Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Study of meaning in language}} [1] => {{Other uses}} [2] => {{good article}} [3] => [[File:Word, object, and thought.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of the relation between word, object, and thought|A central topic in semantics concerns the relation between language, world, and mental concepts.]] [4] => [5] => '''Semantics''' is the study of linguistic [[Meaning (philosophy)|meaning]]. It examines what meaning is, how words get their meaning, and how the meaning of a complex expression depends on its parts. Part of this process involves the distinction between [[sense and reference]]. Sense is given by the ideas and concepts associated with an expression while reference is the object to which an expression points. Semantics contrasts with [[syntax]], which studies the rules that dictate how to create [[Grammar|grammatically]] correct sentences, and [[pragmatics]], which investigates how people use language in communication. [6] => [7] => [[Lexical semantics]] is the branch of semantics that studies [[word meaning]]. It examines whether words have one or several meanings and in what [[lexical relations]] they stand to one another. Phrasal semantics studies the meaning of sentences by exploring the phenomenon of [[compositionality]] or how new meanings can be created by arranging words. [[Formal semantics (natural language)|Formal semantics]] relies on [[logic]] and [[mathematics]] to provide precise frameworks of the relation between language and meaning. [[Cognitive semantics]] examines meaning from a psychological perspective and assumes a close relation between language ability and the conceptual structures used to understand the world. Other branches of semantics include [[conceptual semantics]], [[computational semantics]], and cultural semantics. [8] => [9] => Theories of meaning are general explanations of the nature of meaning and how expressions are endowed with it. According to [[direct reference theory|referential theories]], the meaning of an expression is the part of reality to which it points. Ideational theories identify meaning with [[mental states]] like the ideas that an expression evokes in the minds of language users. According to causal theories, meaning is determined by causes and effects, which [[Behaviorism|behaviorist]] semantics analyzes in terms of stimulus and response. Further theories of meaning include [[truth-conditional semantics]], [[verificationist]] theories, the [[Philosophical Investigations#Meaning as use|use theory]], and [[Inferential role semantics|inferentialist semantics]]. [10] => [11] => The study of semantic phenomena began during antiquity but was not recognized as an independent field of inquiry until the 19th century. Semantics is relevant to the fields of formal logic, [[computer science]], and [[psychology]]. [12] => [13] => == Definition and related fields == [14] => Semantics is the study of [[Meaning (philosophy)|meaning]] in [[language]]s.{{multiref | {{harvnb|AHD Staff|2022}} | {{harvnb|Saeed|2009|p=4}} | {{harvnb|Crimmins|1998|loc=Lead Section}} }} It is a systematic inquiry that examines what linguistic meaning is and how it arises.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Saeed|2009|pp=4–5}} | {{harvnb|Crimmins|1998|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|King|2006|p=735}} | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=2–3}} }} It investigates how [[Expression (linguistics)|expressions]] are built up from different layers of constituents, like [[morpheme]]s, [[word]]s, [[clause]]s, [[Sentence (linguistics)|sentences]], and [[Text (literary theory)|texts]], and how the meanings of the constituents affect one another.{{harvnb|Allan|2009|p=xi}} Semantics can focus on a specific language, like English, but in its widest sense, it investigates meaning structures relevant to all languages.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bezuidenhout|2009|p=875}} | {{harvnb|Jacobson|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XRRCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}} | {{harvnb|Zaefferer|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9G1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}} }}{{efn|The study of meaning structures found in all languages is sometimes referred to as ''universal semantics''.{{harvnb|Zaefferer|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=t9G1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}}}}{{efn|Semantics usually focuses on [[natural language]]s but it can also include the study of meaning in [[formal languages]], like the language of [[first-order logic]] and [[programming languages]].{{multiref | {{harvnb|Lewis|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=vsb-CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA169 169]}} | {{harvnb|Saeed|2009|pp=305–306, 315–317}} | {{harvnb|Fernández|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dzi5BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 14]}}}}}} As a descriptive discipline, it aims to determine how meaning works without [[Linguistic prescription|prescribing]] what meaning people should associate with particular expressions.{{harvnb|Griffiths|Cummins|2023|p=12}} Some of its key questions are "How do the meanings of words combine to create the meanings of sentences?", "How do meanings relate to the minds of language users, and to the things words refer to?", and "What is the connection between what a word means, and the contexts in which it is used?".{{harvnb|Riemer|2010|p=2}} The main disciplines engaged in semantics are [[linguistics]], [[semiotics]], and [[philosophy]].{{multiref | {{harvnb|Crimmins|1998|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Saeed|2009|p=5}} | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=4–6}} }} Besides its meaning as a field of inquiry, semantics can also refer to theories within this field, like [[truth-conditional semantics]],{{harvnb|Carston|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=v0tz8crnDqEC&pg=PA280 280]}} and to the meaning of particular expressions, like the semantics of the word ''fairy''.{{harvnb|Williams|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DLmoKKkxAX0C&pg=PA457 457]}} [15] => [16] => As a field of inquiry, semantics has both an internal and an external side. The internal side is interested in the connection between words and the [[Mental state|mental phenomena]] they evoke, like ideas and conceptual representations. The external side examines how words refer to objects in the world and under what conditions a sentence is true.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gross|2016|pp=12–13}} | {{harvnb|Riemer|2016|pp=30–31}} }} [17] => [18] => Many related disciplines investigate language and meaning. Semantics contrasts with other subfields of linguistics focused on distinct aspects of language. [[Phonology]] studies the different types of [[Phone (phonetics)|sounds]] used in languages and how sounds are connected to form words while [[syntax]] examines [[grammar|the rules]] that dictate how to arrange words to create sentences. These divisions are reflected in the fact that it is possible to master some aspects of a language while lacking others, like when a person knows how to pronounce a word without knowing its meaning.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Saeed|2009|pp=4–5}} | {{harvnb|Jun|2009|p=463}} | {{harvnb|Jackendoff|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=N_lQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 72]}} }} As a subfield of semiotics, semantics has a more narrow focus on meaning in language while semiotics studies both linguistic and non-linguistic signs. Semiotics investigates additional topics like the meaning of [[non-verbal communication]], conventional [[symbol]]s, and natural signs independent of human interaction. Examples include [[Nod (gesture)|nodding]] to signal agreement, stripes on a uniform signifying [[Military rank|rank]], and the presence of [[vulture]]s indicating a nearby animal carcass.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Saeed|2009|p=5}} | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=4–6}} }} [19] => [20] => Semantics further contrasts with [[pragmatics]], which is interested in how people use language in communication.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Griffiths|Cummins|2023|p=1}} | {{harvnb|Bezuidenhout|2009|p=875}} }} An expression like "That's what I'm talking about" can mean many things depending on who says it and in what situation. Semantics is interested in the possible meanings of expressions: what they can and cannot mean in general. In this regard, it is sometimes defined as the study of context-independent meaning. Pragmatics examines which of these possible meanings is relevant in a particular case. In contrast to semantics, it is interested in actual performance rather than in the general [[linguistic competence]] underlying this performance.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Griffiths|Cummins|2023|pp=1–3, 14}} | {{harvnb|Bezuidenhout|2009|p=875}} }} This includes the topic of additional meaning that can be inferred even though it is not literally expressed, like what it means if a speaker remains silent on a certain topic.{{harvnb|Griffiths|Cummins|2023|pp=12–13}} A closely related distinction by the semiotician [[Charles W. Morris]] holds that semantics studies the relation between words and the world, pragmatics examines the relation between words and users, and syntax focuses on the relation between different words.{{harvnb|Bezuidenhout|2009|p=875}} [21] => [22] => Semantics is related to [[etymology]], which studies how words and their meanings changed in the course of history. Another connected field is [[hermeneutics]], which is the art or science of interpretation and is concerned with the right [[methodology]] of interpreting text in general and [[scripture]] in particular.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Malpas|2014|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zUaLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 Introduction: Hermeneutics and Philosophy]}} | {{harvnb|AHD Staff|2022a}} | {{harvnb|Vámos|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=v3GlDwAAQBAJ&pg=SA3-PA2 3-2]}} }} [[Metasemantics]] examines the [[metaphysical]] foundations of meaning and aims to explain where it comes from or how it arises.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Anderson|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=LCdBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 4]}} | {{harvnb|Burgess|Sherman|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=G0iPBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }} [23] => [24] => The word ''semantics'' originated from the Ancient Greek adjective ''{{transliteration|grc|semantikos}}'', meaning 'relating to signs', which is a derivative of ''{{transliteration|grc|sēmeion}}'', the noun for '[[sign]]'. It was initially used for [[medical symptom]]s and only later acquired its wider meaning regarding any type of sign, including linguistic signs. The word ''semantics'' entered the English language from the French term ''{{lang|fr|semantique}}'', which the linguist [[Michel Bréal]] first introduced at the end of the 19th century.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|p=2}} | {{harvnb|Hoad|1993|p=428}} }} [25] => [26] => == Basic concepts == [27] => === Meaning === [28] => Semantics studies meaning in language, which is limited to the meaning of linguistic expressions. It concerns how signs are [[Interpretation (philosophy)|interpreted]] and what [[information]] they contain. An example is the meaning of words provided in [[dictionary]] definitions by giving synonymous expressions or paraphrases, like defining the meaning of the term ''ram'' as ''adult male sheep''.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cunningham|2009|pp=530–531}} | {{harvnb|Yule|2010|pp=113–114}} }} There are many forms of non-linguistic meaning that are not examined by semantics. Actions and policies can have meaning in relation to the goal they serve. Fields like [[religion]] and [[spirituality]] are interested in the [[meaning of life]], which is about finding a purpose in life or the significance of [[existence]] in general.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Leach|Tartaglia|2018|pp=274–275}} | {{harvnb|Abaza|2023|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NYbkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT32 32]}} | {{harvnb|Cunningham|2009|p=526}} | {{harvnb|Löbner|2013|pp=1–2}} }} [29] => [30] => [[File:Latin dictionary.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of a dictionary|Semantics is not focused on subjective speaker meaning and is instead interested in public meaning, like the meaning found in general dictionary definitions.]] [31] => [32] => Linguistic meaning can be analyzed on different levels. [[Word meaning]] is studied by [[lexical semantics]] and investigates the denotation of individual words. It is often related to [[concept]]s of entities, like how the word ''dog'' is associated with the concept of the four-legged domestic animal. Sentence meaning falls into the field of phrasal semantics and concerns the denotation of full sentences. It usually expresses a concept applying to a type of situation, as in the sentence "the dog has ruined my blue skirt".{{multiref | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=21–22}} | {{harvnb|Griffiths|Cummins|2023|pp=5–6}} | {{harvnb|Löbner|2013|pp=1–6, 18–21}} }} The meaning of a sentence is often referred to as a [[proposition]].{{harvnb|Tondl|2012|p=111}} Different sentences can express the same proposition, like the English sentence "the tree is green" and the German sentence {{lang|de|"der Baum ist grün"}}.{{harvnb|Olkowski|Pirovolakis|2019|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT65 65–66]}} Utterance meaning is studied by pragmatics and is about the meaning of an expression on a particular occasion. Sentence meaning and utterance meaning come apart in cases where expressions are used in a non-literal way, as is often the case with [[irony]].{{multiref | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=21–22}} | {{harvnb|Griffiths|Cummins|2023|pp=5–6}} | {{harvnb|Löbner|2013|pp=1–6}} | {{harvnb|Saeed|2009|pp=12–13}} }} [33] => [34] => Semantics is primarily interested in the public meaning that expressions have, like the meaning found in general dictionary definitions. Speaker meaning, by contrast, is the private or subjective meaning that individuals associate with expressions. It can diverge from the literal meaning, like when a person associates the word ''needle'' with pain or drugs.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Yule|2010|p=113}} | {{harvnb|Griffiths|Cummins|2023|pp=5–6}} }} [35] => [36] => === Sense and reference === [37] => [[File:Wismar Marienkirche Bronzebüste Gottlob Frege (01-1).JPG|alt=Bust of Gottlob Frege|thumb|upright=0.7|The distinction between sense and reference was first introduced by the philosopher [[Gottlob Frege]].{{sfn|Zalta|2022|loc=§ 1. Frege’s Life and Influences, § 3. Frege’s Philosophy of Language}}]] [38] => [39] => Meaning is often analyzed in terms of [[sense and reference]],{{multiref | {{harvnb|Griffiths|Cummins|2023|pp=7–9}} | {{harvnb|Cunningham|2009|p=526}} | {{harvnb|Saeed|2009|p=46}} }} also referred to as [[intension and extension]] or [[connotation]] and [[denotation]].{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cunningham|2009|p=527}} | {{harvnb|Griffiths|Cummins|2023|pp=7–9}} }} The referent of an expression is the object to which the expression points. The sense of an expression is the way in which it refers to that object or how the object is interpreted. For example, the expressions ''[[Venus|morning star]]'' and ''evening star'' refer to the same planet, just like the expressions ''2 + 2'' and ''3 + 1'' refer to the same number. The meanings of these expressions differ not on the level of reference but on the level of sense.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cunningham|2009|p=526}} | {{harvnb|Griffiths|Cummins|2023|pp=7–9}} }} Sense is sometimes understood as a mental phenomenon that helps people identify the objects to which an expression refers.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Marti|1998|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=27–28}} }} Some semanticists focus primarily on sense or primarily on reference in their analysis of meaning.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=25–28}} | {{harvnb|Griffiths|Cummins|2023|pp=7–9}} }} To grasp the full meaning of an expression, it is usually necessary to understand both to what entities in the world it refers and how it describes them.{{harvnb|Cunningham|2009|p=531}} [40] => [41] => The distinction between sense and reference can explain [[Equation|identity statements]], which can be used to show how two expressions with a different sense have the same referent. For instance, the sentence "the morning star is the evening star" is informative and people can learn something from it. The sentence "the morning star is the morning star", by contrast, is an uninformative [[Tautology (language)|tautology]] since the expressions are identical not only on the level of reference but also on the level of sense.{{harvnb|Marti|1998|loc=Lead Section}} [42] => [43] => === Compositionality === [44] => [[Compositionality]] is a key aspect of how languages construct meaning. It is the idea that the meaning of a complex expression is a function of the meanings of its parts. It is possible to understand the meaning of the sentence "Zuzana owns a dog" by understanding what the words ''Zuzana'', ''owns'', ''a'' and ''dog'' mean and how they are combined.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Szabó|2020|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Pelletier|1994|pp=11–12}} | {{harvnb|Krifka|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-wt1aZrGXLYC&pg=PA152 152]}} }} In this regard, the meaning of complex expressions like sentences is different from word meaning since it is normally not possible to deduce what a word means by looking at its letters and one needs to consult a dictionary instead.{{harvnb|Löbner|2013|pp=7–8, 10–12}} [45] => [46] => Compositionality is often used to explain how people can formulate and understand an almost infinite number of meanings even though the amount of words and cognitive resources is finite. Many sentences that people read are sentences that they have never seen before and they are nonetheless able to understand them. [47] => [48] => When interpreted in a strong sense, the principle of compositionality states that the meaning of a complex expression is not just affected by its parts and how they are combined but fully determined this way. It is controversial whether this claim is correct or whether additional aspects influence meaning. For example, context may affect the meaning of expressions; [[idioms]] like "[[kick the bucket]]" carry [[Literal and figurative language|figurative or non-literal]] meanings that are not directly reducible to the meanings of their parts. [49] => [50] => === Truth and truth conditions === [51] => [[Truth]] is a property of statements that accurately present the world and true statements are in accord with [[reality]]. Whether a statement is true usually depends on the relation between the statement and the rest of the world. The [[truth condition]]s of a statement are the way the world needs to be for the statement to be true. For example, it belongs to the truth conditions of the sentence "it is raining outside" that raindrops are falling from the sky. The sentence is true if it is used in a situation in which the truth conditions are fulfilled, i.e., if there is actually rain outside.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gregory|2016|pp=9–10}} | {{harvnb|Blackburn|2008|loc=[https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803105953851 Truth Conditions]}} | {{harvnb|Kearns|2011|pp=8–10}} }} [52] => [53] => Truth conditions play a central role in semantics and some theories rely exclusively on truth conditions to analyze meaning. To understand a statement usually implies that one has an idea about the conditions under which it would be true. This can happen even if one does not know whether the conditions are fulfilled. [54] => [55] => === Semiotic triangle === [56] => [[File:Semiotic triangle.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of the semiotic triangle|The semiotic triangle aims to explain how the relation between language (''Symbol'') and world (''Referent'') is mediated by the language users (''Thought or Reference'').]] [57] => [58] => The [[semiotic triangle]], also called the triangle of meaning, is a model used to explain the relation between language, language users, and the world, represented in the model as ''Symbol'', ''Thought or Reference'', and ''Referent''. The symbol is a linguistic [[signifier]], either in its spoken or written form. The central idea of the model is that there is no direct relation between a linguistic expression and what it refers to, as was assumed by earlier dyadic models. This is expressed in the diagram by the dotted line between symbol and referent.