Array ( [0] => {{Use American English|date=July 2023}} [1] => {{Short description|Science regarding function of organisms or living systems}} [2] => {{for|the scientific journal|Physiology (journal){{!}}''Physiology'' (journal)}} [3] => [[File:Claude Bernard and his pupils. Oil painting after Léon-Augus Wellcome V0017769.jpg|thumb|upright=1.5|Oil painting depicting [[Claude Bernard]], the father of modern physiology, with his pupils]] [4] => {{TopicTOC-Biology}} [5] => [6] => '''Physiology''' ({{IPAc-en|ˌ|f|ɪ|z|i|ˈ|ɒ|l|ə|dʒ|i}}; {{etymology|grc|''{{wikt-lang|grc|φύσις}}'' ({{grc-transl|φύσις}})|nature, origin||''{{wikt-lang|grc|-λογία}}'' ({{grc-transl|[[-logy|-λογία]]}})|study of}}){{OEtymD|physiology}} is the [[science|scientific]] study of [[function (biology)|functions]] and [[mechanism (biology)|mechanisms]] in a [[life|living system]].{{cite web |url=https://www.biology.cam.ac.uk/undergrads/nst/courses/physiology-of-organisms/what-is-physiology |title=What is physiology? |website=biology.cam.ac.uk |publisher=[[Cambridge University Press|University of Cambridge]], Faculty of Biology |date=16 February 2016 |language=en |access-date=2018-07-07}}{{cite book |last=Prosser |first=C. Ladd |title=Comparative Animal Physiology, Environmental and Metabolic Animal Physiology |edition=4th |publisher=[[Wiley (publisher)|Wiley]]-Liss |location=Hoboken, NJ |year=1991 |isbn=978-0-471-85767-9 |pages=1–12}} As a [[branches of science|subdiscipline]] of [[biology]], physiology focuses on how [[organism]]s, [[organ system]]s, individual [[organ (biology)|organs]], [[cell (biology)|cells]], and [[biomolecule]]s carry out [[chemistry|chemical]] and [[physics|physical]] functions in a living system.{{cite book |last1=Guyton|first1=Arthur |last2=Hall|first2=John |title=Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology |date=2011 |publisher=[[Saunders (imprint)|Saunders]]/[[Elsevier]] |location=Philadelphia |isbn=978-1-4160-4574-8 |page=3 |edition=12th}} According to the classes of [[organism]]s, the field can be divided into [[clinical physiology|medical physiology]], [[Zoology#Physiology|animal physiology]], [[plant physiology]], [[cell physiology]], and [[comparative physiology]]. [7] => [8] => Central to physiological functioning are [[biophysics|biophysical]] and [[biochemical]] processes, [[homeostasis|homeostatic]] control mechanisms, and [[cell signaling|communication]] between cells.{{cite book |title=Vander's Human Physiology Mechanisms of Body Function |last1=Widmaier|first1=Eric P. |last2=Raff|first2=Hershel |last3=Strang|first3=Kevin T. |publisher=[[McGraw-Hill Education]] |year=2016 |isbn=978-1-259-29409-9 |location=New York, NY |pages=14–15}} ''Physiological state'' is the condition of normal function. In contrast, ''[[pathology|pathological]] state'' refers to [[abnormality (behavior)|abnormal conditions]], including human [[disease]]s. [9] => [10] => The [[Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine]] is awarded by the [[Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences]] for exceptional scientific achievements in physiology related to the field of [[medicine]]. [11] => {{TOC limit|3}} [12] => [13] => ==Foundations== [14] => Because physiology focuses on the functions and mechanisms of living organisms at all levels, from the molecular and cellular level to the level of whole organisms and populations, its foundations span a range of key disciplines: [15] => * [[Anatomy]] is the study of the structure and organization of living organisms, from the microscopic level of cells and tissues to the macroscopic level of organs and systems. Anatomical knowledge is important in physiology because the structure and function of an organism are often dictated by one another. [16] => * [[Biochemistry]] is the study of the chemical processes and substances that occur within living organisms. Knowledge of biochemistry provides the foundation for understanding cellular and molecular processes that are essential to the functioning of organisms. [17] => * [[Biophysics]] is the study of the physical properties of living organisms and their interactions with their environment. It helps to explain how organisms sense and respond to different stimuli, such as light, sound, and temperature, and how they maintain homeostasis, or a stable internal environment. [18] => * [[Genetics]] is the study of heredity and the variation of traits within and between populations. It provides insights into the genetic basis of physiological processes and the ways in which genes interact with the environment to influence an organism's phenotype. [19] => * [[Evolutionary biology]] is the study of the processes that have led to the diversity of life on Earth. It helps to explain the origin and adaptive significance of physiological processes and the ways in which organisms have evolved to cope with their environment. [20] => [21] => ==Subdisciplines== [22] => There are many ways to categorize the subdisciplines of physiology:Moyes, C.D., Schulte, P.M. Principles of Animal Physiology, second edition. