Array ( [0] => {{Short description|Practice of growing and cultivating plants}} [1] => {{About||the cryptographic concept|Gardening (cryptanalysis)|people who garden|Gardener}} [2] => [[File:Cementerio, Tulcán, Ecuador, 2015-07-21, DD 60.JPG|thumb|A gardener maintaining [[topiary]] in [[Tulcán]], Ecuador]] [3] => {{Use dmy dates|date=December 2014}} [4] => [5] => '''Gardening''' is the process of growing plants for their [[vegetable]]s, [[fruit]]s, [[flower]]s, [[herb]]s, and appearances within a designated space.{{Cite web |date=2024-01-10 |title=Gardening {{!}} Definition, Types, Tools, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/science/gardening |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} [[Garden|Gardens]] fulfill a wide assortment of purposes, notably the production of [[Aesthetics|aesthetically]] pleasing areas, [[Medication|medicines]], [[cosmetics]], [[dye]]s, [[food]]s, [[poison]]s, wildlife [[habitat]]s, and saleable goods (see [[market garden]]ing). People often partake in gardening for its [[Therapy|therapeutic]], [[health]], [[education]]al, [[Culture|cultural]], [[Philosophy|philosophical]], [[Environmental protection|environmental]], and [[Religion|religious]] benefits.{{Cite journal |last1=Lovell |first1=Rebecca |last2=Husk |first2=Kerryn |last3=Bethel |first3=Alison |last4=Garside |first4=Ruth |date=2014-10-07 |title=What are the health and well-being impacts of community gardening for adults and children: a mixed method systematic review protocol |journal=Environmental Evidence |volume=3 |issue=1 |pages=20 |bibcode=2014EnvEv...3...20L |doi=10.1186/2047-2382-3-20 |issn=2047-2382 |doi-access=free |hdl-access=free |hdl=10871/19910}} [6] => [[File:Hayes-Valley-Farm_by_Zoey-Kroll_fava-hillside.jpg|thumb|Berms of fava beans have been planted at Hayes Valley Farm, a community-built farm on the former Central freeway ramps of San Francisco]] [7] => Gardening varies in scale from the 800 hectare [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]] gardens{{Cite web |date=2021-06-28 |title=The Gardens |url=https://en.chateauversailles.fr/discover/estate/gardens |access-date=2024-02-08 |website=Palace of Versailles |language=en}} down to [[container garden]]s grown inside. Gardens take many forms, some only contain one type of plant while others involve a complex assortment of plants with no particular order. [8] => [9] => Gardening can be difficult to differentiate from [[Agriculture|farming]]. They are most easily differentiated based on their primary objectives. Farming prioritizes saleable goods and may include [[livestock]] production whereas gardening often prioritizes aesthetics and [[leisure]]. As it pertains to food production, gardening generally happens on a much smaller scale with the intent of personal or [[Community gardening|community consumption]].{{Cite web |last=Bailey |first=Mark |date=2021-12-03 |title=The Difference Between Farming & Gardening |url=https://blogs.ifas.ufl.edu/marionco/2021/12/03/the-difference-between-farming-gardening/ |access-date=2024-02-16 |website=UF/IFAS Extension Marion County |language=en}} It is important to note that there are cultures which do not differentiate between farming and gardening.{{Cite web |title=gitigaan (ni) {{!}} {{!}} the Ojibwe People's Dictionary |url=https://ojibwe.lib.umn.edu/main-entry/gitigaan-ni |access-date=2024-02-16 |website=ojibwe.lib.umn.edu}} This is primarily because [[subsistence agriculture]] has been the main method of farming throughout its 12,000 year history and is virtually indistinguishable from gardening.{{Cite web |title=Origins of agriculture - Neolithic Revolution, Domestication, Irrigation {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/agriculture/Earliest-beginnings |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}}{{Cite web |title=Subsistence farming {{!}} Definition, Characteristics, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/subsistence-farming |access-date=2024-02-17 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} [10] => [11] => == Prehistory == [12] => {{Main|Indigenous horticulture}} [13] => Plant domestication is seen as the birth of agriculture. However, it is arguably proceeded by a very long history of gardening wild plants. While the 12,000 year-old date is the commonly accepted timeline describing plant domestication, there is now evidence from the [[Ohalo II]] hunter-gatherer site showing earlier signs of disturbing the soil and cultivation of pre-domesticated crop species.{{Cite journal |last1=Snir |first1=Ainit |last2=Nadel |first2=Dani |last3=Groman-Yaroslavski |first3=Iris |last4=Melamed |first4=Yoel |last5=Sternberg |first5=Marcelo |last6=Bar-Yosef |first6=Ofer |last7=Weiss |first7=Ehud |date=2015-07-22 |title=The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=e0131422 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0131422 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4511808 |pmid=26200895|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1031422S }} This evidence pushes early stage plant domestication to 23,000 years ago which aligns with research done by Allaby (2022) showing slight selection pressure of desirable traits in Southwest Asian [[cereal]]s (einkorn, emmer, barley).