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Palmer|1976|pp=25–26}} | {{harvnb|Noth|1990|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=rHA4KQcPeNgC&pg=PA89 89–90]}} | {{harvnb|Dirven|Verspoor|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OM58J4nQJaYC&pg=PA28 28–29]}} | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=13–16}} }} [59] => [60] => The model holds instead that the relation between the two is mediated through a third component. For example, the term ''apple'' stands for a type of fruit but there is no direct connection between this string of letters and the corresponding physical object. The relation is only established indirectly through the mind of the language user. When they see the symbol, it evokes a mental image or a concept, which establishes the connection to the physical object. This process is only possible if the language user learned the meaning of the symbol before. The meaning of a specific symbol is governed by the conventions of a particular language. The same symbol may refer to one object in one language, to another object in a different language, and to no object in another language. [61] => [62] => [63] => === Others === [64] => Many other concepts are used to describe semantic phenomena. The [[semantic role]] of an expression is the function it fulfills in a sentence. In the sentence "the boy kicked the ball", the boy has the role of the agent who performs an action. The ball is the theme or patient of this action as something that does not act itself but is involved in or affected by the action. The same entity can be both agent and patient, like when someone cuts themselves. An entity has the semantic role of an instrument if it is used to perform the action, for instance, when cutting something with a knife then the knife is the instrument. For some sentences, no action is described but an experience takes place, like when a girl sees a bird. In this case, the girl has the role of the experiencer. Other common semantic roles are location, source, goal, beneficiary, and stimulus.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Yule|2010|pp=115–116}} | {{harvnb|Saeed|2009|pp=152–155}} }} [65] => [66] => Lexical relations describe how words stand to one another. Two words are [[synonyms]] if they share the same or a very similar meaning, like ''car'' and ''automobile'' or ''buy'' and ''purchase''. [[Antonyms]] have opposite meanings, such as the contrast between ''alive'' and ''dead'' or ''fast'' and ''slow''.{{efn|''Antonym'' is an antonym of ''synonym''.{{harvnb|Heffer|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=7WOEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42 42]}}}} One term is a [[Hypernymy and hyponymy|hyponym]] of another term if the meaning of the first term is included in the meaning of the second term. For example, [[ant]] is a hyponym of [[insect]]. A [[prototype]] is a hyponym that has characteristic features of the type it belongs to. A [[European robin|robin]] is a prototype of a [[bird]] but a [[penguin]] is not. Two words with the same pronunciation are [[homophones]] like ''flour'' and ''flower'', while two words with the same spelling are [[homonyms]], like a bank of a river in contrast to a bank as a financial institution.{{efn|Some linguists use the term ''homonym'' for both phenomena.{{harvnb|Saeed|2009|p=63}}}} Hyponymy is closely related to [[meronymy]], which describes the relation between part and whole. For instance, ''wheel'' is a meronym of ''car''.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Yule|2010|pp=116–120}} | {{harvnb|Saeed|2009|pp=63–70}} }} An expression is [[Ambiguity|ambiguous]] if it has more than one possible meaning. In some cases, it is possible to [[disambiguate]] them to discern the intended meaning.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Edmonds|2009|pp=223–226}} | {{harvnb|Murphy|Koskela|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=YO0WDRPHcWIC&pg=PA57 57]}} }} The term ''[[polysemy]]'' is used if the different meanings are closely related to one another, like the meanings of the word ''head'', which can refer to the topmost part of the human body or the top-ranking person in an organization. [67] => [68] => The meaning of words can often be subdivided into meaning components called [[semantic features]]. The word ''horse'' has the semantic feature ''animate'' but lacks the semantic feature ''human''. It may not always be possible to fully reconstruct the meaning of a word by identifying all its semantic features.{{harvnb|Yule|2010|pp=113–115}} [69] => [70] => A [[semantic field|semantic]] or lexical field is a group of words that are all related to the same activity or subject. For instance, the semantic field of [[cooking]] includes words like ''bake'', ''boil'', ''spice'', and ''pan''.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Saeed|2009|p=63}} | {{harvnb|Reif|Polzenhagen|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=DyPdEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 129–130]}} }} [71] => [72] => The [[Context (linguistics)|context]] of an expression refers to the situation or circumstances in which it is used and includes time, location, speaker, and audience. It also encompasses other passages in a text that come before and after it.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meulen|2008|loc=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tSKfSI-7ZncC&pg=PA1653 Philosophy of Language and Linguistics]}} | {{harvnb|Kuche|Rowland|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Kaa7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 13–14]}} }} Context affects the meaning of various expressions, like the [[Deixis|deictic]] expression ''here'' and the [[Anaphora (linguistics)|anaphoric]] expression ''she''.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Cornish|1999|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=xip76JYlvygC&pg=PA18 18–19]}} | {{harvnb|Jiang|2016|loc=§ Summary}} }} [73] => [74] => A syntactic environment is [[Extensional context|extensional or transparent]] if it is always possible to exchange expressions with the same reference without affecting the truth value of the sentence. For example, the environment of the sentence "the number 8 is even" is extensional because replacing the expression ''the number 8'' with ''the number of planets in the solar system'' does not change its truth value. For [[Opaque context|intensional or opaque contexts]], this type of substitution is not always possible. For instance, the [[embedded clause]] in "Paco believes that the number 8 is even" is intensional since Paco may not know that the number of planets in the solar system is 8.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blackburn|2008c}} | {{harvnb|Partee|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o1jGSavwQZIC&pg=PA833 833–834]}} }} [75] => [76] => Semanticists commonly distinguish the language they study, called object language, from the language they use to express their findings, called [[metalanguage]]. When a professor uses Japanese to teach their student how to interpret the language of [[first-order logic]] then the language of first-order logic is the object language and Japanese is the metalanguage. The same language may occupy the role of object language and metalanguage at the same time. This is the case in [[monolingual dictionary|monolingual English dictionaries]], in which both the entry term belonging to the object language and the definition text belonging to the metalanguage are taken from the English language.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=22–23}} | {{harvnb|Gamut|1991|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ktqxlzcc5nQC&pg=PA142 142–143]}} | {{harvnb|Dummett|1981|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=EYP7uCZIRQYC&pg=PA106 106]}} }} [77] => [78] => == Branches == [79] => === Lexical semantics === [80] => {{main|Lexical semantics}} [81] => [82] => Lexical semantics is the sub-field of semantics that studies word meaning.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2017|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Taylor|2017|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-cognitive-linguistics/lexical-semantics/798AB6901B9AD5B0AC42C94A52EC8ECF 246–247]}} | {{harvnb|Pustejovsky|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cxYGQfiD_1oC&pg=PT11380 98–100]}} | {{harvnb|Pustejovsky|2009|p=476}} | {{harvnb|Márquez|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TkKVwYcG8Q4C&pg=PA146 146]}} }} It examines semantic aspects of individual words and the [[vocabulary]] as a whole. This includes the study of lexical relations between words, such as whether two terms are synonyms or antonyms.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2017|loc=Lead Section, § 1. The Descriptive Scope of Lexical Semantics}} | {{harvnb|Pustejovsky|2009|p=476}} | {{harvnb|Márquez|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TkKVwYcG8Q4C&pg=PA146 146–147]}} }} Lexical semantics categorizes words based on semantic features they share and groups them into semantic fields unified by a common subject.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2017|loc=Lead Section, § 1.3 Lexical Fields and Componential Analysis}} | {{harvnb|Yule|2010|pp=113–115}} }} This information is used to create taxonomies to organize lexical knowledge, for example, by distinguishing between physical and [[Abstract object|abstract entities]] and subdividing physical entities into [[Mass noun|stuff]] and [[Count noun|individuated entities]].{{harvnb|Pustejovsky|2009|p=479}} Further topics of interest are polysemy, ambiguity, and [[vagueness]].{{multiref | {{harvnb|Pustejovsky|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=cxYGQfiD_1oC&pg=PT11380 98–100]}} | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2017|loc=§ 1.1 Polysemy and Vagueness}} }} [83] => [84] => Lexical semantics is sometimes divided into two complementary approaches: [[semasiology]] and [[onomasiology]]. Semasiology starts from words and examines what their meaning is. It is interested in whether words have one or several meanings and how those meanings are related to one another. Instead of going from word to meaning, onomasiology goes from meaning to word. It starts with a concept and examines what names this concept has or how it can be expressed in a particular language.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2017|loc=§ 1. The Descriptive Scope of Lexical Semantics}} | {{harvnb|Noth|1990|p=106}} | {{harvnb|Taylor|2017|pp=[https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-cognitive-linguistics/lexical-semantics/798AB6901B9AD5B0AC42C94A52EC8ECF 246–247]}} }} [85] => [86] => Some semanticists also include the study of lexical units other than words in the field of lexical semantics. [[Compound (linguistics)|Compound expressions]] like ''being under the weather'' have a non-literal meaning that acts as a unit and is not a direct function of its parts. Another topic concerns the meaning of morphemes that make up words, for instance, how negative [[prefix]]es like ''in-'' and ''dis-'' affect the meaning of the words they are part of, as in ''inanimate'' and ''dishonest''.{{multiref | {{harvnb|L'Homme|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jdbHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT89 67–69]}} | {{harvnb|Trips|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=gsNjdT8iArQC&pg=PA236 236]}} | {{harvnb|Andreou|2015|loc=Abstract}} }} [87] => [88] => === Phrasal semantics === [89] => Phrasal semantics studies the meaning of sentences. It relies on the principle of compositionality to explore how the meaning of complex expressions arises from the combination of their parts.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fasold|Connor-Linton|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E85VAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA141 141, 156]}} | {{harvnb|Jackendoff|2002|p=378}} | {{harvnb|Park-Johnson|Shin|2020|pp=103–104}} | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|p=21}} | {{harvnb|Bieswanger|Becker|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=Tzg8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 128]}} | {{harvnb|Jacobson|2014|p=5}} }}{{efn|Some authors use the term ''compositional semantics'' for this type of inquiry.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fasold|Connor-Linton|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E85VAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 156]}} | {{harvnb|Bagha|2011|pp=1414–1415}} }}}} The different parts can be analyzed as [[Subject (grammar)|subject]], [[Predicate (grammar)|predicate]], or [[Argument (linguistics)|argument]]. The subject of a sentence usually refers to a specific entity while the predicate describes a feature of the subject or an event in which the subject participates. Arguments provide additional information to complete the predicate.{{harvnb|Fasold|Connor-Linton|2006|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E85VAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA141 141–143]}} For example, in the sentence "Mary hit the ball", ''Mary'' is the subject, ''hit'' is the predicate, and ''the ball'' is an argument. A more fine-grained categorization distinguishes between different semantic roles of words, such as agent, patient, theme, location, source, and goal.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fasold|Connor-Linton|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=E85VAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA143 143]}} | {{harvnb|Park-Johnson|Shin|2020|pp=103–104}} }} [90] => [91] => [[File:ParseTree.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of a parse tree|[[Parse tree]]s, like the constituency-based parse tree, show how expressions are combined to form sentences.]] [92] => [93] => [[Verb]]s usually function as predicates and often help to establish connections between different expressions to form a more complex meaning structure. In the expression "Beethoven likes Schubert", the verb ''like'' connects a liker to the object of their liking.{{harvnb|Jackendoff|2002|pp=378–380}} Other sentence parts modify meaning rather than form new connections. For instance, the [[adjective]] ''red'' modifies the color of another entity in the expression ''red car''.{{harvnb|Jackendoff|2002|pp=382–383}} A further compositional device is variable binding, which is used to determine the reference of a term. For example, the last part of the expression "the woman who likes Beethoven" specifies which woman is meant.{{harvnb|Jackendoff|2002|pp=384–385}} [[Parse tree]]s can be used to show the underlying hierarchy employed to combine the different parts.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Valin|2008|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=a4X2oVrrz-EC&pg=PT466 466]}} | {{harvnb|Berwick|Stabler|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=bPerDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 110]}} }} Various grammatical devices, like the [[gerund]] form, also contribute to meaning and are studied by grammatical semantics.{{harvnb|Wierzbicka|1988|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=f2G3RFoxk84C&pg=PA3 3]}} [94] => [95] => === Formal semantics === [96] => {{main|Formal semantics (natural language)}} [97] => Formal semantics uses formal tools from [[logic]] and [[mathematics]] to analyze meaning in natural languages.{{efn|The term ''formal semantics'' is sometimes used in a different sense to refer to compositional semantics or to the study of meaning in the formal languages of systems of logic.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bohnemeyer|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=HLJFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 24]}} | {{harvnb|Pollock|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UIwrDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA172 172]}} }}}} It aims to develop precise logical formalisms to clarify the relation between expressions and their denotation.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JC8TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 118–119]}} | {{harvnb|Moeschler|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=h3SpC0oBc_AC&pg=PA31 31–33]}} | {{harvnb|Portner|Partee|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ptgUWREtAkMC&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }} One of its key tasks is to provide frameworks of how language represents the world, for example, using [[Model theory|ontological models]] to show how linguistic expressions map to the entities of that model. A common idea is that words refer to individual objects or groups of objects while sentences relate to events and states. Sentences are mapped to a [[truth value]] based on whether their description of the world is in correspondence with its ontological model.{{harvnb|Moeschler|2007|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=h3SpC0oBc_AC&pg=PA31 31–33]}} [98] => [99] => Formal semantics further examines how to use formal mechanisms to represent linguistic phenomena such as [[Quantifier (linguistics)|quantification]], [[intensionality]], [[noun phrases]], [[plural]]s, mass terms, [[Grammatical tense|tense]], and [[Modality (linguistics)|modality]].{{harvnb|Portner|Partee|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ptgUWREtAkMC&pg=PA3 3, 8–10, 35, 127, 324]}} [[Montague semantics]] is an early and influential theory in formal semantics that provides a detailed analysis of how the English language can be represented using mathematical logic. It relies on [[higher-order logic]], [[lambda calculus]], and [[type theory]] to show how meaning is created through the combination of expressions belonging to different syntactic categories.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Portner|Partee|2008|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ptgUWREtAkMC&pg=PA3 3–4]}} | {{harvnb|Janssen|Zimmermann|2021|loc=Lead Section, § 1. Introduction, § 2.3 Logic and Translation}} }} [100] => [101] => [[Dynamic semantics]] is a subfield of formal semantics that focuses on how information grows over time. According to it, "meaning is context change potential": the meaning of a sentence is not given by the information it contains but by the information change it brings about relative to a context.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Groenendijk|Stokhof|2009|pp=272–273}} | {{harvnb|Nouwen|Brasoveanu|van Eijck|Visser|2022|loc=Lead Section}} }} [102] => [103] => === Cognitive semantics === [104] => {{main|Cognitive semantics}} [105] => [106] => [[File:Hypotenuse.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of a hypotenuse|Cognitive semantics is interested in the conceptual structures underlying language, which can be articulated through the contrast between profile and base. For instance, the term [[hypotenuse]] profiles a straight line against the background of a [[right-angled triangle]].]] [107] => [108] => Cognitive semantics studies the problem of meaning from a psychological perspective or how the mind of the language user affects meaning. As a subdiscipline of [[cognitive linguistics]], it sees language as a wide cognitive ability that is closely related to the conceptual structures used to understand and represent the world.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Li|2021}} | {{harvnb|Taylor|2009|pp=73–74}} | {{harvnb|Croft|Cruse|2004|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=I6Z9H-eRSgoC&pg=PA1 1–3]}} }}{{efn|Cognitive semantics does not accept the idea of [[linguistic relativity]] associated with the Sapir–Whorf hypothesis and holds instead that the underlying cognitive processes responsible for conceptual structures are independent of the language one speaks.{{sfn|Kortmann|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=0PoFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165 165]}}}} Cognitive semanticists do not draw a sharp distinction between linguistic knowledge and knowledge of the world and see them instead as interrelated phenomena.{{harvnb|Taylor|2009|pp=73–74}} They study how the interaction between language and human cognition affects the conceptual organization in very general domains like space, time, causation, and action.{{harvnb|Li|2021}} The contrast between profile and base is sometimes used to articulate the underlying knowledge structure. The profile of a linguistic expression is the aspect of the knowledge structure that it brings to the foreground while the base is the background that provides the context of this aspect without being at the center of attention.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Taylor|2009|pp=74–75}} | {{harvnb|Enfield|2002|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ei4CErNyxp0C&pg=PA152 152]}} }} For example, the profile of the word ''[[hypotenuse]]'' is a straight line while the base is a [[right-angled triangle]] of which the hypotenuse forms a part.