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. Boston, MA, 2008. [23] => * based on the [[taxon|taxa]] studied: [[human physiology]], animal physiology, [[plant physiology]], microbial physiology, viral physiology [24] => * based on the [[Biological organisation|level of organization]]: [[cell physiology]], [[molecular physiology]], [[Biological system|systems]] physiology, organismal physiology, [[ecological physiology]], integrative physiology [25] => * based on the process that causes physiological variation: [[Developmental biology|developmental]] physiology, [[environmental physiology]], [[evolutionary physiology]] [26] => * based on the ultimate goals of the research: [[applied physiology]] (e.g., medical physiology), [[Fundamental science|non-applied]] (e.g., [[comparative physiology]]) [27] => [28] => ===Subdisciplines by level of organisation=== [29] => ====Cell physiology==== [30] => {{Main|Cell physiology}}Although there are differences between [[animal]], [[plant]], and microbial cells, the basic physiological functions of cells can be divided into the processes of [[cell division]], [[cell signaling]], [[cell growth]], and [[Metabolism|cell metabolism]].{{cn|date=May 2023}} [31] => [32] => ===Subdisciplines by taxa=== [33] => ====Plant physiology==== [34] => {{Main|Plant physiology}}Plant physiology is a subdiscipline of [[botany]] concerned with the functioning of plants. Closely related fields include [[plant morphology]], [[plant ecology]], [[phytochemistry]], [[cell biology]], [[genetics]], [[biophysics]], and [[molecular biology]]. Fundamental processes of [[plant physiology]] include [[photosynthesis]], [[Respiration in plant|respiration]], [[plant nutrition]], [[tropism]]s, [[nastic movements]], [[photoperiodism]], [[photomorphogenesis]], [[circadian rhythm]]s, [[Germination|seed germination]], [[dormancy]], and [[stoma]]ta function and [[transpiration]]. Absorption of water by roots, production of food in the leaves, and growth of shoots towards light are examples of plant physiology.{{cite web |title=Plant physiology |url=https://basicbiology.net/plants/physiology|publisher=Basic Biology|date=2019|access-date=16 January 2019}} [35] => [36] => ====Animal physiology==== [37] => {{Main|Biology#Animal form and function}} [38] => [39] => =====Human physiology===== [40] => {{Main|Human body#Physiology}}Human physiology is the study of how the human body's systems and functions work together to maintain a stable internal environment. It includes the study of the nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, and urinary systems, as well as cellular and exercise physiology. Understanding human physiology is essential for diagnosing and treating health conditions and promoting overall wellbeing. [41] => It seeks to understand the mechanisms that work to keep the [[human body]] alive and functioning, through scientific enquiry into the nature of mechanical, physical, and biochemical functions of humans, their organs, and the cells of which they are composed. The principal level of focus of physiology is at the level of organs and systems within systems. The endocrine and nervous systems play major roles in the reception and transmission of signals that integrate function in animals. [[Homeostasis]] is a major aspect with regard to such interactions within plants as well as animals. The biological basis of the study of physiology, integration refers to the overlap of many functions of the systems of the human body, as well as its accompanied form. It is achieved through communication that occurs in a variety of ways, both electrical and chemical.{{cite journal |last1=Pereda |first1=AE |title=Electrical synapses and their functional interactions with chemical synapses |journal=Nature Reviews. Neuroscience |date=April 2014 |volume=15 |issue=4 |pages=250–63 |doi=10.1038/nrn3708 |pmid=24619342 |pmc=4091911}} [42] => [43] => Changes in physiology can impact the mental functions of individuals. Examples of this would be the effects of certain medications or toxic levels of substances.{{cite web|title=Mental disorders|url=https://www.who.int/topics/mental_disorders/en/|website=World Health Organization|publisher=WHO|access-date=15 April 2017}} Change in [[behavior change (individual)|behavior]] as a result of these substances is often used to assess the health of individuals.