{{Cite journal |last1=Allaby |first1=Robin G. |last2=Stevens |first2=Chris J. |last3=Kistler |first3=Logan |last4=Fuller |first4=Dorian Q. |date=2022-03-01 |title=Emerging evidence of plant domestication as a landscape-level process |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534721003050 |journal=Trends in Ecology & Evolution |volume=37 |issue=3 |pages=268–279 |doi=10.1016/j.tree.2021.11.002 |pmid=34863580 |issn=0169-5347}} Despite not qualifying as [[History of plant breeding|plant domestication]], there are many archaeological studies pushing the potential date of [[Hominini|hominin]] selective [[ecosystem]] disturbance back up to 125,000 years ago.{{Cite journal |last1=Roebroeks |first1=Wil |last2=MacDonald |first2=Katharine |last3=Scherjon |first3=Fulco |last4=Bakels |first4=Corrie |last5=Kindler |first5=Lutz |last6=Nikulina |first6=Anastasia |last7=Pop |first7=Eduard |last8=Gaudzinski-Windheuser |first8=Sabine |date=2021-12-17 |title=Landscape modification by Last Interglacial Neanderthals |journal=Science Advances |language=en |volume=7 |issue=51 |pages=eabj5567 |doi=10.1126/sciadv.abj5567 |issn=2375-2548 |pmc=8673775 |pmid=34910514|bibcode=2021SciA....7.5567R }} Much of these early recorded ecosystem disturbances were made through [[Control of fire by early humans|hominin use of fire]], which dates back to 1.5 Mya (although at this time fire was not likely being wielded as a landscape-changing tool by hominids).{{Cite journal |last1=Roebroeks |first1=Wil |last2=Villa |first2=Paola |date=2011-03-29 |title=On the earliest evidence for habitual use of fire in Europe |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=108 |issue=13 |pages=5209–5214 |doi=10.1073/pnas.1018116108 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=3069174 |pmid=21402905|bibcode=2011PNAS..108.5209R }} This anthropogenic ecosystem disturbance may be the origins of gardening. [14] => [15] => Every hunter-gatherer society has developed a niche of some sort, allowing them to thrive or even just survive amongst their environments.{{Cite journal |last1=Rowley-Conwy |first1=Peter |last2=Layton |first2=Robert |date=2011-03-27 |title=Foraging and farming as niche construction: stable and unstable adaptations |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |volume=366 |issue=1566 |pages=849–862 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0307 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=3048996 |pmid=21320899}} Many of these prehistoric hunter-gatherers had constructed a [[Niche construction|niche]] allowing for easier access to, or a higher amount of edible plant species.{{Citation |last1=Odling-Smee |first1=F. John |title=Niche Construction: The Neglected Process in Evolution (MPB-37) |date=2013-02-15 |work=Niche Construction |url=https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/9781400847266/html |access-date=2024-02-18 |publisher=Princeton University Press |language=en |doi=10.1515/9781400847266 |isbn=978-1-4008-4726-6 |last2=Lala |first2=Kevin N. |last3=Feldman |first3=Marcus}} This shift from [[Hunter-gatherer|hunting and gathering]] to increasingly modifying the environment in a way which produces an abundance of edible plant species marks the beginning of gardening.{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Bruce D. |date=2011-03-27 |title=General patterns of niche construction and the management of 'wild' plant and animal resources by small-scale pre-industrial societies |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=366 |issue=1566 |pages=836–848 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0253 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=3048989 |pmid=21320898}} One of the most documented hominin niches is the use of off-site fire.{{Cite journal |last=Rolland |first=Nicolas |date=2004 |title=Was the Emergence of Home Bases and Domestic Fire a Punctuated Event? A Review of the Middle Pleistocene Record in Eurasia |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/42928622 |journal=Asian Perspectives |volume=43 |issue=2 |pages=248–280 |jstor=42928622 |issn=0066-8435}} When done intentionally, this is often called [[forest gardening]] or [[Fire-stick farming|fire stick farming]] in Australia.{{Cite journal |last1=Bliege Bird |first1=R. |last2=Bird |first2=D. W. |last3=Codding |first3=B. F. |last4=Parker |first4=C. H. |last5=Jones |first5=J. H. |date=2008-09-30 |title=The "fire stick farming" hypothesis: Australian Aboriginal foraging strategies, biodiversity, and anthropogenic fire mosaics |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=105 |issue=39 |pages=14796–14801 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0804757105 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=2567447 |pmid=18809925|bibcode=2008PNAS..10514796B }} The modern study of [[fire ecology]] describes the many benefits off-site fires may have granted these early humans.{{Cite journal |last=Mellars |first=Paul |date=December 1976 |title=Fire Ecology, Animal Populations and Man: a Study of some Ecological Relationships in Prehistory |url=https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/proceedings-of-the-prehistoric-society/article/abs/fire-ecology-animal-populations-and-man-a-study-of-some-ecological-relationships-in-prehistory/067187FF74E33E228E229E46D9A72C78 |journal=Proceedings of the Prehistoric Society |language=en |volume=42 |pages=15–45 |doi=10.1017/S0079497X00010689 |s2cid=130614264 |issn=2050-2729}} Some of these [[Agroecology|agroecological]] practices have been well documented and studied during [[Colonization|colonial]] contact. However, they are vastly under represented in research done on early hominin fire use.