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Taylor|2009|pp=74–75}} | {{harvnb|Taylor|2013|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MZYgAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 38–40]}} }}{{efn|Other examples are the word ''island'', which profiles a landmass against the background of the surrounding water, and the word ''uncle'', which profiles a human adult male against the background of kinship relations.{{harvnb|Taylor|2009|pp=74–75}}}} [109] => [110] => Cognitive semantics further compares the conceptual patterns and [[Linguistic typology|linguistic typologies]] across languages and considers to what extent the cognitive conceptual structures of humans are universal or relative to their linguistic background.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Taylor|2009|p=85}} | {{harvnb|Li|2021}} }} Another research topic concerns the psychological processes involved in the application of grammar.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Li|2021}} | {{harvnb|Taylor|2009|pp=83–84}} }} Other investigated phenomena include categorization, which is understood as a cognitive heuristic to avoid information overload by regarding different entities in the same way,{{harvnb|Taylor|2009|pp=76–77}} and [[Embodied cognition|embodiment]], which concerns how the language user's bodily experience affects the meaning of expressions.{{harvnb|Taylor|2009|p=82}} [111] => [112] => [[Frame semantics (linguistics)|Frame semantics]] is an important subfield of cognitive semantics.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Mushayabasa|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2QcSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 21]}} | {{harvnb|Shead|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=feR5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 34–35]}} }} Its central idea is that the meaning of terms cannot be understood in isolation from each other but needs to be analyzed on the background of the conceptual structures they depend on. These structures are made explicit in terms of semantic frames. For example, words like bride, groom, and honeymoon evoke in the mind the frame of marriage.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Gawron|2011|pp=664–665, 669}} | {{harvnb|Fillmore|2009|pp=330–332}} }} [113] => [114] => === Others === [115] => [[Conceptual semantics]] shares with cognitive semantics the idea of studying linguistic meaning from a psychological perspective by examining how humans conceptualize and experience the world. It holds that meaning is not about the objects to which expressions refer but about the cognitive structure of human concepts that connect thought, perception, and action. Conceptual semantics differs from cognitive semantics by introducing a strict distinction between meaning and syntax and by relying on various formal devices to explore the relation between meaning and cognition.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=261–263}} | {{harvnb|Jackendoff|2011|p=688}} }} [116] => [117] => [[Computational semantics]] examines how the meaning of natural language expressions can be represented and processed on computers.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JC8TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 118]}} | {{harvnb|Bunt|Muskens|1999|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-011-4231-1_1 1–2]}} }} It often relies on the insights of formal semantics and applies them to problems that can be computationally solved.{{harvnb|Bunt|Muskens|1999|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-011-4231-1_1 1–2]}} Some of its key problems include computing the meaning of complex expressions by analyzing their parts, handling ambiguity, vagueness, and context-dependence, and using the extracted information in [[automatic reasoning]].{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JC8TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 118]}} | {{harvnb|Bunt|Muskens|1999|pp=[https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-94-011-4231-1_1 1–2]}} | {{harvnb|Erk|2018|loc=Summary}} }} It forms part of [[computational linguistics]], [[artificial intelligence]], and [[cognitive science]]. Its applications include [[machine learning]] and [[machine translation]].{{multiref | {{harvnb|Erk|2018|loc=Summary}} | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JC8TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 118]}} }} [118] => [119] => Cultural semantics studies the relation between linguistic meaning and culture. It compares conceptual structures in different languages and is interested in how meanings evolve and change because of cultural phenomena associated with [[politics]], religion, and [[customs]].{{harvnb|Zhao|2023|loc=[https://brill.com/display/book/9789004535183/front-10.xml Preface]}} For example, address practices encode cultural values and social hierarchies, as in the difference of politeness of expressions like ''{{lang|es|tu}}'' and ''{{lang|es|usted}}'' in Spanish or ''{{lang|de|du}}'' and ''{{lang|de|Sie}}'' in German in contrast to English, which lacks [[T–V distinction|these distinctions]] and uses the pronoun ''you'' in either case.{{harvnb|Farese|2018|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=NsllDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–3]}} Closely related fields are intercultural semantics, cross-cultural semantics, and comparative semantics.{{harvnb|Peeters|2006|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MsIFbHm0_lcC&pg=PT25 25]}} [120] => [121] => Pragmatic semantics studies how the meaning of an expression is shaped by the situation in which it is used. It is based on the idea that communicative meaning is usually context-sensitive and depends on who participates in the exchange, what information they share, and what their [[intention]]s and background assumptions are. It focuses on communicative actions, of which linguistic expressions only form one part. Some theorists include these topics within the scope of semantics while others consider them part of the distinct discipline of pragmatics.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Márquez|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=TkKVwYcG8Q4C&pg=PA149 149]}} | {{harvnb|Bublitz|Norrick|2011|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XgYP7AKeoKwC&pg=PA215 215–216]}} }} [122] => [123] => == Theories of meaning == [124] => Theories of meaning explain what meaning is, what meaning an expression has, and how the relation between expression and meaning is established.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Glock|2012|pp=51–52}} | {{harvnb|Holm|Karlgren|1995|pp=20–21}} | {{harvnb|Bagha|2011|pp=1414–1415}} }} [125] => [126] => === Referential === [127] => [[File:Referential theory of meaning.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of referential theories|Referential theories identify meaning with the entities to which expressions point.]] [128] => [129] => Referential theories state that the meaning of an expression is the entity to which it points.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Glock|2012|p=51}} | {{harvnb|Holm|Karlgren|1995|pp=21–22}} }} The meaning of [[singular term]]s like [[name]]s is the individual to which they refer. For example, the meaning of the name ''[[George Washington]]'' is the person with this name.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 2.1.1 The Theory of Reference}} | {{harvnb|Holm|Karlgren|1995|pp=21–22}} | {{harvnb|Davis|2005|pp=209–210}} | {{harvnb|Gibbs|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4kVJAMghNmUC&pg=PA29 29–30]}} }} General terms refer not to a single entity but to the set of objects to which this term applies. In this regard, the meaning of the term ''cat'' is the set of all cats.{{harvnb|Davis|2005|pp=209–210}} Similarly, verbs usually refer to classes of actions or events and adjectives refer to properties of individuals and events.{{harvnb|Gibbs|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4kVJAMghNmUC&pg=PA29 29–30]}} [130] => [131] => [[Simple referential theories]] face problems for meaningful expressions that have no clear referent. Names like ''[[Pegasus]]'' and ''[[Santa Claus]]'' have meaning even though they do not point to existing entities.{{harvnb|Davis|2005|p=211}} Other difficulties concern cases in which different expressions are about the same entity. For instance, the expressions ''[[Roger Bannister]]'' and ''the first man to run a four-minute mile'' refer to the same person but do not mean exactly the same thing.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Holm|Karlgren|1995|pp=21–22}} | {{harvnb|Gibbs|1994|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4kVJAMghNmUC&pg=PA29 29–30]}} }} This is particularly relevant when talking about beliefs since a person may understand both expressions without knowing that they point to the same entity.{{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 2.1.2 Theories of Reference Vs. Semantic Theories}} A further problem is given by expressions whose meaning depends on the context, like the deictic terms ''here'' and ''I''.{{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 2.1.4 Character and Content, Context and Circumstance}} [132] => [133] => To avoid these problems, referential theories often introduce additional devices. Some identify meaning not directly with objects but with functions that point to objects. This additional level has the advantage of taking the context of an expression into account since the same expression may point to one object in one context and to another object in a different context. For example, the reference of the word ''here'' depends on the location in which it is used.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Davis|2005|pp=209–210}} | {{harvnb|Holm|Karlgren|1995|pp=21–22}} | {{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 2.1.4 Character and Content, Context and Circumstance}} }} A closely related approach is [[possible world]] semantics, which allows expressions to refer not only to entities in the actual world but also to entities in other possible worlds.{{efn|A possible world is a complete way of how things could have been.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Berto|Jago|2023|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Pavel|1986|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=OF7ZA54UpYYC&pg=PA50 50]}} }}}} According to this view, expressions like ''the first man to run a four-minute mile'' refer to different persons in different worlds. This view can also be used to analyze sentences that talk about what is possible or what is necessary: possibility is what is true in some possible worlds while necessity is what is true in all possible worlds.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 2.1.5 Possible Worlds Semantics}} | {{harvnb|Rooij|2012|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=KlPwvH6ICqIC&pg=PA198 198–199]}} | {{harvnb|Davis|2005|pp=209–210}} }} [134] => [135] => === Ideational === [136] => [[File:Ideational theory of meaning.svg|thumb|alt=Diagram of ideational theories|Ideational theories identify meaning with the [[mental states]] of language users.]] [137] => [138] => Ideational theories, also called mentalist theories, are not primarily interested in the reference of expressions and instead explain meaning in terms of the mental states of language users.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chapman|Routledge|2009}} | {{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 3.1 Mentalist Theories}} }} One historically influential approach articulated by [[John Locke]] holds that expressions stand for [[idea]]s in the speaker's mind. According to this view, the meaning of the word ''dog'' is the idea that people have of dogs. Language is seen as a medium used to transfer ideas from the speaker to the audience. After having learned the same meaning of signs, the speaker can produce a sign that corresponds to the idea in their mind and the perception of this sign evokes the same idea in the mind of the audience.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chapman|Routledge|2009}} | {{harvnb|Holm|Karlgren|1995|p=22}} | {{harvnb|Appiah|Gutmann|1998|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ylp_omhIPssC&pg=PA34 34]}} | {{harvnb|Pearce|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=inhXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 194–195]}} }} [139] => [140] => A closely related theory focuses not directly on ideas but on [[intention]]s.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chapman|Routledge|2009}} | {{harvnb|Pearce|2022|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=inhXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 194–195]}} | {{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 3.1.1 The Gricean Program}} }} This view is particularly associated with [[Paul Grice]], who observed that people usually communicate to cause some reaction in their audience. He held that the meaning of an expression is given by the intended reaction. This means that communication is not just about decoding what the speaker literally said but requires an understanding of their intention or why they said it.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Chapman|Routledge|2009}} | {{harvnb|Glock|2012|p=52}} | {{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 3.1.1 The Gricean Program}} | {{harvnb|Feng|2010|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_AgDSh5c1QcC&pg=PA11 11–12]}} }} For example, telling someone looking for petrol that "there is a garage around the corner" has the meaning that petrol can be obtained there because of the speaker's intention to help. This goes beyond the literal meaning, which has no explicit connection to petrol.{{harvnb|Feng|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_AgDSh5c1QcC&pg=PA19 19]}} [141] => [142] => === Causal === [143] => Causal theories hold that the meaning of an expression depends on the causes and effects it has.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Glock|2012|pp=51–52}} | {{harvnb|Blackburn|2008a}} | {{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 3.2.1 Causal Origin}} }} According to [[Behaviorism|behaviorist]] semantics, also referred to as stimulus-response theory, the meaning of an expression is given by the situation that prompts the speaker to use it and the response it provokes in the audience.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Holm|Karlgren|1995|p=23}} | {{harvnb|Lyons|1996|pp=120, 123–125}} | {{harvnb|Lepore|2009|p=1026}} }} For instance, the meaning of yelling "Fire!" is given by the presence of an uncontrolled fire and attempts to control it or seek safety.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Duignan|2023|loc=§ Behaviourist Semantics}} | {{harvnb|Lepore|2009|p=1026}} }} Behaviorist semantics relies on the idea that learning a language consists in adopting behavioral patterns in the form of [[Classical conditioning|stimulus-response pairs]].{{harvnb|Lyons|1996|pp=123–125}} One of its key motivations is to avoid private mental entities and define meaning instead in terms of publicly observable language behavior.{{harvnb|Lyons|1996|pp=120–121}} [144] => [145] => Another causal theory focuses on the meaning of names and holds that a naming event is required to establish the link between name and named entity. This naming event acts as a form of baptism that establishes the first link of a causal chain in which all subsequent uses of the name participate.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Blackburn|2008a}} | {{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 3.2.1 Causal Origin}} }} According to this view, the name ''[[Plato]]'' refers to an ancient Greek philosopher because, at some point, he was originally named this way and people kept using this name to refer to him.{{harvnb|Blackburn|2008a}} This view was originally formulated by [[Saul Kripke]] to apply to names only but has been extended to cover other types of speech as well.{{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 3.2.1 Causal Origin}} [146] => [147] => === Others === [148] => [[Truth-conditional semantics]] analyzes the meaning of sentences in terms of their truth conditions. According to this view, to understand a sentence means to know what the world needs to be like for the sentence to be true.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Dummett|2008|pp=45–46}} | {{harvnb|Kearns|2011|pp=8–11}} }} Truth conditions can themselves be expressed through [[possible worlds]]. For example, the sentence "[[Hillary Clinton]] won the [[2016 American presidential election]]" is false in the actual world but there are some possible worlds in which it is true.{{harvnb|Berto|Jago|2023|loc=§ 1. Reasons for Introducing Impossible Worlds}} The extension of a sentence can be interpreted as its truth value while its intension is the set of all possible worlds in which it is true.{{harvnb|Kearns|2011|pp=8–11}} Truth-conditional semantics is closely related to [[Verificationism|verificationist theories]], which introduce the additional idea that there should be some kind of verification procedure to assess whether a sentence is true. They state that the meaning of a sentence consists in the method to verify it or in the circumstances that justify it.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Glock|2012|p=51}} | {{harvnb|Morris|Preti|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=p_3LEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA369 369–370]}} | {{harvnb|Boyd|Gasper|Trout|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pEzcsK1wlVYC&pg=PA5 5]}} | {{harvnb|Lepore|2009|p=1027}} }} For instance, scientific claims often make predictions, which can be used to confirm or disconfirm them using [[observation]].{{harvnb|Boyd|Gasper|Trout|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pEzcsK1wlVYC&pg=PA5 5]}} According to verificationism, sentences that can neither be verified nor falsified are meaningless.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Morris|Preti|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=p_3LEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA369 369–370]}} | {{harvnb|Boyd|Gasper|Trout|1991|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=pEzcsK1wlVYC&pg=PA5 5]}} }} [149] => [150] => The [[Philosophical Investigations#Meaning as use|use theory]] states that the meaning of an expression is given by the way it is utilized. This view was first introduced by [[Ludwig Wittgenstein]], who understood language as a collection of [[language game]]s. The meaning of expressions depends on how they are used inside a game and the same expression may have different meanings in different games.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Holm|Karlgren|1995|pp=23–24}} | {{harvnb|Strauven|2018|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=eYdIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 78]}} }} Some versions of this theory identify meaning directly with patterns of regular use.{{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 3.2.4 Regularities in Use}} Others focus on [[social norm]]s and [[Convention (norm)|conventions]] by additionally taking into account whether a certain use is considered appropriate in a given society.{{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 3.2.5 Social Norms}} [151] => [152] => [[Inferential role semantics|Inferentialist semantics]], also called conceptual role semantics, holds that the meaning of an expression is given by the role it plays in the premises and conclusions of good [[inference]]s.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Speaks|2021|loc=§ 2.2.3 Inferentialist Semantics}} | {{harvnb|Whiting|loc=Lead Section, § 1a. A Theory of Linguistic Meaning}} | {{harvnb|Hess|2022|loc=§ Abstract, § 1 Introduction}} }} For example, one can infer from "x is a male sibling" that "x is a brother" and one can infer from "x is a brother" that "x has parents". According to inferentialist semantics, the meaning of the word ''brother'' is determined by these and all similar inferences that can be drawn.{{harvnb|Whiting|loc=§ 1a. A Theory of Linguistic Meaning}} [153] => [154] => == History == [155] => Semantics was established as an independent field of inquiry in the 19th century but the study of semantic phenomena began as early as the ancient period as part of philosophy and logic.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|p=182}} | {{harvnb|Nerlich|1992|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=BeJBAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 2]}} }}{{efn|The history of semantics is different from historical semantics, which studies how the meanings of words change through time.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Geeraerts|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=JC8TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1]}} | {{harvnb|Kay|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=UZw7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }}}} In [[ancient Greece]], Plato (427–347 BCE) explored the relation between names and things in his [[Cratylus (dialogue)|dialogue ''Cratylus'']]. It considers the positions of naturalism, which holds that things have their name by nature, and conventionalism, which states that names are related to their referents by customs and conventions among language users.