{{cite web | title = Eszopiclone | publisher = F.A. Davis | date = 2017 | access-date = April 15, 2017 | url = http://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/eszopiclone.pdf | archive-date = November 24, 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171124164653/https://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/eszopiclone.pdf | url-status = dead }}{{cite web | title = Zolpidem | publisher = F.A. Davis | url = http://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/zolpidem.pdf | access-date = April 15, 2017 | archive-date = December 22, 2017 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171222105509/https://davisplus.fadavis.com/3976/meddeck/pdf/zolpidem.pdf | url-status = dead }} [44] => [45] => Much of the foundation of knowledge in human physiology was provided by [[Animal testing|animal experimentation]]. Due to the frequent connection between form and function, physiology and [[anatomy]] are intrinsically linked and are studied in tandem as part of a medical curriculum.{{cite journal |last1=Bergman |first1=Esther M |last2=de Bruin |first2=Anique BH |last3=Herrler |first3=Andreas |last4=Verheijen |first4=Inge WH |last5=Scherpbier |first5=Albert JJA |last6=van der Vleuten |first6=Cees PM |title=Students' perceptions of anatomy across the undergraduate problem-based learning medical curriculum: a phenomenographical study |pmc=4225514 |journal=BMC Medical Education |doi=10.1186/1472-6920-13-152 |date=19 November 2013 |quote=Together with physiology and biochemistry, anatomy is one of the basic sciences that are to be taught in the medical curriculum. |pmid=24252155 |volume=13 |page=152 |doi-access=free }} [46] => [47] => ===Subdisciplines by research objective=== [48] => ====Comparative physiology==== [49] => {{Main|Comparative physiology}} [50] => Involving [[evolutionary physiology]] and [[environmental physiology]], comparative physiology considers the diversity of functional characteristics across organisms.{{cite journal|last=Garland| first=T. Jr. |author2=P. A. Carter|year=1994|title=Evolutionary physiology|url=http://www.biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf|journal=Annual Review of Physiology|volume=56|pages=579–621|doi=10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051|pmid=8010752|access-date=2008-04-11|archive-date=2021-04-12|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210412150229/https://biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf|url-status=dead}} [51] => [52] => == History == [53] => [54] => ===The classical era=== [55] => The study of human physiology as a medical field originates in [[classical Greece]], at the time of [[Hippocrates]] (late 5th century BC).{{cite web |url=http://www.scienceclarified.com/Ph-Py/Physiology.html |title=Physiology| work=Science Clarified |publisher= Advameg, Inc. |access-date=2010-08-29}} Outside of Western tradition, early forms of physiology or anatomy can be reconstructed as having been present at around the same time in [[China]],Helaine Selin, ''Medicine Across Cultures: History and Practice of Medicine in Non-Western Cultures'' (2003), p. 53. India{{cite book|title=From Physiology and Chemistry to Biochemistry|page=8|publisher=Pearson Education|first1=D. P. |last1=Burma |first2=Maharani|last2=Chakravorty}} and elsewhere. Hippocrates incorporated the theory of [[humorism]], which consisted of four basic substances: earth, water, air and fire. Each substance is known for having a corresponding humor: black bile, phlegm, blood, and yellow bile, respectively. Hippocrates also noted some emotional connections to the four humors, on which [[Galen]] would later expand. The critical thinking of [[Aristotle]] and his emphasis on the relationship between structure and function marked the beginning of physiology in [[Ancient Greece]]. Like [[Hippocrates]], Aristotle took to the humoral theory of disease, which also consisted of four primary qualities in life: hot, cold, wet and dry.{{cite web|url=http://webspace.ship.edu/cgboer/neurophysio.html|title=Early Medicine and Physiology|work=ship.edu}} Galen ({{circa|130}}–200 AD) was the first to use experiments to probe the functions of the body. Unlike Hippocrates, Galen argued that humoral imbalances can be located in specific organs, including the entire body.{{cite encyclopedia|url= http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/223895/Galen-of-Pergamum|title=Galen of Pergamum|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=6 March 2024 }} His modification of this theory better equipped doctors to make more precise diagnoses. Galen also played off of Hippocrates' idea that emotions were also tied to the humors, and added the notion of temperaments: sanguine corresponds with blood; phlegmatic is tied to phlegm; yellow bile is connected to choleric; and black bile corresponds with melancholy. Galen also saw the human body consisting of three connected systems: the brain and nerves, which are responsible for thoughts and sensations; the heart and arteries, which give life; and the liver and veins, which can be attributed to nutrition and growth. Galen was also the founder of experimental physiology.