{{Cite journal |last1=Scherjon |first1=Fulco |last2=Bakels |first2=Corrie |last3=MacDonald |first3=Katharine |last4=Roebroeks |first4=Wil |date=June 2015 |title=Burning the Land: An Ethnographic Study of Off-Site Fire Use by Current and Historically Documented Foragers and Implications for the Interpretation of Past Fire Practices in the Landscape |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/681561 |journal=Current Anthropology |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=299–326 |doi=10.1086/681561 |s2cid=141781968 |issn=0011-3204}} Based on current research, it is evident that these niches developed separately in different societies across different times and locations.{{Cite journal |last=Carey |first=John |date=2023-04-11 |title=Unearthing the origins of agriculture |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=120 |issue=15 |pages=e2304407120 |doi=10.1073/pnas.2304407120 |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=10104519 |pmid=37018195|bibcode=2023PNAS..12004407C }} Many of the Indigenous gardening methods were and still are often overlooked by colonizers due to the lack of resemblance to [[Western world|western]] gardens with well defined borders and non-naturalized plant species.{{Cite web |date=2008-05-01 |title=The idea of nature in America |url=https://www.amacad.org/publication/idea-nature-america |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=American Academy of Arts & Sciences |language=en}} [16] => [17] => === The Americas === [18] => There are long traditions of gardening within [[Indigenous peoples|Indigenous societies]] spanning from the northernmost parts of [[Canada]] down to the southernmost tip of [[Chile]] and [[Argentina]].{{Cite web |last=Sapiens |date=2022-04-20 |title=The Yaghan Rise Again |url=https://www.sapiens.org/archaeology/the-yaghan-rise-again/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=SAPIENS |language=en-US}}{{Cite journal |last1=Scherjon |first1=Fulco |last2=Bakels |first2=Corrie |last3=MacDonald |first3=Katharine |last4=Roebroeks |first4=Wil |date=June 2015 |title=Burning the Land: An Ethnographic Study of Off-Site Fire Use by Current and Historically Documented Foragers and Implications for the Interpretation of Past Fire Practices in the Landscape |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/681561 |journal=Current Anthropology |language=en |volume=56 |issue=3 |pages=299–326 |doi=10.1086/681561 |issn=0011-3204}}{{Cite journal |last1=Norton |first1=C. H. |last2=Cuerrier |first2=A. |last3=Hermanutz |first3=L. |date=2021 |title=People and Plants in Nunatsiavut (Labrador, Canada): Examining Plants as a Foundational Aspect of Culture in the Subarctic |journal=Economic Botany |volume=75 |issue=3–4 |pages=287–301 |doi=10.1007/s12231-021-09530-7 |issn=0013-0001 |pmc=8888477 |pmid=35273405}}{{Cite book |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctvh1dmjj |title=Wild Harvest: Plants in the Hominin and Pre-Agrarian Human Worlds |date=2016 |publisher=Oxbow Books |doi=10.2307/j.ctvh1dmjj |jstor=j.ctvh1dmjj |isbn=978-1-78570-123-8}} The [[Arctic]] and [[Subarctic]] societies relied primarily on [[hunting]] and [[fishing]] due to the harsh climate although they have been known to collectively use at least 311 different plants as foods or medicines.{{Cite thesis |last=Norton |first=Christian H. |title=Inuit Ethnobotany in the North American Subarctic and Arctic: Celebrating a Rich History and Expanding Research into New Areas Using Biocultural Diversity |date=13 March 2019 |degree=Master's |publisher=Université de Montréal |url=https://hdl.handle.net/1866/22249}} The substantial knowledge and use of these plants along with the communal harvesting sites and emphasis on [[Reciprocity (evolution)|reciprocity]] between humans and plants indicates a basic level of gardening.{{Cite journal |last=Weber |first=John T. |date=February 2022 |title=Traditional uses and beneficial effects of various species of berry-producing plants in eastern Canada |url=https://cdnsciencepub.com/doi/10.1139/cjb-2021-0086 |journal=Botany |language=en |volume=100 |issue=2 |pages=175–182 |doi=10.1139/cjb-2021-0086 |issn=1916-2790}}{{Cite journal |last1=Migicovsky |first1=Zoë |last2=Amyotte |first2=Beatrice |last3=Ulrich |first3=Jens |last4=Smith |first4=Tyler W. |last5=Turner |first5=Nancy J. |last6=Pico |first6=Joana |last7=Ciotir |first7=Claudia |last8=Sharifi |first8=Mehdi |last9=Meldrum |first9=Gennifer |last10=Stormes |first10=Ben |last11=Moreau |first11=Tara |date=November 2022 |title=Berries as a case study for crop wild relative conservation, use, and public engagement in Canada |journal=Plants, People, Planet |language=en |volume=4 |issue=6 |pages=558–578 |doi=10.1002/ppp3.10291 |issn=2572-2611|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Boulanger-Lapointe |first1=Noémie |last2=Gérin-Lajoie |first2=José |last3=Siegwart Collier |first3=Laura |last4=Desrosiers |first4=Sarah |last5=Spiech |first5=Carmen |last6=Henry |first6=Gregory H. R. |last7=Hermanutz |first7=Luise |last8=Lévesque |first8=Esther |last9=Cuerrier |first9=Alain |date=2019-02-01 |title=Berry Plants and Berry Picking in Inuit Nunangat: Traditions in a Changing Socio-Ecological Landscape |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s10745-018-0044-5 |journal=Human Ecology |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=81–93 |doi=10.1007/s10745-018-0044-5 |issn=1572-9915}} Similarly, the [[Fuegians|Fuegian]] Indigenous groups in South America had developed seemingly comparable niches due to a similar tundra ecosystem. While there are very few studies on the Fuegians, [[Charles Darwin|Darwin]] mentioned wild edible plants such as [[Fungus|fungi]], [[kelp]], and wild [[celery]] growing next to the various Fuegian shelters.