks.html |date=July 18, 2001 }} [159] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20131109213126/http://reviews.cnet.com/1990-3118_7-6378998-1.html "Digital encyclopedias put the world at your fingertips"]{{snd}} [[CNET]] article [160] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20080112134535/http://www.uwstout.edu/lib/reference/encycl.htm Encyclopedias online] University of Wisconsin{{snd}} Stout listing by category [161] => * [https://search.library.wisc.edu/digital/ACyclopaedia Chambers' ''Cyclopaedia''], 1728, with the 1753 supplement [162] => * [http://quod.lib.umich.edu/cgi/t/text/text-idx?c=moa&cc=moa&key=title&page=browse&value=encyclop%C3%A6dia+americana&Submit=Quick+Browse ''Encyclopædia Americana''], 1851, [[Francis Lieber]] ed. (Boston: Mussey & Co.) at the University of Michigan Making of America site [163] => * [http://www.1902encyclopedia.com/ ''Encyclopædia Britannica''], articles and illustrations from 9th ed., 1875–89, and 10th ed., 1902–03. [164] => [165] => {{Authority control}} [166] => [167] => [[Category:Encyclopedias| ]] [168] => [[Category:Works about history]] [] => )
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Encyclopedia

An encyclopedia is a comprehensive reference work that provides information and explanations about various topics. It is typically organized alphabetically, and contains articles written by experts in their respective fields.

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It is typically organized alphabetically, and contains articles written by experts in their respective fields. Encyclopedias cover a wide range of subjects, including history, geography, science, arts, and more. The concept of an encyclopedia dates back to ancient civilizations, with early examples found in ancient Sumer and Greece. However, modern encyclopedias as we know them today started to emerge during the Enlightenment period in Europe, with notable examples such as Denis Diderot and Jean le Rond d'Alembert's Encyclopédie. Encyclopedias have traditionally been published in print format, often as multi-volume sets. However, with the advancement of technology, digital encyclopedias have become increasingly popular. Wikipedia, a free online encyclopedia launched in 2001, has revolutionized the way information is shared and accessed, allowing anyone with internet access to contribute and edit articles. Encyclopedias are valuable resources for researchers, students, and the general public, providing reliable and organized information on a wide range of topics. They serve as reference materials for both casual browsing and in-depth research. While encyclopedias strive to be comprehensive and objective, they can also reflect biases and limitations inherent in their creation and the knowledge available at the time. Overall, encyclopedias play an important role in disseminating knowledge, preserving information, and promoting lifelong learning. They continue to evolve and adapt to new technologies, ensuring that information remains accessible to a global audience.

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