{{Cite journal | first1 = C. | last1 = Fell | first2 = F. | last2 = Pearson | title = Historical Perspectives of Thoracic Anatomy | journal = Thoracic Surgery Clinics |date=November 2007 | volume = 17 | issue = 4 | pages = 443–8| doi = 10.1016/j.thorsurg.2006.12.001| pmid = 18271159 }} And for the next 1,400 years, Galenic physiology was a powerful and influential tool in [[medicine]]. [56] => [57] => ===Early modern period=== [58] => [[Jean Fernel]] (1497–1558), a French physician, introduced the term "physiology".{{cite book|title=Encyclopedia of the Scientific Revolution: From Copernicus to Newton |page=344|first=Wilbur|last=Applebaum|publisher=Routledge|bibcode=2000esrc.book.....A|year=2000}} Galen, [[Ibn al-Nafis]], [[Michael Servetus]], [[Realdo Colombo]], [[Amato Lusitano]] and [[William Harvey]], are credited as making important discoveries in the [[circulation of the blood]].{{Cite journal|last=Rampling|first=M. W.|date=2016|title=The history of the theory of the circulation of the blood|journal=Clinical Hemorheology and Microcirculation|volume=64|issue=4|pages=541–549|doi=10.3233/CH-168031|issn=1875-8622|pmid=27791994|s2cid=3304540}} [[Santorio Santorio]] in 1610s was the first to use a device to measure the [[pulse]] rate (the ''pulsilogium''), and a [[thermoscope]] to measure temperature.{{Cite web|url=http://exhibits.hsl.virginia.edu/treasures/santorio-santorio-1561-1636/|title=Santorio Santorio (1561-1636): Medicina statica|website=Vaulted Treasures|publisher=University of Virginia, Claude Moore Health Sciences Library}} [59] => [60] => In 1791 [[Luigi Galvani]] described the role of electricity in nerves of dissected frogs. In 1811, [[César Julien Jean Legallois]] studied respiration in animal dissection and lesions and found the center of respiration in the [[medulla oblongata]]. In the same year, [[Charles Bell]] finished work on what would later become known as the [[Bell–Magendie law]], which compared functional differences between dorsal and ventral roots of the [[spinal cord]]. In 1824, [[François Magendie]] described the sensory roots and produced the first evidence of the cerebellum's role in [[equilibrioception|equilibration]] to complete the Bell–Magendie law. [61] => [62] => In the 1820s, the French physiologist [[Henri Milne-Edwards]] introduced the notion of physiological division of labor, which allowed to "compare and study living things as if they were machines created by the industry of man." Inspired in the work of [[Adam Smith]], Milne-Edwards wrote that the "body of all living beings, whether animal or plant, resembles a factory ... where the organs, comparable to workers, work incessantly to produce the phenomena that constitute the life of the individual." In more differentiated organisms, the functional labor could be apportioned between different instruments or [[Biological system|systems]] (called by him as ''appareils'').{{Cite book|last=Brain|first=Robert Michael|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=l8IECgAAQBAJ|title=The Pulse of Modernism: Physiological Aesthetics in Fin-de-Siècle Europe|date=2015-05-01|publisher=University of Washington Press|isbn=978-0-295-80578-8|language=en}} [63] => [64] => In 1858, [[Joseph Lister, 1st Baron Lister|Joseph Lister]] studied the cause of blood coagulation and inflammation that resulted after previous injuries and surgical wounds. He later discovered and implemented [[antiseptic]]s in the operating room, and as a result, decreased death rate from surgery by a substantial amount.{{cite web|url=http://www.physiologyinfo.org/mm/Timeline-of-Physiology/Milestones-in-Physiology.pdf|date=1 October 2013|title=Milestones in Physiology (1822-2013) |website=Physiology Info |access-date=2015-07-25 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20150918173051/http://www.physiologyinfo.org/mm/Timeline-of-Physiology/Milestones-in-Physiology.pdf |archive-date= Sep 18, 2015 }} [65] => [66] => [[The Physiological Society]] was founded in London in 1876 as a dining club.{{Cite web|url=http://www.physoc.org/society-history|title=The Society's history |website=Physiological Society|language=en|access-date=2017-02-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170214024209/http://www.physoc.org/society-history|archive-date=2017-02-14|url-status=dead}} [[The American Physiological Society]] (APS) is a nonprofit organization that was founded in 1887. The Society is, "devoted to fostering education, scientific research, and dissemination of information in the physiological sciences."