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=184–185}} | {{harvnb|Allan|2015|p=48}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=752–753}} }} The book ''[[On Interpretation]]'' by [[Aristotle]] (384–322 BCE) introduced various conceptual distinctions that greatly influenced subsequent works in semantics. He developed an early form of the semantic triangle by holding that spoken and written words evoke mental concepts, which refer to external things by resembling them. For him, mental concepts are the same for all humans, unlike the conventional words they associate with those concepts.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=186–187}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=755–756}} }} The [[Stoics]] incorporated many of the insights of their predecessors to develop a complex theory of language through the perspective of logic. They discerned different kinds of words by their semantic and syntactic roles, such as the contrast between names, common nouns, and verbs. They also discussed the difference between statements, commands, and prohibitions.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=189–191}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=757–758}} | {{harvnb|Durand|2018|p=ii}}}} [156] => [157] => [[File:Hindi Manuscript 884 Wellcome L0024558.jpg|thumb|alt=Painting of Bhartṛhari|[[Bhartṛhari]] developed and compared various semantic theories of the meaning of words.{{harvnb|Bekkum|Houben|Sluiter|Versteegh|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uU9IAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 110–112]}}]] [158] => [159] => In [[ancient India]], the [[Astika|orthodox school]] of [[Nyaya]] held that all names refer to real objects. It explored how words lead to an understanding of the thing meant and what consequence this relation has to the creation of knowledge.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bekkum|Houben|Sluiter|Versteegh|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uU9IAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA102 102]}} | {{harvnb|Chakrabarti|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=SbIRFAzav64C&pg=PA215 215]}} }} Philosophers of the orthodox school of [[Mīmāṃsā]] discussed the relation between the meanings of individual words and full sentences while considering which one is more basic.{{harvnb|Bekkum|Houben|Sluiter|Versteegh|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uU9IAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA75 75–76]}} The book ''[[Vākyapadīya]]'' by [[Bhartṛhari]] (4th–5th century CE) distinguished between different types of words and considered how they can carry different meanings depending on how they are used.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Aklujkar|1970|p=13}} | {{harvnb|Staal|1966|pp=304–307}} | {{harvnb|Bekkum|Houben|Sluiter|Versteegh|1997|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uU9IAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 110–112]}} | {{harvnb|Cardona|2019|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=XnmVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA303 303]}} }} In [[ancient China]], the [[Mohism|Mohists]] argued that names play a key role in making distinctions to guide moral behavior.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fraser|2023|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=x865EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA204 204–205]}} | {{harvnb|Indraccolo|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MejqDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA174 174]}} }} They inspired the [[School of Names]], which explored the relation between names and entities while examining how names are required to identify and judge entities.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sun|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MLx_BAAAQBAJ&pg=PA23 23]}} | {{harvnb|Fraser|2020|loc=Lead Section, § 2.1 Same and Different}} }} [160] => [161] => [[File:Abelard cour Napoleon Louvre (cropped).png|thumb|left|alt=Statue of Abelard|One of [[Peter Abelard]]'s innovations was his focus on the meaning of full sentences rather than the meaning of individual words.]] [162] => [163] => In the Middle Ages, [[Augustine of Hippo]] (354–430) developed a general conception of signs as entities that stand for other entities and convey them to the intellect. He was the first to introduce the distinction between natural and linguistic signs as different types belonging to a common genus.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|p=192}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=759–761}} | {{harvnb|Benin|2012|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=MdvKg89eeCkC&pg=PA94 94]}} }} [[Boethius]] (480–528) wrote a translation of and various comments on Aristotle's book ''On Interpretation'', which popularized its main ideas and inspired reflections on semantic phenomena in the [[Scholasticism|scholastic tradition]].{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=193–195}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=761–762}} }} An innovation in the semantics of [[Peter Abelard]] (1079–1142) was his interest in propositions or the meaning of sentences in contrast to the focus on the meaning of individual words by many of his predecessors. He further explored the nature of [[Universal (metaphysics)|universals]], which he understood as mere semantic phenomena of [[common name]]s caused by mental abstractions that [[Nominalism|do not refer to any entities]].{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=197–198}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=763–764}} | {{harvnb|Provenzola|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=iAvGNlIWg9IC&pg=PA22 22]}} }} In the Arabic tradition, [[Ibn Faris]] (920–1004) identified meaning with the intention of the speaker while [[Abu Mansur al-Azhari]] (895–980) held that meaning resides directly in speech and needs to be extracted through interpretation.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Bekkum|Houben|Sluiter|Versteegh|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=uU9IAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA229 229]}} | {{harvnb|Leaman|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=2wS2CAAAQBAJ 180]}} }} [164] => [165] => An important topic towards the end of the Middle Ages was the distinction between categorematic and [[syncategorematic term]]s. Categorematic terms have an independent meaning and refer to some part of reality, like ''horse'' and ''Socrates''. Syncategorematic terms lack independent meaning and fulfill other semantic functions, such as modifying or quantifying the meaning of other expressions, like the words ''some'', ''not'', and ''necessarily''.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=198–199}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=769–770}} | {{harvnb|Blackburn|2008b}} }} An early version of the causal theory of meaning was proposed by [[Roger Bacon]] (c. 1219/20 – c. 1292), who held that things get names similar to how people get names through some kind of initial baptism.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=200–201}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=769–770}} }} His ideas inspired the tradition of the [[speculative grammar]]ians, who proposed that there are certain universal structures found in all languages. They arrived at this conclusion by drawing an analogy between the modes of signification on the level of language, the modes of understanding on the level of mind, and the modes of being on the level of reality.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=201–202}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=770–771}} }} [166] => [167] => In the early modern period, [[Thomas Hobbes]] (1588–1679) distinguished between marks, which people use privately to recall their own thoughts, and signs, which are used publicly to communicate their ideas to others.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=205–206}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=773–774}} | {{harvnb|Martin|1953|p=210}} }} In their ''[[Port-Royal Logic]]'', [[Antoine Arnauld]] (1612–1694) and [[Pierre Nicole]] (1625–1695) developed an early precursor of the distinction between intension and extension.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=206–207}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|p=777}} }} The ''[[Essay Concerning Human Understanding]]'' by John Locke (1632–1704) presented an influential version of the ideational theory of meaning, according to which words stand for ideas and help people communicate by transferring ideas from one mind to another.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=207–208}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=777–778}} | {{harvnb|Chapman|Routledge|2009}} }} [[Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz]] (1646–1716) understood language as the mirror of thought and tried to conceive the outlines of a [[characteristica universalis|universal formal language]] to express scientific and philosophical truths. This attempt inspired theorists [[Christian Wolff (philosopher)|Christian Wolff]] (1679–1754), [[Georg Bernhard Bilfinger]] (1693–1750), and [[Johann Heinrich Lambert]] (1728–1777) to develop the idea of a general science of sign systems.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=209–210}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=779–780}} }} [[Étienne Bonnot de Condillac]] (1715–1780) accepted and further developed Leibniz's idea of the linguistic nature of thought. Against Locke, he held that language is involved in the creation of ideas and is not merely a medium to communicate them.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Meier-Oeser|2019|pp=212–213}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=784–785}} }} [168] => [169] => [[File:Michel Bréal.jpg|thumb|alt=Photo of Michel Jules Alfred Bréal|[[Michel Jules Alfred Bréal|Michel Bréal]] coined the French term ''{{lang|fr|semantique}}'' and conceptualized the scope of this field of inquiry.]] [170] => [171] => In the 19th century, semantics emerged and solidified as an independent field of inquiry. [[Christian Karl Reisig]] (1792–1829) is sometimes credited as the father of semantics since he clarified its concept and scope while also making various contributions to its key ideas.{{harvnb|Nerlich|2019|pp=218, 221–223}} [[Michel Jules Alfred Bréal|Michel Bréal]] (1832–1915) followed him in providing a broad conception of the field, for which he coined the French term ''{{lang|fr|semantique}}''.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Nerlich|2019|pp=230–231}} | {{harvnb|Allan|2015|p=51}} }} [[John Stuart Mill]] (1806–1873) gave great importance to the role of names to refer to things. He distinguished between the connotation and denotation of names and held that propositions are formed by combining names.{{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=795–796}} [[Charles Sanders Peirce]] (1839–1914) conceived semiotics as a general theory of signs with several subdisciplines, which were later identified by Charles W. Morris (1901–1979) as syntactics, semantics, and pragmatics. In his pragmatist approach to semantics, Peirce held that the meaning of conceptions consists in the entirety of their practical consequences.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Burch|Parker|2024|loc=§ 4. Pragmatism, Pragmaticism, and the Scientific Method}} | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=797–799}} }} The philosophy of [[Gottlob Frege]] (1848–1925) contributed to semantics on many different levels. Frege first introduced the distinction between sense and reference, and his development of predicate logic and the principle of compositionality formed the foundation of many subsequent developments in formal semantics.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=787–789}} | {{harvnb|Pelletier|1994|loc=Abstract}} }} [[Edmund Husserl]] (1859–1938) explored meaning from a [[Phenomenology (philosophy)|phenomenological]] perspective by considering the mental acts that endow expressions with meaning. He held that meaning always implies reference to an object and expressions that lack a referent, like ''green is or'', are meaningless.{{harvnb|Kretzmann|2006|pp=802–803}} [172] => [173] => In the 20th century, [[Alfred Tarski]] (1901–1983) defined truth in formal languages through his [[semantic theory of truth]], which was influential in the development of truth-conditional semantics by [[Donald Davidson (philosopher)|Donald Davidson]] (1917–2003).{{multiref | {{harvnb|Harris|2017|pp=150, 162}} | {{harvnb|Gupta|2011|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ffYvdYfAfk8C&pg=PA236 236]}} | {{harvnb|Lepore|Ludwig|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=lhJREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 1–2]}} }} Tarski's student [[Richard Montague]] (1930–1971) formulated a complex formal framework of the semantics of the English language, which was responsible for establishing formal semantics as a major area of research.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Harris|2017|pp=150, 162}} | {{harvnb|Chatzikyriakidis|Luo|2021|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=zt8MEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 6]}} }} According to [[structural semantics]],{{efn|Some theorists use the term ''structural semantics'' in a different sense to refer to phrasal semantics.{{harvnb|Rowe|Levine|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=ePQ5CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 151]}}}} which was inspired by the [[Structuralism|structuralist philosophy]] of [[Ferdinand de Saussure]] (1857–1913), language is a complex network of structural relations and the meanings of words are not fixed individually but depend on their position within this network.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Murphy|2009|p=27}} | {{harvnb|Noth|1990|p=61}} }} The theory of [[general semantics]] was developed by [[Alfred Korzybski]] (1879–1950) as an inquiry into how language represents reality and affects human thought.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Hörmann|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=euwHCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA298 298]}} | {{harvnb|Steinfatt|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=S8Kf0N0XALIC&pg=PA438 438–440]}} }} The contributions of [[George Lakoff]] (1941–present) and [[Ronald Langacker]] (1942–present) provided the foundation of cognitive semantics.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Taylor|2009|p=73}} | {{harvnb|Fischer|2013|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=jdQhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 7]}} }} [[Charles J. Fillmore]] (1929–2014) developed frame semantics as a major approach in this area.{{harvnb|Croft|Cruse|2004|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=I6Z9H-eRSgoC&pg=PA8 8]}} The closely related field of conceptual semantics was inaugurated by [[Ray Jackendoff]] (1945–present).{{harvnb|Östman|Fried|2005|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=e02q1C_J1OUC&pg=PA191 191–192]}} [174] => [175] => == In various disciplines == [176] => === Logic === [177] => {{main|Semantics of logic}} [178] => [179] => Logicians study correct [[Logical reasoning|reasoning]] and often develop [[formal languages]] to express arguments and assess their correctness.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=173–174}} | {{harvnb|Jaakko|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} | {{harvnb|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2024|loc=Lead Section, § 2. Language}} }} One part of this process is to provide a semantics for a formal language to precisely define what its terms mean. A semantics of a formal language is a set of rules, usually expressed as a [[mathematical function]], that assigns meanings to formal language expressions.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2024|loc=Lead Section, § 4. Semantics}} | {{harvnb|Jansana|2022|loc=§ 5. Algebraic Semantics}} | {{harvnb|Jaakko|Sandu|2006|pp=17–18}} }} For example, the language of first-order logic uses lowercase letters for [[individual constant]]s and uppercase letters for [[Predicate (mathematical logic)|predicates]]. To express the sentence "Bertie is a dog", the formula D(b) can be used where b is an individual constant for Bertie and D is a predicate for dog. Classical model-theoretic semantics assigns meaning to these terms by defining an [[Interpretation (logic)|interpretation function]] that maps individual constants to specific objects and predicates to [[Set (mathematics)|sets]] of objects or [[tuple]]s. The function maps b to Bertie and D to the set of all dogs. This way, it is possible to calculate the truth value of the sentence: it is true if Bertie is a member of the set of dogs and false otherwise.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Grimm|2009|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=QwyS2rZKnB0C&pg=PA116 116–117]}} | {{harvnb|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2024|loc=Lead Section, § 4. Semantics}} | {{harvnb|Magnus|Button|Thomas-Bolduc|Zach|2021|pp=193–195}} }} [180] => [181] => Formal logic aims to determine whether arguments are [[deductively valid]], that is, whether the premises entail the conclusion.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Riemer|2010|pp=173–174}} | {{harvnb|Jaakko|Sandu|2006|pp=13–14}} | {{harvnb|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2024|loc=Lead Section}} | {{harvnb|Gregory|2017|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=9heXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 82]}} }} Entailment can be defined in terms of syntax or in terms of semantics. Syntactic entailment, expressed with the symbol \vdash, relies on [[rules of inference]], which can be understood as procedures to transform premises and arrive at a conclusion. These procedures only take the [[logical form]] of the premises on the level of syntax into account and ignore what meaning they express. Semantic entailment, expressed with the symbol \vDash, looks at the meaning of the premises, in particular, at their truth value. A conclusion follows semantically from a set of premises if the truth of the premises ensures the truth of the conclusion, that is, if any semantic interpretation function that assigns the premises the value ''true'' also assigns the conclusion the value ''true''.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Forster|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=mVeTuaRwWssC&pg=PA74 74–75]}} | {{harvnb|Johnstone|1987|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=_hlsBpVA3qkC&pg=PA23 23]}} | {{harvnb|Shapiro|Kouri Kissel|2024|loc=Lead Section, § 4. Semantics}} | {{harvnb|Jaakko|Sandu|2006|pp=17–20}} }} [182] => [183] => === Computer science === [184] => {{main|Semantics (computer science)}} [185] => [186] => In computer science, the semantics of a [[Computer program|program]] is how it behaves when a computer runs it. Semantics contrasts with syntax, which is the particular form in which instructions are expressed. The same behavior can usually be described with different forms of syntax. In [[JavaScript]], this is the case for the commands i += 1 and i = i + 1, which are syntactically different expressions to increase the value of the variable ''i'' by one. This difference is also reflected in different [[programming languages]] since they rely on different syntax but can usually be employed to create programs with the same behavior on the semantic level.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fernández|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dzi5BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA10 10, 14–15]}} | {{harvnb|Dale|Weems|Headington|2003|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=VbyCFuJLgOMC&pg=PA42 42, 44]}} | {{harvnb|O’Regan|2020|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hnLJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA193 193]}} }} [187] => [188] => Static semantics focuses on semantic aspects that affect the [[compile time|compilation]] of a program. In particular, it is concerned with detecting errors of syntactically correct programs, such as [[type error]]s, which arise when an operation receives an incompatible [[data type]]. This is the case, for instance, if a function performing a numerical calculation is given a [[String (computer science)|string]] instead of a number as an argument.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fernández|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dzi5BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 14–15]}} | {{harvnb|Fritzson|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=doNqLi7279wC&pg=PA703 703]}} | {{harvnb|Mosses|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tMlrCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 167]}} }} Dynamic semantics focuses on the run time behavior of programs, that is, what happens during the [[Execution (computing)|execution]] of instructions.