{{Cite book |url=https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Popular_Science_Monthly/Volume_36/April_1890/Darwin_on_the_Fuegians_and_Patagonians |title=Popular Science Monthly Volume 36 April 1890}}{{Cite web |title=A short Account of Tierra del Fuego and its Inhabitants, by Thomas Bridges |url=https://patlibros.org/tdf/doc.php |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=patlibros.org}}{{Cite web |title=Botanik online: PUBLIC DOMAIN - Charles Darwin - The Voyage of the Beagle - Chapter 10 |url=https://www1.biologie.uni-hamburg.de/b-online/d36_beag/chapter10.htm |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=www1.biologie.uni-hamburg.de}} [19] => [[File:Indian_garden_from_Histoire_Naturelle_des_Indes.jpg|left|thumb|197x197px|From the Drake manuscript, this is a drawing done by an anonymous Frenchman in the 16th century. It shows an Indigenous garden planted with papaya, pineapple, maize, beans, and cucurbits.]] [20] => Horticulture plays a relatively small role in these northern and southern tundra inhabitants compared with Indigenous societies in [[grassland]] and [[forest]] ecosystems. From the [[Boreal forest of Canada|boreal forests]] of Canada to the temperate forests and grasslands of Chile and Argentina different communities have developed food production niches. These include the use of fire for ecosystem maintenance and resetting [[Ecological succession|successional]] sequences, the sowing of wild annuals, the sowing of domesticated annuals (e.g. [[Three Sisters (agriculture)|three sisters]], [[New World crops]]), creating berry patches and orchards, manipulation of plants to encourage desired traits(e.g. increased nut, fruit, or root production), and landscape modification to encourage plant and animal growth (e.g. complex [[irrigation]] or [[Terrace (earthworks)|terraces]]).{{Cite journal |last=Smith |first=Bruce D. |date=2011-03-27 |title=General patterns of niche construction and the management of 'wild' plant and animal resources by small-scale pre-industrial societies |journal=Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences |language=en |volume=366 |issue=1566 |pages=836–848 |doi=10.1098/rstb.2010.0253 |issn=0962-8436 |pmc=3048989 |pmid=21320898}}{{Cite book |last=Zeder |first=Melinda A. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=EaVTxjrbIFQC&pg=PR5 |title=Documenting Domestication: New Genetic and Archaeological Paradigms |date=2006-06-20 |publisher=University of California Press |isbn=978-0-520-24638-6 |language=en}} These modified landscapes as recorded by early American [[Philosophy|philosophers]] such as [[Henry David Thoreau|Thoreau]], and [[Ralph Waldo Emerson|Emmerson]] were described as exhibiting pristine beauty.{{Cite web |title=Walden, or, Life in the woods |url=https://www.loc.gov/item/17029241/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 USA}}{{Cite web |title=Nature by Ralph Waldo Emerson {{!}} Essay |url=https://emersoncentral.com/texts/nature-addresses-lectures/nature2/chapter1-nature/ |access-date=2024-02-18 |website=Ralph Waldo Emerson |language=en-US}} Indigenous gardens such as forest gardens therefore do not only serve as a producer of foods, medicines, or materials, but also pleasant aesthetics.{{Cite journal |last=Wagner |first=John |date=2008-01-01 |title=Landscape Aesthetics, Water, and Settler Colonialism in the Okanagan Valley of British Columbia |url=https://digitalcommons.usf.edu/jea/vol12/iss1/2 |journal=Journal of Ecological Anthropology |volume=12 |issue=1 |pages=22–38 |doi=10.5038/2162-4593.12.1.2 |issn=1528-6509}} [21] => [22] => Many popular crops originate from pre-colonial Indigenous agricultural societies. Some of these include [[maize]], [[quinoa]], [[Phaseolus vulgaris|common bean]], [[peanut]], [[pumpkin]], [[Cucurbita|squash]], [[Capsicum|pepper]], [[tomato]], [[cassava]], [[potato]], [[blueberry]], [[Opuntia|cactus pear]], [[cashew]], [[papaya]], [[pineapple]], [[strawberry]], [[Theobroma cacao|cacao]], [[Common sunflower|sunflower]], [[cotton]], [[Hevea brasiliensis|Pará rubber]], and [[tobacco]].{{Cite journal |last=Janick |first=Jules |date=2013-04-01 |title=Development of New World Crops by Indigenous Americans |url=https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/48/4/article-p406.xml |journal=HortScience |language=en-US |volume=48 |issue=4 |pages=406–412 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.48.4.406 |issn=0018-5345|doi-access=free }} [23] => [24] => ==History== [25] => {{Main|History of gardening}}[[Image:Forestgarden2.jpg|thumb|200px|[[Robert Hart (horticulturist)|Robert Hart]]'s forest garden in [[Shropshire]], England]] [26] => ===Ancient times=== [27] => [[Forest gardening]], a forest-based food production system, is the world's oldest form of gardening.