{{Cite web|url=http://www.the-aps.org/fm/About-Us.html|title=American Physiological Society > About|website=the-aps.org|language=en|access-date=2017-02-21|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181021232208/http://www.the-aps.org/fm/About-Us.html|archive-date=2018-10-21|url-status=dead}} [67] => [68] => In 1891, [[Ivan Pavlov]] performed research on "conditional responses" that involved dogs' saliva production in response to a bell and visual stimuli. [69] => [70] => In the 19th century, physiological knowledge began to accumulate at a rapid rate, in particular with the 1838 appearance of the [[Cell theory]] of [[Matthias Jakob Schleiden|Matthias Schleiden]] and [[Theodor Schwann]].{{Cite web|date=2017-10-13|title=Introduction to physiology: History, biological systems, and branches|url=https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/248791|access-date=2020-10-01|website=www.medicalnewstoday.com|language=en}} It radically stated that organisms are made up of units called cells. [[Claude Bernard]]'s (1813–1878) further discoveries ultimately led to his concept of ''[[milieu interieur]]'' (internal environment),{{Cite book|title=An Introduction to the Study of Ex- perimental Medicine|last=Bernard|first=Claude|publisher=Dover Publications|year=1865|location=New York|publication-date=1957}}{{Cite book|title=Lectures on the Phenomena of Life Common to Animals and Plants|last=Bernard|first=Claude|publisher=Thomas|year=1878|location=Springfield|publication-date=1974}} which would later be taken up and championed as "[[homeostasis]]" by American physiologist [[Walter B. Cannon]] in 1929. By homeostasis, Cannon meant "the maintenance of steady states in the body and the physiological processes through which they are regulated."{{cite journal |author1=Brown Theodore M. |author2=Fee Elizabeth | date = October 2002 | title = Walter Bradford Cannon: Pioneer Physiologist of Human Emotions | journal = American Journal of Public Health | volume = 92 | issue = 10| pages = 1594–1595 | pmc=1447286 | doi=10.2105/ajph.92.10.1594}} In other words, the body's ability to regulate its internal environment. William Beaumont was the first American to utilize the practical application of physiology. [71] => [72] => Nineteenth-century physiologists such as [[Michael Foster (physiologist)|Michael Foster]], [[Max Verworn]], and [[Alfred Binet]], based on [[Haeckel]]'s ideas, elaborated what came to be called "general physiology", a unified science of life based on the cell actions, later renamed in the 20th century as [[cell biology]].{{Cite book|last=Heilbron|first=John L.|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=abqjP-_KfzkC|title=The Oxford Companion to the History of Modern Science|date=2003-03-27|publisher=Oxford University Press|isbn=978-0-19-974376-6|language=en |page=649}} [73] => [74] => ===Late modern period=== [75] => In the 20th century, biologists became interested in how organisms other than human beings function, eventually spawning the fields of [[comparative physiology]] and [[ecophysiology]].{{Cite book | last1=Feder | first1=ME |last2=Bennett |first2=AF |first3=Burggren |last3=WW |last4=Huey |first4=RB | title = New directions in ecological physiology | year = 1987 | publisher = Cambridge University Press | location = New York | isbn = 978-0-521-34938-3}} Major figures in these fields include [[Knut Schmidt-Nielsen]] and [[George Bartholomew (biologist)|George Bartholomew]]. Most recently, [[evolutionary physiology]] has become a distinct subdiscipline.{{Cite journal | first1 = Theodore Jr. | last1 = Garland | author1-link = Theodore Garland, Jr. | last2 = Carter | first2 = P. A. | title = Evolutionary physiology | journal = Annual Review of Physiology | year = 1994 | issue = 1 | pages = 579–621 | url = http://www.biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf | doi = 10.1146/annurev.ph.56.030194.003051 | volume = 56 | pmid = 8010752 | access-date = 2008-04-11 | archive-date = 2021-04-12 | archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20210412150229/https://biology.ucr.edu/people/faculty/Garland/GarlCa94.pdf | url-status = dead }} [76] => [77] => In 1920, [[August Krogh]] won the Nobel Prize for discovering how, in capillaries, blood flow is regulated. [78] => [79] => In 1954, [[Andrew Huxley]] and Hugh Huxley, alongside their research team, discovered the sliding filaments in [[skeletal muscle]], known today as the sliding filament theory. [80] => [81] => Recently, there have been intense debates about the vitality of physiology as a discipline (Is it dead or alive?).{{Cite journal|last1=Pinter|first1=G. G.|last2=Pinter|first2=V.|date=1993|title=Is Physiology a Dying Discipline?