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fernández|2014|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dzi5BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA15 15–16]}} | {{harvnb|Fritzson|2010|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=doNqLi7279wC&pg=PA703 703]}} | {{harvnb|Mosses|2003|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=tMlrCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 167]}} }} The main approaches to dynamic semantics are [[denotational semantics|denotational]], [[axiomatic semantics|axiomatic]], and [[operational semantics]]. Denotational semantics relies on mathematical formalisms to describe the effects of each element of the code. Axiomatic semantics uses deductive logic to analyze which conditions must be in place before and after the execution of a program. Operational semantics interprets the execution of a program as a series of steps, each involving the transition from one [[State (computer science)|state]] to another state.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Fernández|2014|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=dzi5BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA16 16]}} | {{harvnb|O’Regan|2020|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=hnLJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA193 193–194]}} }} [189] => [190] => === Psychology === [191] => {{main|Semantics (psychology)}} [192] => Psychological semantics examines psychological aspects of meaning. It is concerned with how meaning is represented on a cognitive level and what mental processes are involved in understanding and producing language. It further investigates how meaning interacts with other mental processes, such as the relation between language and perceptual experience.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smith|Rips|Shoben|1975|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o5LScJ9ecGUC&pg=PA1 1–3]}} | {{harvnb|Sanford|2009|pp=792–793, 796}} }}{{efn|Some theorists use the term ''psychosemantics'' to refer to this discipline while others understand the term in a different sense.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Halpern|Voĭskunskiĭ|1997|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=02JK4iG16GAC&pg=PA21 21]}} | {{harvnb|Cohen|2009|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=6U01MmL9fxsC&pg=PA59 59]}} }}}} Other issues concern how people learn new words and relate them to familiar things and concepts, how they infer the meaning of compound expressions they have never heard before, how they resolve ambiguous expressions, and how semantic illusions lead them to misinterpret sentences.{{harvnb|Sanford|2009|pp=793–797}} [193] => [194] => One key topic is [[semantic memory]], which is a form of [[general knowledge]] of meaning that includes the knowledge of language, concepts, and facts. It contrasts with [[episodic memory]], which records events that a person experienced in their life. The comprehension of language relies on semantic memory and the information it carries about word meanings.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Smith|Rips|Shoben|1975|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o5LScJ9ecGUC&pg=PA3 3–4]}} | {{harvnb|Hampton|2015|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GplGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA125 125]}} | {{harvnb|Tulving|2001|p=[https://books.google.com/books?id=-wt1aZrGXLYC&pg=PA278 278]}} }} According to a common view, word meanings are stored and processed in relation to their semantic features. The feature comparison model states that sentences like "a robin is a bird" are assessed on a psychological level by comparing the semantic features of the word ''robin'' with the semantic features of the word ''bird''. The assessment process is fast if their semantic features are similar, which is the case if the example is a [[Prototype theory|prototype]] of the general category. For atypical examples, as in the sentence "a penguin is a bird", there is less overlap in the semantic features and the psychological process is significantly slower.{{multiref | {{harvnb|Sanford|2009|p=792}} | {{harvnb|Smith|Rips|Shoben|1975|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=o5LScJ9ecGUC&pg=PA3 3–4, 42]}} | {{harvnb|Hampton|2015|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=GplGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA125 125–128]}} | {{harvnb|Shi|2017|pp=[https://books.google.com/books?id=4vatDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85 85–86]}} }} [195] => [196] => == See also == [197] => * {{annotated link|Semantic technology}} [198] => [199] => == References == [200] => === Notes === [201] => {{Notelist}} [202] => [203] => === Citations === [204] => {{Reflist}} [205] => [206] => ===Sources=== [207] => {{refbegin|30em}} [208] => * {{cite book |last1=Abaza |first1=Jack |title=The Definitive Answer to the Meaning of Life |date=2023 |publisher=Wipf and Stock |isbn=979-8-385-20172-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NYbkEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT32 |url-status=live }} [209] => * {{cite web |author1=AHD Staff |title=Semantics |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=semantics&submit.x=58&submit.y=14 |website=American Heritage Dictionary |publisher=Harper Collins |access-date=31 January 2024 |date=2022 |archive-date=31 January 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240131093946/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=semantics&submit.x=58&submit.y=14 |url-status=live }} [210] => * {{cite web |author1=AHD Staff |title=Hermeneutics |url=https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=hermeneutics&submit.x=58&submit.y=14 |website=American Heritage Dictionary |publisher=Harper Collins |access-date=31 January 2024 |date=2022 |ref={{sfnref|AHD Staff|2022a}} |archive-date=23 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223174147/https://www.ahdictionary.com/word/search.html?q=hermeneutics&submit.x=58&submit.y=14 |url-status=live }} [211] => * {{cite journal |last1=Aklujkar |first1=Ashok |title=Ancient Indian Semantics |journal=Annals of the Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute |date=1970 |volume=51 |issue=1/4 |pages=11–29 |jstor=41688671 |issn=0378-1143 }} [212] => * {{cite encyclopedia |title=Introduction |last1=Allan |first1=Keith |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-95969-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [213] => * {{cite book |last1=Allan |first1=Keith |editor1-last=Riemer |editor1-first=Nick |title=The Routledge Handbook of Semantics |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-41245-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GplGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA48 |chapter=3. A History of Semantics |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [214] => * {{cite book |last1=Anderson |first1=Derek Egan |title=Metasemantics and Intersectionality in the Misinformation Age: Truth in Political Struggle |date=2021 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-73339-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=LCdBEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [215] => * {{cite journal |last1=Andreou |first1=Marios |title=Lexical Negation in Lexical Semantics: The Prefixes in- and dis- |journal=Morphology |date=2015 |volume=25 |issue=4 |pages=391–410 |doi=10.1007/s11525-015-9266-z}} [216] => * {{cite book |last1=Appiah |first1=Kwame Anthony |last2=Gutmann |first2=Amy |title=Color Conscious: The Political Morality of Race |date=1998 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-400-82209-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ylp_omhIPssC&pg=PA34 |access-date=2024-02-18 |url-status=live }} [217] => * {{cite journal |last1=Bagha |first1=Karim Nazari |title=A Short Introduction to Semantics |journal=Journal of Language Teaching and Research |date=2011 |volume=2 |issue=6 |doi=10.4304/jltr.2.6.1411-1419}} [218] => * {{cite book |last1=Bekkum |first1=Wout Jac van |last2=Houben |first2=Jan |last3=Sluiter |first3=Ineke |last4=Versteegh |first4=Kees |title=The Emergence of Semantics in Four Linguistic Traditions: Hebrew, Sanskrit, Greek, Arabic |date=1997 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-9-027-29881-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=uU9IAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA229 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [219] => * {{cite book |last1=Benin |first1=Stephen D. |title=The Footprints of God: Divine Accommodation in Jewish and Christian Thought |date=2012 |publisher=State University of New York Press |isbn=978-0-791-49628-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MdvKg89eeCkC&pg=PA94 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [220] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Berto |first1=Francesco |last2=Jago |first2=Mark |title=Impossible Worlds |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/impossible-worlds/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=17 February 2024 |date=2023 |archive-date=10 February 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210210235859/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/impossible-worlds/ |url-status=live }} [221] => * {{cite book |last1=Berwick |first1=Robert C. |last2=Stabler |first2=Edward P. |title=Minimalist Parsing |date=2019 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-198-79508-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=bPerDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA110 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [222] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Bezuidenhout |first1=A. |title=Semantics–Pragmatics Boundary |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-95969-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [223] => * {{cite book |last1=Bieswanger |first1=Markus |last2=Becker |first2=Annette |title=Introduction to English Linguistics |date=2017 |publisher=UTB |isbn=978-3-825-24528-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Tzg8DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA128 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [224] => * {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=2008 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-199-54143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803105953851 |chapter=Truth Conditions |access-date=2024-02-09 |archive-date=2024-02-08 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240208102419/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803105953851 |url-status=live }} [225] => * {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Blackburn|2008a}} |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-199-54143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095555953 |chapter=Causal Theory of Meaning |access-date=2024-02-18 |archive-date=2024-02-17 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217103720/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803095555953 |url-status=live }} [226] => * {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Blackburn|2008b}} |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-199-54143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100547345 |chapter=Syncategorematic |access-date=2024-02-23 |archive-date=2024-02-23 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240223192947/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100547345 |url-status=live }} [227] => * {{cite book |last1=Blackburn |first1=Simon |title=The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy |date=2008 |ref={{sfnref|Blackburn|2008c}} |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-199-54143-0 |url=https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100410334 |chapter=Referentially Opaque/Transparent |access-date=2024-02-24 |archive-date=2024-02-24 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240224095358/https://www.oxfordreference.com/display/10.1093/oi/authority.20110803100410334 |url-status=live }} [228] => * {{cite book |last1=Bohnemeyer |first1=Jürgen |title=Ten Lectures on Field Semantics and Semantic Typology |date=2021 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9-004-36262-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=HLJFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA24 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [229] => * {{cite book |last1=Boyd |first1=Richard |last2=Gasper |first2=Philip |last3=Trout |first3=J. D. |title=The Philosophy of Science |date=1991 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-52156-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=pEzcsK1wlVYC&pg=PA5 |access-date=2024-02-18 |url-status=live }} [230] => * {{cite book |last1=Bublitz |first1=Wolfram |last2=Norrick |first2=Neal R. |title=Foundations of Pragmatics |date=2011 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-110-21426-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XgYP7AKeoKwC&pg=PA215 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [231] => * {{cite book |last1=Bunt |first1=Harry |last2=Muskens |first2=Reinhard |title=Computing Meaning: Volume 1 |date=1999 |publisher=Springer Netherlands |isbn=978-9-401-14231-1 |chapter-url=https://research.tilburguniversity.edu/en/publications/004ba44f-2c70-434b-8639-62336fc5d675 |chapter=Computational Semantics |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-4231-1_1 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [232] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Burch |first1=Robert |last2=Parker |first2=Kelly A. |title=Charles Sanders Peirce |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/peirce/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=22 February 2024 |date=2024 |archive-date=7 January 2020 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20200107081501/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/peirce/ |url-status=live }} [233] => * {{cite book |last1=Burgess |first1=Alexis |last2=Sherman |first2=Brett |editor-last1=Burgess |editor-first1=Alexis |editor-last2=Sherman |editor-first2=Brett |title=Metasemantics: New Essays on the Foundations of Meaning |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-191-64835-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=G0iPBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |chapter=Introduction: A Plea for the Metaphysics of Meaning |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [234] => * {{cite book |last1=Cardona |first1=Georgio R. |title=Panini: A Survey of Research |date=2019 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-110-80010-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XnmVDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA303 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [235] => * {{cite book |last1=Carston |first1=Robyn |editor1-last=Sbisà |editor1-first=Marina |editor2-last=Östman |editor2-first=Jan-Ola |editor3-last=Verschueren |editor3-first=Jef |title=Philosophical Perspectives for Pragmatics |date=2011 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-9-027-20787-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v0tz8crnDqEC&pg=PA280 |chapter=Truth-conditional Semantics |access-date=2024-02-10 |url-status=live }} [236] => * {{cite book |last1=Chakrabarti |first1=A. |title=Denying Existence: The Logic, Epistemology and Pragmatics of Negative Existentials and Fictional Discourse |date=1997 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-0-792-34388-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SbIRFAzav64C&pg=PA215 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [237] => * {{cite book |last1=Chapman |first1=Siobhan |last2=Routledge |first2=Christopher |title=Key Ideas in Linguistics and the Philosophy of Language |date=2009 |pages=84–85 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-748-63142-1 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9780748631421-033/html |chapter=Ideational Theories |doi=10.1515/9780748631421-033 |access-date=2024-02-18 |url-status=live }} [238] => * {{cite book |last1=Chatzikyriakidis |first1=Stergios |last2=Luo |first2=Zhaohui |title=Formal Semantics in Modern Type Theories |date=2021 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-1-786-30128-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zt8MEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA6 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [239] => * {{cite book |last1=Cohen |first1=Jonathan |title=The Red and the Real: An Essay on Color Ontology |date=2009 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-191-60960-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=6U01MmL9fxsC&pg=PA59 |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [240] => * {{cite book |last1=Cornish |first1=Francis |title=Anaphora, Discourse, and Understanding: Evidence from English and French |date=1999 |publisher=Clarendon Press |isbn=978-0-198-70028-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=xip76JYlvygC&pg=PA18 |access-date=2024-02-24 |url-status=live }} [241] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Crimmins |first1=Mark |encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |title=Semantics |url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/semantics/v-1 |publisher=Routledge |date=1998 |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-U036-1 |isbn=978-0-415-25069-6 |url-status=live }} [242] => * {{cite book |last1=Croft |first1=William |last2=Cruse |first2=D. Alan |title=Cognitive Linguistics |date=2004 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-66770-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=I6Z9H-eRSgoC&pg=PA8 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [243] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Cunningham |first1=D. J. |title=Meaning, Sense, and Reference |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-95969-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [244] => * {{cite book |last1=Dale |first1=Nell B. |last2=Weems |first2=Chip |last3=Headington |first3=Mark R. |title=Programming and Problem Solving with Java |date=2003 |publisher=Jones & Bartlett |isbn=978-0-763-70490-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=VbyCFuJLgOMC&pg=PA42 |url-status=live }} [245] => * {{cite book |last1=Davis |first1=Wayne A. |title=Nondescriptive Meaning and Reference: An Ideational Semantics |date=2005 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-191-60309-9 |url=https://academic.oup.com/book/8071 |access-date=2024-02-18 |archive-date=2024-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216094419/https://academic.oup.com/book/8071 |url-status=live }} [246] => * {{cite book |last1=Dirven |first1=René |last2=Verspoor |first2=Marjolijn |title=Cognitive Exploration of Language and Linguistics |date=2004 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-9-027-29541-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OM58J4nQJaYC&pg=PA28 |edition=2nd |access-date=2024-02-09 |url-status=live }} [247] => * {{cite web |last1=Duignan |first1=Brian |title=Semantics |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/semantics |website=Encyclopædia Britannica |access-date=17 February 2024 |date=2023 |archive-date=5 December 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20231205133455/https://www.britannica.com/science/semantics |url-status=live }} [248] => * {{cite book |last1=Dummett |first1=Michael |title=Frege: Philosophy of Language |date=1981 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-31931-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EYP7uCZIRQYC&pg=PA106 |access-date=2024-02-09 |url-status=live }} [249] => * {{cite book |last1=Dummett |first1=Michael |title=Thought and Reality |date=2008 |publisher=Clarendon |isbn=978-0-199-20727-5 }} [250] => * {{cite dissertation |last1=Durand |first1=Marion Olivia |title=Language and Reality: Stoic Semantics Reconstructed |publisher=University of Toronto |date=2018 |url=https://www.proquest.com/openview/c5004bf14780a1e3cb7c37b7d2941b45/1}} [251] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Edmonds |first1=P. |title=Disambiguation |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-95969-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [252] => * {{cite book |last1=Enfield |first1=N. J. |title=Ethnosyntax: Explorations in Grammar and Culture: Explorations in Grammar and Culture |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-191-58179-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ei4CErNyxp0C&pg=PA152 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [253] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Erk |first1=Katrin |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics |date=2018 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-199-38465-5 |url=https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-331 |title=Computational