{{cite book|title=The Forest Farms of Kandy: And Other Gardens of Complete Design|author=Douglas John McConnell|year=2003|page=1|publisher=Ashgate |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=QYBSfUJPQXcC&pg=PA1|isbn=9780754609582|access-date=6 October 2020|archive-date=15 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115181038/https://books.google.com/books?id=QYBSfUJPQXcC&pg=PA1|url-status=live}} [28] => [29] => After the emergence of the first [[civilization]]s, wealthy individuals began to create gardens for aesthetic purposes. [[Ancient Egypt]]ian tomb paintings from the [[New Kingdom of Egypt|New Kingdom]] (around 1500 BC) provide some of the earliest physical evidence of ornamental [[horticulture]] and landscape design; they depict [[Egyptian lotus|lotus]] ponds surrounded by symmetrical rows of [[acacia]]s and [[palm tree|palms]]. A notable example of ancient ornamental gardens were the [[Hanging Gardens of Babylon]]—one of the [[Seven Wonders of the Ancient World]] —while [[ancient Rome]] had dozens of gardens. [30] => [31] => Wealthy ancient Egyptians used gardens for providing shade. Egyptians associated trees and gardens with gods, believing that their deities were pleased by gardens. Gardens in ancient Egypt were often surrounded by walls with trees planted in rows. Among the most popular species planted were [[date palms]], sycamores, [[Ficus|fig trees]], nut trees, and [[willows]]. These gardens were a sign of higher socioeconomic status. In addition, wealthy ancient Egyptians grew vineyards, as wine was a sign of the higher social classes. [[Rose]]s, poppies, [[Asteraceae|daisies]] and [[Iris (plant)|irises]] could all also be found in the gardens of the Egyptians. [32] => [33] => [[Assyria]] was renowned for its beautiful gardens. These tended to be wide and large, some of them used for hunting game—rather like a game reserve today—and others as leisure gardens. [[Cupressus|Cypresses]] and palms were some of the most frequently planted types of trees. [34] => [35] => Gardens were also available in [[Kingdom of Kush|Kush]]. In [[Musawwarat es-Sufra]], the Great Enclosure dated to the 3rd century BC included splendid gardens.{{Cite web|last=Stirn|first=Isma'il Kushkush,Matt|title=Why Sudan's Remarkable Ancient Civilization Has Been Overlooked by History|url=https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/|access-date=2020-08-23|website=Smithsonian Magazine|language=en|archive-date=12 July 2021|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20210712111903/https://www.smithsonianmag.com/travel/sudan-land-kush-meroe-ancient-civilization-overlooked-180975498/|url-status=live}} [36] => [37] => [[Ancient Roman]] gardens were laid out with hedges and vines and contained a wide variety of flowers—[[Acanthus (plant)|acanthus]], [[cornflowers]], [[crocus]], [[cyclamen]], hyacinth, iris, ivy, [[lavender]], lilies, myrtle, narcissus, poppy, [[rosemary]] and violets{{cite web|url=http://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html|title=A Brief History of Gardening|access-date=2010-06-04|archive-date=6 October 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20181006030245/http://www.localhistories.org/gardening.html|url-status=live}}—as well as statues and sculptures. Flower beds were popular in the courtyards of rich Romans. [38] => [39] => ===The Middle Ages=== [40] => [[File:Mendel II 073 v.jpg|thumb|left|upright|A gardener at work, 1607]] [41] => [42] => The [[Middle Ages]] represent a period of decline in gardens for aesthetic purposes. After the fall of Rome, gardening was done for the purpose of growing [[medicinal herbs]] and/or decorating church [[altars]]. Monasteries carried on a tradition of [[garden design]] and intense horticultural techniques during the medieval period in [[Europe]]. [43] => Generally, monastic garden types consisted of kitchen gardens, infirmary gardens, cemetery [[orchard]]s, cloister garths and vineyards. Individual monasteries might also have had a "green court", a plot of grass and trees where horses could graze, as well as a cellarer's garden or private gardens for obedientiaries, monks who held specific posts within the monastery. [44] => [45] => [[Islamic garden]]s were built after the model of [[Persian gardens]] and they were usually enclosed by walls and divided in four by watercourses. Commonly, the centre of the garden would have a [[reflecting pool]] or [[pavilion]]. Specific to the Islamic gardens are the [[mosaic]]s and glazed tiles used to decorate the rills and [[fountain]]s that were built in these gardens. [46] => [47] => By the late 13th century, rich Europeans began to grow gardens for leisure and for medicinal herbs and vegetables. They surrounded the gardens by walls to protect them from animals and to provide [[seclusion]].{{Cite web |last=Sellers |first=Authors: Vanessa Bezemer |title=Gardens of Western Europe, 1600–1800 {{!}} Essay {{!}} The Metropolitan Museum of Art {{!}} Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |url=https://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/gard_1/hd_gard_1.htm |access-date=2023-06-30 |website=The Met’s Heilbrunn Timeline of Art History |language=en}} During the next two centuries, Europeans started planting lawns and raising flowerbeds and trellises of roses. Fruit trees were common in these gardens and also in some, there were turf seats. At the same time, the gardens in the [[monasteries]] were a place to grow flowers and medicinal herbs but they were also a space where the [[monk]]s could enjoy nature and relax. [48] => [49] => The gardens in the 16th and 17th century were [[symmetric]], proportioned and balanced with a more classical appearance. Most of these gardens were built around a central axis and they were divided into different parts by hedges. Commonly, gardens had flowerbeds laid out in squares and separated by gravel paths. [50] => [51] => Gardens in Renaissance were adorned with sculptures, [[topiary]] and fountains. In the 17th century, [[knot garden]]s became popular along with the [[hedge maze]]s. By this time, Europeans started planting new flowers such as [[tulips]], marigolds and [[sunflowers]]. [52] => [53] => ===Cottage gardens=== [54] => [[File:XN Kerascoet.jpg|thumb|A cottage garden in [[Brittany]]]] [55] => [56] => [[Cottage garden]]s, which emerged in [[Elizabethan times]], appear to have originated as a local source for herbs and fruits.{{cite book|last=Ryrie|first=Charlie|title=The Cottage Garden: How to Plan and Plant a Garden That Grows Itself|publisher=[[Collins & Brown]]|year=2004|page=7|isbn=978-1-84340-216-9|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=8VfO_WIAx0wC&pg=PA7}} One theory is that they arose out of the [[Black Death]] of the 1340s, when the death of so many laborers made land available for small cottages with personal gardens.{{cite book|last=Scott-James|first=Anne|author2=Osbert Lancaster|title=The Pleasure Garden: An Illustrated History of British Gardening|publisher=[[Frances Lincoln Publishers]]|year=2004|page=80|url=https://books.google.com/books?id=IbhwIo3m3mQC&pg=PA80|isbn=978-0-7112-2360-8}} According to the late 19th-century legend of origin,[[Anne Scott-James]], ''The Cottage Garden'' (London: Lane) 1981, demythologised the origins of the English cottage garden, and its treasured [[topiary]] among the vegetables and flowers, popularly supposed to represent heirlooms from the seventeenth century. these gardens were originally created by the workers that lived in the cottages of the villages, to provide them with food and herbs, with flowers planted among them for decoration. [[Farmworker|Farm workers]] were provided with cottages that had architectural quality set in a small garden—about {{convert|1|acre|abbr=off}}—where they could grow food and keep pigs and chickens.Colvin, Howard (2008). ''A Biographical Dictionary of British Architects, 1600–1840'', [[Yale University Press]], {{ISBN|0-300-12508-9}}, [https://books.google.com/books?id=CSyaO-MqYoAC&pg=PA659 p. 659] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115181038/https://books.google.com/books?id=CSyaO-MqYoAC&pg=PA659 |date=15 January 2023 }} [57] => [58] => Authentic gardens of the [[yeoman]] cottager would have included a beehive and [[livestock]], and frequently a pig and sty, along with a well. The peasant cottager of medieval times was more interested in meat than flowers, with herbs grown for medicinal use rather than for their beauty. By Elizabethan times there was more prosperity, and thus more room to grow flowers. Even the early cottage garden flowers typically had their practical use—violets were spread on the floor (for their pleasant scent and keeping out vermin); [[calendula]]s and [[primula vulgaris|primroses]] were both attractive and used in cooking. Others, such as [[Dianthus barbatus|sweet William]] and [[hollyhock]]s, were grown entirely for their beauty.{{cite book|last=Lloyd|first=Christopher|author2=Richard Bird|others=Jacqui Hurst|title=The Cottage Garden|publisher=[[Dorling Kindersley]]|year=1999|pages=6–9|isbn=978-0-7513-0702-3}} [59] => [60] => ===18th century=== [61] => [[File:Sheffield Park Gardens, Fletching, Sussex - geograph.org.uk - 1582535.jpg|thumb|[[Sheffield Park Garden]], a [[landscape garden]] originally laid out in the 18th century by [[Capability Brown]]]] [62] => [63] => In the 18th century, gardens were laid out more naturally, without any walls. This style of smooth undulating grass, which would run straight to the house, clumps, belts and scattering of trees and serpentine lakes formed by invisibly damming small rivers, were a new style within the [[England|English]] landscape. This was a "gardenless" form of landscape gardening, which swept away almost all the remnants of previous formally patterned styles. The [[English landscape garden]] usually included a lake, lawns set against [[Grove (nature)|groves of trees]], and often contained shrubberies, grottoes, pavilions, bridges and [[folly|follies]] such as mock temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. This new style emerged in England in the early 18th century, and spread across Europe, replacing the more formal, symmetrical [[garden à la française]] of the 17th century as the principal gardening style of Europe.Yves-Marie Allain and Janine Christiany, ''L'Art des jardins en Europe'', Citadelles and Mazenod, Paris, 2006. The English garden presented an idealized view of nature. They were often inspired by paintings of landscapes by [[Claude Lorraine]] and [[Nicolas Poussin]], and some were Influenced by the classic [[Chinese gardens]] of the East, which had recently been described by European travelers.