|journal=Physiology|volume=8|issue=2|pages=94–95|doi=10.1152/physiologyonline.1993.8.2.94}}{{Cite journal|last1=Lemoine|first1=Maël|last2=Pradeu|first2=Thomas|date=2018-07-01|title=Dissecting the Meanings of "Physiology" to Assess the Vitality of the Discipline|journal=Physiology|volume=33|issue=4|pages=236–245|doi=10.1152/physiol.00015.2018|issn=1548-9221|pmid=29873600|url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-01817082/file/Lemoine-Pradeu_Vitality%20of%20physiology_Online%20version.pdf|doi-access=free}} If physiology is perhaps less visible nowadays than during the golden age of the 19th century,{{Cite book|title=The Cambridge History of the Modern Biological and Earth Science|last=Kremer|first=Richard L.|publisher=Cambridge University Press|year=2009|isbn=9781139056007|editor-last=Bowler & Pickstone|location=Cambridge|pages=342–366|chapter=Physiology|doi=10.1017/CHOL9780521572019.019}} it is in large part because the field has given birth to some of the most active domains of today's biological sciences, such as [[neuroscience]], [[endocrinology]], and [[immunology]].{{Cite journal|last=Noble|first=Denis|date=2013|title=More on Physiology Without Borders|journal=Physiology|volume=28|issue=1|pages=2–3|doi=10.1152/physiol.00044.2012|issn=1548-9213|pmid=23280350|s2cid=22271159}} Furthermore, physiology is still often seen as an integrative discipline, which can put together into a coherent framework data coming from various different domains.{{Cite journal|last1=Neill|first1=Jimmy D.|last2=Benos|first2=Dale J.|date=1993|title=Relationship of Molecular Biology to Integrative Physiology|journal=Physiology|volume=8|issue=5|pages=233–235|doi=10.1152/physiologyonline.1993.8.5.233}}{{Cite journal|last=Noble|first=Denis|date=2002-03-01|title=Modeling the Heart--from Genes to Cells to the Whole Organ|journal=Science|language=en|volume=295|issue=5560|pages=1678–1682|doi=10.1126/science.1069881|issn=0036-8075|pmid=11872832|bibcode=2002Sci...295.1678N|s2cid=6756983}} [82] => [83] => ==Notable physiologists== [84] => {{Main|List of physiologists}} [85] => [86] => === Women in physiology === [87] => Initially, women were largely excluded from official involvement in any physiological society. The [[American Physiological Society]], for example, was founded in 1887 and included only men in its ranks.{{cite web|title=American Physiological Society > Founders|url=http://www.the-aps.org/fm/founders.html|website=the-aps.org|publisher=The American Physiological Society|language=en |access-date= 2017-02-08|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170107170806/http://www.the-aps.org/fm/founders.html|archive-date=2017-01-07|url-status=dead}} In 1902, the American Physiological Society elected [[Ida Hyde]] as the first female member of the society.{{cite journal|last1=Tucker|first1=GS|title=Ida Henrietta Hyde: the first woman member of the society|journal=The Physiologist|date=December 1981|volume=24|issue=6|pages=1–9|pmid=7043502|url=http://www.the-aps.org/mm/Publications/Journals/Physiologist/1980-1989/1981/December.pdf |access-date=2017-04-27|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20170122195940/http://www.the-aps.org/mm/Publications/Journals/Physiologist/1980-1989/1981/December.pdf|archive-date=2017-01-22|url-status=dead}}{{open access}} Hyde, a representative of the [[American Association of University Women]] and a global advocate for gender equality in education,{{cite encyclopedia|last = Butin |first = Jan|url= http://jwa.org/encyclopedia/article/hydeida-henrietta|title=Ida Henrietta Hyde|encyclopedia=Jewish Women: A Comprehensive Historical Encyclopedia|date = 31 December 1999|publisher = Jewish Women's Archive}} attempted to promote gender equality in every aspect of science and medicine. [88] => [89] => Soon thereafter, in 1913, [[J.S. Haldane]] proposed that women be allowed to formally join [[The Physiological Society]], which had been founded in 1876.{{Cite web|url=http://www.physoc.org/women-physiology|title=Women in Physiology |website=Physiological Society|language=en|access-date=2018-01-11|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106185703/http://www.physoc.org/women-physiology|archive-date=2018-11-06|url-status=dead}} On 3 July 1915, six women were officially admitted: [[Florence Buchanan]], [[Winifred Cullis]], [[Ruth C. Skelton]], [[Sarah C. M. Sowton]], [[Constance Leetham Terry]], and [[Enid M. Tribe]].{{cite web|url=http://www.physoc.org/women-physiology|title=Women in Physiology|work=physoc.org|access-date=2015-05-15|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181106185703/http://www.physoc.org/women-physiology|archive-date=2018-11-06|url-status=dead}} The centenary of the election of women was celebrated in 2015 with the publication of the book "Women Physiologists: Centenary Celebrations And Beyond For The Physiological Society." ({{ISBN|978-0-9933410-0-7}}) [90] => [91] => Prominent women physiologists include: [92] => * [[Bodil Schmidt-Nielsen]], the first woman president of the [[American Physiological Society]] in 1975.