Semantics |access-date=2024-02-15 |archive-date=2024-02-13 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240213180752/https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/linguistics/view/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-331 |url-status=live }} [254] => * {{cite book |last1=Farese |first1=Gian Marco |title=The Cultural Semantics of Address Practices: A Contrastive Study Between English and Italian |date=2018 |publisher=Rowman & Littlefield |isbn=978-1-498-57928-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=NsllDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [255] => * {{cite book |last1=Fasold |first1=Ralph |last2=Connor-Linton |first2=Jeffrey |title=An Introduction to Language and Linguistics |date=2006 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-71766-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=E85VAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA156 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [256] => * {{cite book |last1=Feng |first1=Guangwu |title=A Theory of Conventional Implicature and Pragmatic Markers in Chinese |date=2010 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-1-849-50934-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_AgDSh5c1QcC&pg=PA11 |access-date=2024-02-18 |url-status=live }} [257] => * {{cite book |last1=Fernández |first1=Maribel |title=Programming Languages and Operational Semantics: A Concise Overview |date=2014 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-1-447-16368-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=dzi5BQAAQBAJ&pg=PA14 |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [258] => * {{cite book |last1=Fillmore |first1=C. J. |chapter=Frame Semantics |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |title=Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-95969-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [259] => * {{cite book |last1=Fischer |first1=Kerstin |title=From Cognitive Semantics to Lexical Pragmatics: The Functional Polysemy of Discourse Particles |date=2013 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-110-82864-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdQhAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [260] => * {{cite book |last1=Forster |first1=Thomas |title=Logic, Induction and Sets |date=2003 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-53361-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=mVeTuaRwWssC&pg=PA74 |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [261] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Fraser |first1=Chris |title=School of Names |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/school-names/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |date=2020}} [262] => * {{Cite book |last=Fraser |first=Chris |title=Late Classical Chinese Thought |year=2023 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-192-59168-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=x865EAAAQBAJ}} [263] => * {{cite book |last1=Fritzson |first1=Peter |title=Principles of Object-Oriented Modeling and Simulation with Modelica 2.1 |date=2010 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-93761-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=doNqLi7279wC&pg=PA703 |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [264] => * {{cite book |last1=Gamut |first1=L. T. F. |title=Logic, Language, and Meaning, Volume 1: Introduction to Logic |date=1991 |publisher=University of Chicago Press |isbn=978-0-226-28084-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ktqxlzcc5nQC&pg=PA142 |access-date=2024-02-09 |url-status=live }} [265] => * {{cite book |last1=Gawron |first1=Jean-Mark |title=Semantics |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-110-22661-4 |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9783110226614.664/html |chapter=29. Frame Semantics |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [266] => * {{cite book |last1=Geeraerts |first1=Dirk |title=Theories of Lexical Semantics |date=2010 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-198-70030-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=JC8TDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA118 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [267] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Geeraerts |first1=Dirk |encyclopedia=Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Linguistics |date=2017 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-199-38465-5 |url=https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-29 |title=Lexical Semantics |access-date=2024-02-15 |archive-date=2024-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215165238/https://oxfordre.com/linguistics/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780199384655.001.0001/acrefore-9780199384655-e-29 |url-status=live }} [268] => * {{cite book |last1=Gibbs |first1=Raymond W. |title=The Poetics of Mind: Figurative Thought, Language, and Understanding |date=1994 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-42992-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4kVJAMghNmUC&pg=PA29 |access-date=2024-02-18 |url-status=live }} [269] => * {{cite journal |last1=Glock |first1=Hans-Johann |title=What Is a Theory of Meaning? Just When You Thought Conceptual Analysis Was Dead... |journal=Cahiers Ferdinand de Saussure |date=2012 |issue=65 |pages=51–79 |jstor=24324915 |issn=0068-516X }} [270] => * {{cite book |last1=Gregory |first1=Howard |title=Semantics |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-21610-4}} [271] => * {{cite book |last1=Gregory |first1=Paul A. |title=Formal Logic |date=2017 |publisher=Broadview Press |isbn=978-1-77048-594-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=9heXDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA82 |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [272] => * {{cite book |last1=Griffiths |first1=Patrick |last2=Cummins |first2=Chris |title=An Introduction to English Semantics and Pragmatics |date=2023 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-1-399-50460-7 |edition=3rd}} [273] => * {{cite book |last1=Grimm |first1=Stephan |editor1-last=Gaber |editor1-first=Mohamed Medhat |title=Scientific Data Mining and Knowledge Discovery: Principles and Foundations |date=2009 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-642-02788-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QwyS2rZKnB0C&pg=PA116 |chapter=Knowledge Representation and Ontologies |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [274] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Groenendijk |first1=J. |last2=Stokhof |first2=M. |title=Dynamic Semantics |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-95969-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [275] => * {{cite book |last1=Gross |first1=Steven |chapter=(Descriptive) Externalism in Semantics |editor1-last=Riemer |editor1-first=Nick |title=The Routledge Handbook of Semantics |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-66173-7}} [276] => * {{cite book |last1=Gupta |first1=Anil |editor1-last=Schantz |editor1-first=Richard |title=What Is Truth? |date=2011 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-110-88666-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ffYvdYfAfk8C&pg=PA236 |chapter=An Argument Against Tarski's Convention T |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [277] => * {{cite book |last1=Halpern |first1=Diane F. |last2=Voĭskunskiĭ |first2=Aleksandr |title=States of Mind: American and Post-Soviet Perspectives on Contemporary Issues in Psychology |date=1997 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-19-510351-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=02JK4iG16GAC&pg=PA21 |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [278] => * {{cite book |last1=Hampton |first1=James A. |editor1-last=Riemer |editor1-first=Nick |title=The Routledge Handbook of Semantics |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-41245-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=GplGCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA125 |chapter=7. Categories, Prototypes, and Exemplars |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [279] => * {{cite book |last1=Harris |first1=Daniel W. |title=Innovations in the History of Analytical Philosophy |date=2017 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-1-137-40808-2 |chapter-url=https://philarchive.org/rec/HARTHA-15 |chapter=The History and Prehistory of Natural-Language Semantics |pages=149–194 |doi=10.1057/978-1-137-40808-2_6 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [280] => * {{cite book |last1=Heffer |first1=Simon |title=Simply English: An A-Z of Avoidable Errors |date=2014 |publisher=Random House |isbn=978-1-446-47380-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7WOEAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA42}} [281] => * {{cite journal |last1=Hess |first1=Leopold |title=Inferentialist Semantics for Lexicalized Social Meanings |journal=Synthese |date=2022 |volume=200 |issue=5 |doi=10.1007/s11229-022-03817-5}} [282] => * {{cite book |last1=Hoad |first1=T. F. |title=The Concise Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology |date=1993 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-192-83098-2 }} [283] => * {{cite book |last1=Holm |first1=P. |last2=Karlgren |first2=K. |title=Information System Concepts: Towards a Consolidation of Views |date=1995 |publisher=Springer US |isbn=978-0-387-34870-4 |chapter-url=https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-34870-4_3 |chapter=Theories of Meaning and Different Perspectives on Information Systems |doi=10.1007/978-0-387-34870-4_3 |access-date=2024-02-18 |archive-date=2024-02-16 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240216094429/https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-0-387-34870-4_3 |url-status=live }} [284] => * {{cite book |last1=Hörmann |first1=Hans |title=Psycholinguistics: An Introduction to Research and Theory |date=2013 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-1-461-26211-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=euwHCAAAQBAJ&pg=PA298 |access-date=2024-02-24 |url-status=live }} [285] => * {{Cite book |last1=Indraccolo |first1=Lisa |chapter=Argumentation (Bian 辯) |title=Dao Companion to Chinese Philosophy of Logic |volume=12 |series=Dao Companions to Chinese Philosophy |editor1-last=Fung |editor1-first=Yiu-ming |year=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-29033-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MejqDwAAQBAJ}} [286] => * {{cite book |last1=Jaakko |first1=Hintikka |last2=Sandu |first2=Gabriel |title=Philosophy of Logic |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-46663-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=1xEVkzuX5e0C |chapter=What Is Logic? |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [287] => * {{cite book |last1=Jackendoff |first1=Ray |editor1-last=Hoffmann |editor1-first=Thomas |editor2-last=Trousdale |editor2-first=Graeme |title=The Oxford Handbook of Construction Grammar |date=2013 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-199-37663-6 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=N_lQEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA72 |chapter=Constructions in the Parallel Architecture |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [288] => * {{cite book |last1=Jackendoff |first1=Ray |title=Semantics |date=2011 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-110-22661-4 |chapter=30. Conceptual Semantics |doi=10.1515/9783110226614.688 }} [289] => * {{cite book |last1=Jackendoff |first1=Ray |title=Foundations of Language: Brain, Meaning, Grammar, Evolution |date=2002 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-198-27012-6 }} [290] => * {{cite book |last1=Jacobson |first1=Pauline I. |title=Compositional Semantics: An Introduction to the Syntax/Semantics Interface |date=2014 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-199-67714-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=XRRCBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA4 |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [291] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Jansana |first1=Ramon |title=Algebraic Propositional Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-algebraic-propositional/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 February 2024 |date=2022 |archive-date=20 December 2016 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20161220155433/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-algebraic-propositional/ |url-status=live }} [292] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Janssen |first1=Theo M. V. |last2=Zimmermann |first2=Thomas Ede |title=Montague Semantics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montague-semantics/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=12 February 2024 |date=2021 |archive-date=16 April 2021 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210416105851/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/montague-semantics/ |url-status=live }} [293] => * {{cite book |last1=Jiang |first1=Yan |title=A Reference Grammar of Chinese |date=2016 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76939-6 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/reference-grammar-of-chinese/deixis-and-anaphora/FBD4274CE4C5398AD2504635AB702EBA |chapter=Deixis and Anaphora |access-date=2024-02-24 |url-status=live }} [294] => * {{cite book |last1=Johnstone |first1=P. T. |title=Notes on Logic and Set Theory |date=1987 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-33692-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=_hlsBpVA3qkC&pg=PA23 |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [295] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Jun |first1=J. S. |title=Lexical Conceptual Structure |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-95969-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [296] => * {{cite book |last1=Kay |first1=Christian |title=English Historical Semantics |date=2015 |publisher=Edinburgh University Press |isbn=978-0-748-64479-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UZw7DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [297] => * {{cite book |last1=Kearns |first1=Kate |title=Semantics |date=2011 |publisher=Palgrave Macmillan |isbn=978-0-333-71701-1}} [298] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=King |first1=Jeffrey C. |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald M. |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 8: Price - Sextus Empiricus |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference |isbn=978-0-028-65788-2 |edition=2nd |title=Semantics}} [299] => * {{cite book |last1=Kortmann |first1=Bernd |title=English Linguistics: Essentials |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-476-05678-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=0PoFEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA165 |access-date=2024-02-25 |url-status=live }} [300] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Kretzmann |first1=Norman |editor1-last=Borchert |editor1-first=Donald M. |encyclopedia=The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. 8: Price - Sextus Empiricus |date=2006 |publisher=Thomson Gale, Macmillan Reference |isbn=978-0-028-65788-2 |edition=2nd |title=Semantics, History of}} [301] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Krifka |first1=Manfred |editor1-last=Wilson |editor1-first=Robert A. |editor2-last=Keil |editor2-first=Frank C. |encyclopedia=The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences (MITECS) |date=2001 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-73144-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-wt1aZrGXLYC&pg=PA152 |access-date=2024-02-09 |title=Compositionality}} [302] => * {{cite book |last1=Kuche |first1=Louise |last2=Rowland |first2=Susan |editor1-last=Rowland |editor1-first=Susan |editor2-last=Kuchel |editor2-first=Louise |title=Teaching Science Students to Communicate: A Practical Guide |date=2023 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-91628-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Kaa7EAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13 |chapter=Rhetoric, Influence, and Persuation |access-date=2024-02-24 |url-status=live }} [303] => * {{cite book |last1=L'Homme |first1=Marie-Claude |title=Lexical Semantics for Terminology: An Introduction |date=2020 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-9-027-26178-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=jdbHDwAAQBAJ&pg=PT89 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [304] => * {{cite book |last1=Leach |first1=Stephen |last2=Tartaglia |first2=James |title=The Meaning of Life and the Great Philosophers |date=2018 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-315-38592-1 |chapter=Postscript: The Blue Flower}} [305] => * {{cite book |last1=Leaman |first1=Oliver |title=The Biographical Encyclopedia of Islamic Philosophy |date=2015 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-472-56945-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2wS2CAAAQBAJ |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [306] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Lepore |first1=E. |title=Truth Conditional Semantics and Meaning |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-95969-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [307] => * {{cite book |last1=Lepore |first1=Ernest |last2=Ludwig |first2=Kirk |title=Donald Davidson's Truth-Theoretic Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Clarendon |isbn=978-0-191-53749-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=lhJREAAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [308] => * {{cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=David |editor1-last=Davidson |editor1-first=Donald |editor2-last=Harman |editor2-first=Gilbert |title=Semantics of Natural Language |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9-401-02557-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vsb-CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA169 |chapter=General Semantics |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [309] => * {{cite web |last1=Li |first1=Fuyin |title=Cognitive Semantics |url=https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199772810/obo-9780199772810-0279.xml |website=Oxford Bibliographies |access-date=10 February 2024 |date=2021 |archive-date=25 March 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230325140013/https://www.oxfordbibliographies.com/display/document/obo-9780199772810/obo-9780199772810-0279.xml |url-status=live }} [310] => * {{cite book |last1=Löbner |first1=Sebastian |title=Understanding Semantics |date=2013 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-82673-0 |edition=2nd}} [311] => * {{cite book |last1=Lyons |first1=John |title=Semantics 1 |date=1996 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-21473-5 |edition=Repr.