{{cite book|title=Illustrated History of Landscape Design|author=Boults, Elizabeth and Chip Sullivan|publisher=[[John Wiley and Sons]]|year=2010|isbn=978-0-470-28933-4|page=175}} The work of [[Capability Brown|Lancelot 'Capability' Brown]] was particularly influential. Also, in 1804 the Horticultural Society was formed. [64] => [65] => Gardens of the 19th century contained plants such as the monkey puzzle or [[Chile pine]]. This is also the time when the so-called "[[gardenesque]]" style of gardens evolved. These gardens displayed a wide variety of flowers in a rather small space. [[Rock garden]]s increased in popularity in the 19th century. [66] => [67] => In ancient India, patterns from [[sacred geometry]] and [[mandala]]s were used to design gardens. Distinct mandala patterns denoted specific deities, planets, or even constellations. Such a garden was also referred to as a 'Mandala Vaatika'. The word 'Vaatika' can mean garden, plantation or parterre. [68] => [69] => ==Types== [70] => {{Main|List of garden types}}Residential gardening takes place near the home, in a space referred to as the garden. Although a garden typically is located on the land near a residence, it may also be located [[roof garden|on a roof]], in an [[Atrium (architecture)|atrium]], on a [[balcony]], in a [[window box]], [[Patio|on a patio]] or [[vivarium]].[[File:SF Conservatory of Flowers 3.jpg|thumb|Conservatory of Flowers in [[Golden Gate Park]], [[San Francisco]]]] [71] => [[File:Hanging baskets in thornbury arp.jpg|thumb|[[Hanging basket]]s in [[Thornbury, South Gloucestershire]]]]Gardening also takes place in non-residential green areas, such as parks, public or semi-public gardens ([[botanical garden]]s or [[zoo|zoological gardens]]), [[amusement park]]s, along transportation corridors, and around [[tourist attraction]]s and [[garden hotels]]. In these situations, a staff of gardeners or [[groundskeeper]]s maintains the gardens. [72] => [[File:CCHS organic garden.jpg|thumb|An organic garden on a school campus]] [73] => * Indoor gardening is concerned with the growing of [[houseplant]]s within a residence or building, in a [[conservatory (greenhouse)|conservatory]], or in a [[greenhouse]]. Indoor gardens are sometimes incorporated as part of [[air conditioning]] or heating systems. Indoor gardening extends the growing season in the fall and spring and can be used for [[winter gardening]]. [74] => * [[Native plant gardening]] is concerned with the use of [[native plants]] with or without the intent of creating [[wildlife habitat]]. The goal is to create a garden in harmony with, and adapted to a given area. This type of gardening typically reduces water usage, maintenance, and fertilization costs, while increasing [[native fauna]]l interest. [75] => * [[Water garden]]ing is concerned with growing plants adapted to pools and ponds. [[Bog garden]]s are also considered a type of water garden. These all require special conditions and considerations. A simple water garden may consist solely of a tub containing the water and plant(s). In [[aquascaping]], a garden is created within an [[aquarium]] tank. [76] => * [[Container garden]]ing is concerned with growing plants in any type of container either indoors or outdoors. Common containers are pots, [[hanging basket]]s, and planters. Container gardening is usually used in atriums and on balconies, patios, and roof tops. [77] => * [[Hügelkultur]] is concerned with growing plants on piles of rotting wood, as a form of [[raised bed gardening]] and [[compost]]ing [[In situ#Biology and biomedical engineering|in situ]].{{cite web|url=http://www.richsoil.com/hugelkultur/|title=hugelkultur: the ultimate raised garden beds|website=www.richsoil.com|access-date=2 February 2012|archive-date=7 January 2018|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20180107013815/https://richsoil.com/hugelkultur/|url-status=live}} An English [[loanword]] from German, it means "mound garden". [[Toby Hemenway]], noted [[permaculture]] author and teacher, considers wood buried in trenches to also be a form of hugelkultur referred to as a dead wood [[Swale (landform)|swale]].{{cite book| author-link = Toby Hemenway|last = Hemenway | first = Toby |year = 2009 | title = Gaia's Garden: A Guide to Home-Scale Permaculture | publisher [78] => = Chelsea Green Publishing | pages = 84–85 | isbn = 978-1-60358-029-8}}. Hugelkultur is practiced by [[Sepp Holzer]] as a method of [[forest gardening]] and [[agroforestry]], and by [[Geoff Lawton]] as a method of [[dryland farming]] and [[desert greening]].{{cite web|url=http://permaculture.org.au/2009/12/11/greening-the-desert-ii-final/|title=Greening the Desert II|date=11 December 2009|access-date=2 February 2012|archive-date=7 July 2012|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120707194753/http://permaculture.org.au/2009/12/11/greening-the-desert-ii-final/|url-status=live}} When used as a method of disposing of large volumes of waste wood and woody debris, hugelkultur accomplishes [[carbon sequestration]]. It is also a form of [[xeriscaping]]. [79] => * [[Community gardening]] is a social activity in which an area of land is gardened by a group of people, providing access to fresh produce, herbs, flowers and plants as well as access to satisfying labor, neighborhood improvement, sense of community and connection to the environment.{{cite web |url=http://www.communitygarden.org/learn/ |publisher=American Community Garden Association |year=2007 |title=What is a community garden? |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20071204082111/http://www.communitygarden.org/learn/ |archive-date=4 December 2007 |df=dmy-all }}{{Cite journal |last1=Hanna |first1=Autumn K. |last2=Oh |first2=Pikai |date=June 2000 |title=Rethinking Urban Poverty: A Look at Community Gardens |url=http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/027046760002000308 |journal=Bulletin of Science, Technology & Society |language=en |volume=20 |issue=3 |pages=207–216 |doi=10.1177/027046760002000308 |s2cid=144427985 |issn=0270-4676}} Community gardens are typically owned in trust by local governments or nonprofits.