{{Cite web|title=Bodil M. Schmidt-Nielsen Distinguished Mentor and Scientist Award|url=https://www.pathwaystoscience.org/programhub.aspx?sort=OPP-AmerPhysioSocity-BodilMSchmidt|access-date=2020-10-01|website=www.pathwaystoscience.org}} [93] => * [[Gerty Cori]],{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1363456/Carl-Cori-and-Gerty-Cori|title=Carl Cori and Gerty Cori|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=23 February 2024 }} along with husband [[Carl Cori]], received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1947 for their discovery of the [[phosphate]]-containing form of [[glucose]] known as [[glycogen]], as well as its function within [[Eukaryote|eukaryotic]] [[Metabolism|metabolic]] mechanisms for energy production. Moreover, they discovered the [[Cori cycle]], also known as the Lactic acid cycle,{{cite web|url=http://medical-dictionary.thefreedictionary.com/Cori+cycle|title=Cori cycle|work=TheFreeDictionary.com}} which describes how muscle tissue converts glycogen into lactic acid via [[lactic acid fermentation]]. [94] => * [[Barbara McClintock]] was rewarded the 1983 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of [[transposition (horizontal gene transfer)|genetic transposition]]. McClintock is the only female recipient who has won an unshared Nobel Prize.{{cite web|title=Facts on the Nobel Prizes in Physiology and Medicine|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/facts/medicine/|website=nobelprize.org|publisher=Nobel Media AB|access-date=2016-09-23}} [95] => * [[Gertrude Elion]],{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/184676/Gertrude-B-Elion|title=Gertrude B. Elion|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=29 February 2024 }} along with [[George Hitchings]] and [[James Black (pharmacologist)|Sir James Black]], received the Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine in 1988 for their development of drugs employed in the treatment of several major diseases, such as [[leukemia]], some [[autoimmune disorders]], [[gout]], [[malaria]], and [[herpes|viral herpes]]. [96] => * [[Linda B. Buck]],{{cite web|url=https://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/medicine/laureates/2004/|title=The Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine 2004|work=nobelprize.org}} along with [[Richard Axel]], received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2004 for their discovery of [[Olfactory receptor|odorant receptors]] and the complex organization of the [[olfactory system]]. [97] => * [[Françoise Barré-Sinoussi]],{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1473980/Francoise-Barre-Sinoussi|title=Francoise Barre-Sinoussi - biography - French virologist|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica|date=26 July 2023 }} along with [[Luc Montagnier]], received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 2008 for their work on the identification of the [[Human Immunodeficiency Virus]] (HIV), the cause of [[Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome]] (AIDS). [98] => * [[Elizabeth Blackburn]],{{cite encyclopedia|url=http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/1567675/Elizabeth-H-Blackburn|title=Elizabeth H. Blackburn|encyclopedia=Encyclopædia Britannica}} along with [[Carol W. Greider]]{{Cite web|title=Carol W. Greider | Biography, Nobel Prize, & Facts | Britannica|url=https://www.britannica.com/biography/Carol-W-Greider|access-date=2023-02-08|website=[[Encyclopædia Britannica]]|language=en}} and [[Jack W. Szostak]], was awarded the 2009 Nobel Prize for Physiology or Medicine for the discovery of the genetic composition and function of [[telomeres]] and the enzyme called [[telomerase]]. [99] => [100] => ==See also== [101] => {{Portal|Biology}} [102] => {{div col|colwidth=20em}} [103] => * [[Outline of physiology]] [104] => * [[Biochemistry]] [105] => * [[Biophysics]] [106] => * [[Cytoarchitecture]] [107] => * [[Defense physiology]] [108] => * [[Ecophysiology]] [109] => * [[Exercise physiology]] [110] => * [[Fish physiology]] [111] => * [[Insect physiology]] [112] => * [[Human body]] [113] => * [[Molecular biology]] [114] => * [[Metabolome]] [115] => * [[Neurophysiology]] [116] => * [[Pathophysiology]] [117] => * [[Pharmacology]] [118] => * [[Physiome]] [119] => * [[American Physiological Society]] [120] => * [[International Union of Physiological Sciences]] [121] => * [[The Physiological Society]] [122] => * [[Brazilian Society of Physiology]] [123] => {{div col end}} [124] => [125] => ==References== [126] => {{reflist|30em}} [127] => [128] => ==Bibliography== [129] => '''Human physiology''' [130] => * {{cite book|last=Hall|first=John|title=Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology|year=2011|publisher=Saunders/Elsevier|location=Philadelphia, Pa.