}} [312] => * {{cite book |title=Forall X: Calgary: An Introduction to Formal Logic |first1=P. D. |last1=Magnus |first2=Tim |last2=Button |first3=Aaron |last3=Thomas-Bolduc |first4=Richard |last4=Zach |first5=J. Robert |last5=Loftis |first6=Robert |last6=Trueman |date=2021 |publisher=University of Calgary |isbn=979-8-527-34950-4 |url=https://forallx.openlogicproject.org/forallxyyc.pdf |access-date=27 March 2023 |archive-date=16 February 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230216093131/https://forallx.openlogicproject.org/forallxyyc.pdf |url-status=live }} [313] => * {{cite book |last1=Malpas |first1=Jeff |editor1-last=Malpas |editor1-first=Jeff |editor2-last=Gander |editor2-first=Hans-Helmuth |title=The Routledge Companion to Hermeneutics |date=2014 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-67664-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=zUaLBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |chapter=Introduction: Hermeneutics and Philosophy |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [314] => * {{cite book |last1=Márquez |first1=Miguel Fuster |title=Working with Words: An Introduction to English Linguistics |date=2011 |publisher=Universitat de València |isbn=978-8-437-08579-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=TkKVwYcG8Q4C&pg=PA146 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [315] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Marti |first1=Genoveva |encyclopedia=Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy |title=Sense and Reference |date=1998 |publisher=Routledge |url=https://www.rep.routledge.com/articles/thematic/sense-and-reference/v-1 |access-date=2024-02-09 |url-status=live |doi=10.4324/9780415249126-X038-1|isbn=978-0-415-25069-6 }} [316] => * {{cite journal |last1=Martin |first1=R. M. |title=On the Semantics of Hobbes |journal=Philosophy and Phenomenological Research |date=1953 |volume=14 |issue=2 |pages=205–211 |jstor=2103327 }} [317] => * {{cite book |last1=Meier-Oeser |first1=Stephan |title=Foundations, History, and Methods |date=2019 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-110-37373-8 |chapter=8. Meaning in Pre-19th Century Thought}} [318] => * {{cite book |last1=Meulen |first1=Alice ter |editor1-last=Dascal |editor1-first=Marcelo |editor2-last=Gerhardus |editor2-first=Dietfried |editor3-last=Lorenz |editor3-first=Kuno |editor4-last=Meggle |editor4-first=Georg |title=Sprachphilosophie |trans-title=Philosophy of Language |date=2008 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-110-20329-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tSKfSI-7ZncC&pg=PA1653 |language=de |chapter=Philosophy of Language and Linguistics |access-date=2024-02-24 |url-status=live }} [319] => * {{cite book |last1=Moeschler |first1=Jacques |chapter=Introduction to Semantics |editor-last1=Rajman |editor-first1=Martin |title=Speech and Language Engineering |date=2007 |publisher=EPFL Press |isbn=978-0-824-72219-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=h3SpC0oBc_AC&pg=PA31 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [320] => * {{cite book |last1=Morris |first1=Kevin |last2=Preti |first2=Consuelo |title=Early Analytic Philosophy: An Inclusive Reader with Commentary |date=2023 |publisher=Bloomsbury |isbn=978-1-350-32361-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=p_3LEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA369 |access-date=2024-02-18 |url-status=live }} [321] => * {{cite book |last1=Mosses |first1=Peter D. |editor1-last=Bjørner |editor1-first=Dines |editor2-last=Broy |editor2-first=Manfred |editor3-last=Zamulin |editor3-first=Alexandre |title=Perspectives of System Informatics: 4th International Andrei Ershov Memorial Conference, PSI 2001, Akademgorodok, Novosibirsk, Russia, July 2-6, 2001, Revised Papers |date=2003 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-3-540-45575-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tMlrCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA167 |chapter=The Varieties of Programming Language Semantics (And Their Uses) |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [322] => * {{cite book |last1=Murphy |first1=M. L. |last2=Koskela |first2=Anu |title=Key Terms in Semantics |date=2010 |publisher=A&C Black |isbn=978-1-847-06276-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=YO0WDRPHcWIC&pg=PA57 |access-date=2024-02-09 |url-status=live }} [323] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Murphy |first1=M. L. |title=Antonymy and Incompatibility |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-95969-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [324] => * {{cite book |last1=Mushayabasa |first1=Godwin |title=Translation Technique in the Peshitta to Ezekiel 1-24: A Frame Semantics Approach |date=2014 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9-004-27443-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=2QcSBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA21 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [325] => * {{cite book |last1=Nerlich |first1=Brigitte |title=Foundations, History, and Methods |date=2019 |publisher=De Gruyter Mouton |isbn=978-3-110-37373-8 |chapter=9. The Emergence of Linguistic Semantics in the 19th and Early 20th Century}} [326] => * {{cite book |last1=Nerlich |first1=Brigitte |title=Semantic Theories in Europe, 1830–1930: From Etymology to Contextuality |date=1992 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-9-027-27726-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=BeJBAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA2 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [327] => * {{cite book |last1=Noth |first1=Winfried |title=Handbook of Semiotics |date=1990 |publisher=Indiana University Press |isbn=978-0-253-20959-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=rHA4KQcPeNgC&pg=PA89 |access-date=2024-02-09 |url-status=live }} [328] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Nouwen |first1=Rick |last2=Brasoveanu |first2=Adrian |last3=van Eijck |first3=Jan |last4=Visser |first4=Albert |title=Dynamic Semantics |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dynamic-semantics/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=13 February 2024 |date=2022 |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225181025/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/dynamic-semantics/ |url-status=live }} [329] => * {{cite book |last1=Olkowski |first1=Dorothea |last2=Pirovolakis |first2=Eftichis |title=Deleuze and Guattari's Philosophy of Freedom: Freedom's Refrains |date=2019 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-429-66352-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=FhaGDwAAQBAJ |access-date=2024-02-09 |url-status=live }} [330] => * {{cite book |last1=Östman |first1=Jan-Ola |last2=Fried |first2=Mirjam |title=Construction Grammars: Cognitive Grounding and Theoretical Extensions |date=2005 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-9-027-21823-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=e02q1C_J1OUC&pg=PA191 |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [331] => * {{cite book |last1=O’Regan |first1=Gerard |title=Mathematics in Computing: An Accessible Guide to Historical, Foundational and Application Contexts |date=2020 |publisher=Springer Nature |isbn=978-3-030-34209-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=hnLJDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA193 |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [332] => * {{cite book |last1=Palmer |first1=Frank Robert |title=Semantics: A New Outline |date=1976 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-20927-4}} [333] => * {{cite book |last1=Park-Johnson |first1=Sunny K. |last2=Shin |first2=Sarah J. |title=Linguistics for Language Teachers: Lessons for Classroom Practice |date=2020 |publisher=Routledge, Taylor & Francis |isbn=978-1-138-68182-8}} [334] => * {{cite book |last1=Partee |first1=Barbara |editor1-last=Ludlow |editor1-first=Peter |title=Readings in the Philosophy of Language |date=1997 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-62114-4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o1jGSavwQZIC&pg=PA833 |chapter=Opacity and Scope |access-date=2024-02-24 |url-status=live }} [335] => * {{cite book |last1=Pavel |first1=Thomas G. |title=Fictional Worlds |date=1986 |publisher=Harvard University Press |isbn=978-0-674-29966-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=OF7ZA54UpYYC&pg=PA50 |access-date=2024-02-18 |url-status=live }} [336] => * {{cite book |last1=Pearce |first1=Kenneth L. |title=The Oxford Handbook of Berkeley |date=2022 |publisher=Oxford University Press |isbn=978-0-190-87342-4 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=inhXEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA194 |chapter=Berkeley's Theory of Language |access-date=2024-02-18|url-status=live }} [337] => * {{cite book |last1=Peeters |first1=Bert |title=Semantic Primes and Universal Grammar: Empirical Evidence from the Romance Languages |date=2006 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-9-027-23091-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MsIFbHm0_lcC&pg=PT25 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [338] => * {{cite journal |last1=Pelletier |first1=Francis Jeffry |title=The Principle of Semantic Compositionality |journal=Topoi |date=1994 |volume=13 |issue=1 |pages=11–24 |doi=10.1007/BF00763644}} [339] => * {{cite book |last1=Pollock |first1=John L. |title=The Foundations of Philosophical Semantics |date=2017 |publisher=Princeton University Press |isbn=978-1-400-88646-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=UIwrDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA172 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [340] => * {{cite book |last1=Portner |first1=Paul H. |last2=Partee |first2=Barbara H. |title=Formal Semantics: The Essential Readings |date=2008 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-470-75818-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ptgUWREtAkMC&pg=PA1 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [341] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Provenzola |first1=Thomas |editor1-last=Hindson |editor1-first=Edward E. |editor2-last=Mitchell |editor2-first=Daniel R. |encyclopedia=The Popular Encyclopedia of Church History: The People, Places, and Events That Shaped Christianity |date=2013 |publisher=Harvest House |isbn=978-0-736-94807-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=iAvGNlIWg9IC&pg=PA22 |title=Abelard, Peter |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [342] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Pustejovsky |first1=J. |title=Lexical Semantics |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-95969-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [343] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Pustejovsky |first1=J. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Language & Linguistics |date=2006 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-44854-1 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cxYGQfiD_1oC&pg=PT11380 |title=Lexical Semantics: Overview |edition=2nd |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [344] => * {{cite book |last1=Reif |first1=Monika |last2=Polzenhagen |first2=Frank |title=Cultural Linguistics and Critical Discourse Studies |date=2023 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-9-027-24952-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DyPdEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA129 |access-date=2024-02-09 |url-status=live }} [345] => * {{cite book |last1=Riemer |first1=Nick |title=Introducing Semantics |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-85192-3 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=tJjZ0FmNdzIC |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [346] => * {{cite book |last1=Riemer |first1=Nick |chapter=Internalist Semantics: Meaning, Conceptualization and Expression |editor1-last=Riemer |editor1-first=Nick |title=The Routledge Handbook of Semantics |date=2016 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-0-415-66173-7}} [347] => * {{cite book |last1=Rooij |first1=Robert van |editor1-last=Kempson |editor1-first=Ruth M. |editor2-last=Fernando |editor2-first=Tim |editor3-last=Asher |editor3-first=Nicholas |title=Philosophy of Linguistics |date=2012 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-444-51747-0 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=KlPwvH6ICqIC&pg=PA198 |chapter=Meaning and Use |access-date=2024-02-18 |url-status=live }} [348] => * {{cite book |last1=Rowe |first1=Bruce M. |last2=Levine |first2=Diane P. |title=A Concise Introduction to Linguistics |date=2015 |publisher=Routledge |isbn=978-1-317-34928-0 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=ePQ5CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA151 |access-date=2024-02-24 |url-status=live }} [349] => * {{cite book |last1=Saeed |first1=John I. |title=Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Wiley-Blackwell |isbn=978-1-405-15639-4 |edition=3rd }} [350] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Sanford |first1=A. J. |title=Psychology, Semantics in |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-95969-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [351] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Shapiro |first1=Stewart |last2=Kouri Kissel |first2=Teresa |title=Classical Logic |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=19 February 2024 |date=2024 |archive-date=3 May 1998 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/19980503005350/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-classical/ |url-status=live }} [352] => * {{cite book |last1=Shead |first1=Stephen |title=Radical Frame Semantics and Biblical Hebrew: Exploring Lexical Semantics |date=2011 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9-004-22218-2 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=feR5DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA34 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [353] => * {{cite book |last1=Shi |first1=Zhongzhi |title=Mind Computation |date=2017 |publisher=World Scientific |isbn=978-981-314-582-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=4vatDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA85 |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [354] => * {{cite book |last1=Smith |first1=Edward E. |last2=Rips |first2=Lance J. |last3=Shoben |first3=Edward J. |editor-last1=Bower |editor-first1=Gordon H. |chapter=Semantic Memory and Psychological Semantics |title=The Psychology of Learning and Motivation |date=1975 |publisher=Academic Press |isbn=978-0-080-86359-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=o5LScJ9ecGUC&pg=PA1 |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [355] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Speaks |first1=Jeff |title=Theories of Meaning |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/meaning/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=10 February 2024 |date=2021 |archive-date=26 September 2019 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20190926012942/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/meaning/ |url-status=live }} [356] => * {{cite journal |last1=Staal |first1=J. F. |title=Indian Semantics, I |journal=Journal of the American Oriental Society |date=1966 |volume=86 |issue=3 |pages=304–311 |jstor=597038 |issn=0003-0279 }} [357] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Steinfatt |first1=Thomas M. |editor1-last=Littlejohn |editor1-first=Stephen W. |editor2-last=Foss |editor2-first=Karen A. |encyclopedia=Encyclopedia of Communication Theory |date=2009 |publisher=Sage |isbn=978-1-412-95937-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=S8Kf0N0XALIC&pg=PA438 |title=General Semantics |access-date=2024-02-24 |url-status=live }} [358] => * {{cite book |last1=Strauven |first1=Wanda |editor1-last=Catanese |editor1-first=Rossella |title=Futurist Cinema: Studies on Italian Avant-garde Film |date=2018 |publisher=Amsterdam University Press |isbn=978-9-048-52523-2 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=eYdIDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA78 |chapter=Marinetti's ''Tattilismo'' Revisited |access-date=2024-02-18 |url-status=live }} [359] => * {{cite book |last1=Sun |first1=Zhenbin |title=Language, Discourse, and Praxis in Ancient China |publisher=Springer |date=2014 |isbn=978-3-642-54865-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MLx_BAAAQBAJ}} [360] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Szabó |first1=Zoltán Gendler |title=Compositionality |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compositionality/ |encyclopedia=Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=7 February 2024 |date=2020 |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225181030/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/compositionality/ |url-status=live }} [361] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Taylor |first1=J. R. |title=Cognitive Semantics |editor-last1=Allan |editor-first1=Keith |encyclopedia=Concise Encyclopedia of Semantics |date=2009 |publisher=Elsevier |isbn=978-0-080-95969-6 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3_1snsgmqU8C |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [362] => * {{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=J. R. |chapter=Cognitive Semantics and Structural Semantics |editor-last1=Blank |editor-first1=Andreas |editor-last2=Koch |editor-first2=Peter |title=Historical Semantics and Cognition |date=2013 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-110-80419-5 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=MZYgAAAAQBAJ&pg=PA38 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [363] => * {{cite book |last1=Taylor |first1=John R. |title=The Cambridge Handbook of Cognitive Linguistics |date=2017 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-1-107-54420-8 |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-cognitive-linguistics/lexical-semantics/798AB6901B9AD5B0AC42C94A52EC8ECF |chapter=Lexical Semantics |access-date=2024-02-15 |archive-date=2024-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215165203/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-handbook-of-cognitive-linguistics/lexical-semantics/798AB6901B9AD5B0AC42C94A52EC8ECF |url-status=live }} [364] => * {{cite book |last1=Tondl |first1=L. |title=Problems of Semantics: A Contribution to the Analysis of the Language Science |date=2012 |publisher=Springer |isbn=978-9-400-98364-9 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=SY59CAAAQBAJ&pg=PA111 |access-date=2024-02-09 |url-status=live }} [365] => * {{cite book |last1=Trips |first1=Carola |title=Lexical Semantics and Diachronic Morphology: The Development of -hood, -dom and -ship in the History of English |date=2009 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-484-30527-4 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=gsNjdT8iArQC&pg=PA236 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [366] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Tulving |first1=Endel |editor1-last=Wilson |editor1-first=Robert A. |editor2-last=Keil |editor2-first=Frank C. |encyclopedia=The MIT Encyclopedia of the Cognitive Sciences (MITECS) |date=2001 |publisher=MIT Press |isbn=978-0-262-73144-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=-wt1aZrGXLYC&pg=PA278 |title=Episodic Vs. Semantic Memory |access-date=2024-02-19 |url-status=live }} [367] => * {{cite book |last1=Valin |first1=Robert D. Van |title=Investigations of the Syntax-semantics-pragmatics Interface |date=2008 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-9-027-20572-8 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=a4X2oVrrz-EC&pg=PT466 |access-date=2024-02-15 |url-status=live }} [368] => * {{cite book |last1=Vámos |first1=Tibor |editor1-last=Liebowitz |editor1-first=Jay |title=The Handbook of Applied Expert Systems |date=2019 |publisher=CRC Press |isbn=978-0-429-60697-7 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=v3GlDwAAQBAJ&pg=SA3-PA2 |chapter=3. Knowledge Representation |access-date=2024-02-23 |url-status=live }} [369] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Whiting |first1=Daniel |title=Conceptual Role Semantics |url=https://iep.utm.edu/conceptual-role-semantics/ |encyclopedia=Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy |access-date=17 February 2024 |archive-date=17 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240217140245/https://iep.utm.edu/conceptual-role-semantics/ |url-status=live }} [370] => * {{cite book |last1=Wierzbicka |first1=Anna |title=The Semantics of Grammar |date=1988 |publisher=John Benjamins |isbn=978-9-027-23019-5 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=f2G3RFoxk84C&pg=PA3 |access-date=2024-02-15|url-status=live }} [371] => * {{cite book |last1=Williams |first1=Noel |editor1-last=Narváez |editor1-first=Peter |title=The Good People: New Fairylore Essays |date=1997 |publisher=University Press of Kentucky |isbn=978-0-813-10939-8 |chapter-url=https://books.google.com/books?id=DLmoKKkxAX0C&pg=PA457 |chapter=The Semantics of the Word ''Fairy'': Making Meaning Out of Thin Air |access-date=2024-02-10 |url-status=live }} [372] => * {{cite book |last1=Yule |first1=George |title=The Study of Language |date=2010 |publisher=Cambridge University Press |isbn=978-0-521-76527-5 |edition=4th }} [373] => * {{cite book |last1=Zaefferer |first1=D. |editor1-last=Zaefferer |editor1-first=D. |title=Semantic Universals and Universal Semantics |date=2019 |publisher=Walter de Gruyter |isbn=978-3-110-87052-7 |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=t9G1DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA1 |chapter=Introduction: Universals and Semantics |access-date=2024-02-04 |url-status=live }} [374] => * {{cite encyclopedia |last1=Zalta |first1=Edward N. |title=Gottlob Frege |url=https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/frege/ |encyclopedia=The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy |publisher=Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University |access-date=9 February 2024 |date=2022 |archive-date=25 February 2024 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240225180913/https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/frege/ |url-status=live }} [375] => * {{cite book |last1=Zhao |first1=Ming |title=Cultural Semantics in the Lexicon of Modern Chinese |date=2023 |publisher=Brill |isbn=978-9-004-53518-3 |url=https://brill.com/display/book/9789004535183/front-10.xml |chapter=Preface |access-date=2024-02-15 |archive-date=2024-02-15 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20240215165202/https://brill.com/display/book/9789004535183/front-10.xml |url-status=live }} [376] => {{refend}} [377] => [378] => == External links == [379] => {{Commons category|Semantics}} [380] => {{Wiktionary|semantics}} [381] => {{Wikibooks|Linguistics/Semantics}} [382] => [383] => {{Philosophy of language}} [384] => {{formal semantics}} [385] => {{Authority control}} [386] => {{bots|deny=Citation bot}} [387] => [388] => [[Category:Semantics| ]] [389] => [390] => [[Category:Concepts in logic]] [391] => [[Category:Grammar]] [392] => [[Category:Linguistics terminology|+]] [393] => [[Category:Meaning (philosophy of language)]] [] => )
good wiki

Semantics

Semantics is the study of meaning in language and communication. It involves understanding how words, phrases, and sentences are used to convey meaning and how context affects interpretation.

More about us

About

It involves understanding how words, phrases, and sentences are used to convey meaning and how context affects interpretation. Semantics examines the relationships between words, as well as the meanings they convey individually and collectively. The field of semantics is also concerned with the representation and interpretation of meaning in other forms of communication, such as gestures, symbols, and signs. Various theories and approaches have been developed in semantics, including formal semantics, cognitive semantics, and lexical semantics. Semantics plays a crucial role in fields such as linguistics, philosophy, artificial intelligence, and computational linguistics.

Expert Team

Vivamus eget neque lacus. Pellentesque egauris ex.

Award winning agency

Lorem ipsum, dolor sit amet consectetur elitorceat .

10 Year Exp.

Pellen tesque eget, mauris lorem iupsum neque lacus.

You might be interested in

Aristotle

Aristotle was a Greek philosopher and polymath who lived from 384 to 322 BC.

Bird

Birds are a group of warm-blooded vertebrates characterized by feathers, beaks, wings, and the ability to lay eggs.

Cooking

Cooking is the process of preparing food by applying heat to it.

Dictionary

A dictionary is a comprehensive reference book or electronic resource that contains the meanings, pronunciations, usage, and other information about words in a particular language.

Etymology

Etymology is the study of the origins and historical development of words.

Existence

Existence is the state or fact of being present, real, or occurring.

Grammar

Grammar is the set of rules and guidelines that govern a language, specifically in regards to its usage and structure.

Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics is the theory and practice of interpretation, especially the interpretation of texts.

JavaScript

JavaScript is a programming language commonly used for creating interactive and dynamic websites.

Language

Language is a system of communication consisting of sounds, words, and grammar used by humans to express their thoughts, emotions, and ideas.

Linguistics

Linguistics is the scientific study of language and its structure, including the sounds, words, and grammar used in communication.

Logic

Logic is the study of reasoning and inference, and uses mathematical techniques to investigate the principles of correct reasoning.

Mathematics

Mathematics is a branch of science that deals with the study of numbers, quantities, and shapes.

Philosophy

Philosophy is a field of study that encompasses the fundamental questions about existence, knowledge, ethics, and reality.

Plato

Plato was a philosopher in ancient Greece and is widely regarded as one of the most important figures in Western philosophy and the founder of the Academy in Athens.

Psychology

Psychology is the scientific study of the human mind and behavior.