|isbn=978-1-4160-4574-8|edition=12th}} [131] => * Widmaier, E.P., Raff, H., Strang, K.T. ''Vander's Human Physiology''. 11th Edition, McGraw-Hill, 2009. [132] => * Marieb, E.N. Essentials of Human Anatomy and Physiology. 10th Edition, Benjamin Cummings, 2012. [133] => [134] => '''Animal physiology''' [135] => * Hill, R.W., Wyse, G.A., Anderson, M. ''Animal Physiology'', 3rd ed. Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, 2012. [136] => * Moyes, C.D., [[Patricia Schulte|Schulte, P.M.]] ''Principles of Animal Physiology'', second edition. Pearson/Benjamin Cummings. Boston, MA, 2008. [137] => * Randall, D., Burggren, W., and French, K. ''Eckert Animal Physiology: Mechanism and Adaptation'', 5th Edition. W.H. Freeman and Company, 2002. [138] => * [[Knut Schmidt-Nielsen|Schmidt-Nielsen, K.]] ''Animal Physiology: Adaptation and Environment''. Cambridge & New York: Cambridge University Press, 1997. [139] => * Withers, P.C. ''Comparative animal physiology''. Saunders College Publishing, New York, 1992. [140] => [141] => '''Plant physiology''' [142] => * Larcher, W. ''Physiological plant ecology'' (4th ed.). Springer, 2001. [143] => * Salisbury, F.B, Ross, C.W. ''Plant physiology''. Brooks/Cole Pub Co., 1992 [144] => * Taiz, L., Zieger, E. ''Plant Physiology'' (5th ed.), Sunderland, Massachusetts: Sinauer, 2010. [145] => [146] => '''Fungal physiology''' [147] => * Griffin, D.H. ''Fungal Physiology'', Second Edition. Wiley-Liss, New York, 1994. [148] => [149] => '''Protistan physiology''' [150] => * Levandowsky, M. Physiological Adaptations of Protists. In: ''Cell physiology sourcebook: essentials of membrane biophysics''. Amsterdam; Boston: Elsevier/AP, 2012. [151] => * Levandowski, M., Hutner, S.H. (eds). ''Biochemistry and physiology of protozoa''. Volumes 1, 2, and 3. Academic Press: New York, NY, 1979; 2nd ed. [152] => * Laybourn-Parry J. ''A Functional Biology of Free-Living Protozoa''. Berkeley, California: University of California Press; 1984. [153] => [154] => '''Algal physiology''' [155] => * Lobban, C.S., Harrison, P.J. ''Seaweed ecology and physiology''. Cambridge University Press, 1997. [156] => * Stewart, W. D. P. (ed.). ''Algal Physiology and Biochemistry''. Blackwell Scientific Publications, Oxford, 1974. [157] => [158] => '''Bacterial physiology''' [159] => * El-Sharoud, W. (ed.). ''Bacterial Physiology: A Molecular Approach''. Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg, 2008. [160] => * Kim, B.H., Gadd, M.G. ''Bacterial Physiology and Metabolism''. Cambridge, 2008. [161] => * Moat, A.G., Foster, J.W., Spector, M.P. ''Microbial Physiology'', 4th ed. Wiley-Liss, Inc. New York, NY, 2002. [162] => [163] => ==External links== [164] => * {{Wiktionary-inline|physiology}} [165] => * {{Wikisource portal-inline|Physiology}} [166] => * {{Commonscatinline|Physiology}} [167] => * [https://web.archive.org/web/20100202075617/http://www.physiologyinfo.org/ physiologyINFO.org] – public information site sponsored by the [[American Physiological Society]] [168] => [169] => {{biology-footer}} [170] => {{physiology types|state=expanded}} [171] => {{Nobel Medicine}} [172] => {{Authority control}} [173] => [174] => [[Category:Physiology| ]] [175] => [[Category:Branches of biology]] [] => )
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Physiology

Physiology is the scientific study of the functions and processes of living organisms. It is a branch of biology that seeks to understand how organisms, from single-celled bacteria to complex multicellular organisms like humans, function and maintain homeostasis.

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It is a branch of biology that seeks to understand how organisms, from single-celled bacteria to complex multicellular organisms like humans, function and maintain homeostasis. The field encompasses a wide range of research areas, including the study of cell and molecular biology, neurophysiology, cardiovascular physiology, respiratory physiology, renal physiology, and many others. Understanding physiological processes is crucial for advances in medicine and healthcare, as it provides insights into the normal functioning of the body as well as the mechanisms underlying various diseases. The Wikipedia page on physiology provides a comprehensive overview of the field, its history, key concepts, and prominent researchers.

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