{{Cite journal |last1=Ferris |first1=John |last2=Norman |first2=Carol |last3=Sempik |first3=Joe |date=December 2001 |title=People, Land and Sustainability: Community Gardens and the Social Dimension of Sustainable Development |url=https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/1467-9515.t01-1-00253 |journal=Social Policy & Administration |language=en |volume=35 |issue=5 |pages=559–568 |doi=10.1111/1467-9515.t01-1-00253 |issn=0144-5596}} [80] => * [[Garden sharing]] partners landowners with gardeners in need of land. These shared gardens, typically front or back [[yard (land)|yards]], are usually used to produce food that is divided between the two parties. [81] => * [[Organic horticulture|Organic gardening]] uses natural, sustainable methods, fertilizers and pesticides to grow non-[[genetically modified crops]]. [82] => *[[Biodynamic gardening]] or biodynamic agriculture is similar to organic gardening, but includes various [[esoteric]] concepts drawn from the ideas of [[Rudolf Steiner]], such as astrological sowing and planting calendar and particular field and compost preparations. [83] => *Commercial gardening is a more intensive type of gardening that involves the production of vegetables, non-tropical fruits, and flowers from local farmers. Commercial gardening began because farmers would sell locally to stop food from spoiling faster because of the transportation of goods from a far distance. Mediterranean agriculture is also a common practice that commercial gardeners use. Mediterranean agriculture is the practice of cultivating animals such as sheep to help weed and provide manure for vine crops, grains, or citrus. Gardeners can easily train these animals to not eat the actual plant.{{Cite book|last=Greiner, Alyson L., 1966-|title=Visualizing human geography|date=28 January 2014|isbn=978-1-118-52656-9|edition=Second|location=Hoboken|oclc=862759747}} [84] => *[[No-dig gardening]] (or no till gardening) is a method of gardening that avoids tillage as much as possible. This method of gardening is gaining popularity in part due to celebrated figures such as [[Charles Dowding]], [[Masanobu Fukuoka]], [[Jean-Martin Fortier]], [[Conor Crickmore|Connor Crickmore]], Jesse Frost, [[Elaine Ingham]], and many other market gardeners. Minimal tillage has been documented to help with promoting diverse [[Soil food web|soil biology]], water retention and drainage, healthier vigorous plants, reduction in weed pressure, reduction in labor, increased fertility and nutrient availability, increase carbon sequestration, reduction in cost, reduction in soil erosion, and reduction in pollution. {{Cite journal |last1=Ogle |first1=Stephen M. |last2=Alsaker |first2=Cody |last3=Baldock |first3=Jeff |last4=Bernoux |first4=Martial |last5=Breidt |first5=F. Jay |last6=McConkey |first6=Brian |last7=Regina |first7=Kristiina |last8=Vazquez-Amabile |first8=Gabriel G. |date=2019-08-12 |title=Climate and Soil Characteristics Determine Where No-Till Management Can Store Carbon in Soils and Mitigate Greenhouse Gas Emissions |journal=Scientific Reports |language=en |volume=9 |issue=1 |pages=11665 |doi=10.1038/s41598-019-47861-7 |pmid=31406257 |pmc=6691111 |bibcode=2019NatSR...911665O |issn=2045-2322}}{{Cite web |title=No-Till Farming Improves Soil Health and Mitigates Climate Change {{!}} Article {{!}} EESI |url=https://www.eesi.org/articles/view/no-till-farming-improves-soil-health-and-mitigates-climate-change |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=www.eesi.org}}{{Cite journal |last1=Arshad |first1=M. A. |last2=Schnitzer |first2=M. |last3=Angers |first3=D. A. |last4=Ripmeester |first4=J. A. |date=1990-01-01 |title=Effects of till vs no-till on the quality of soil organic matter |url=https://dx.doi.org/10.1016/0038-0717%2890%2990003-I |journal=Soil Biology and Biochemistry |volume=22 |issue=5 |pages=595–599 |doi=10.1016/0038-0717(90)90003-I |issn=0038-0717}}{{Cite web |title=The pros and cons of no till gardening - Gardening at USask - College of Agriculture and Bioresources |url=https://gardening.usask.ca/articles-and-lists/articles-notillgardening/why-notill-pro-con.php |access-date=2024-03-19 |website=Gardening at USask |language=en}} [85] => [86] => == Tools == [87] => Regardless of historical time period, location, scale, or type of garden, all gardening requires some basic [[tool]]s.{{Cite web |last=College |first=Dartmouth |date=2023-01-22 |title=10,000 Years Ago – Ancient Stone Tools Provide the Earliest Evidence of Rice Harvesting |url=https://scitechdaily.com/10000-years-ago-ancient-stone-tools-provide-the-earliest-evidence-of-rice-harvesting/ |access-date=2024-03-15 |website=SciTechDaily |language=en-US}} For the majority of human history, people have managed with significantly fewer resources compared to modern times. Agriculture was built on the use of hands, stones, sticks, human ingenuity, and fire.{{Cite journal |last=Fussell |first=G. E. |date=1966 |title=Ploughs and Ploughing before 1800 |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/3740696 |journal=Agricultural History |volume=40 |issue=3 |pages=177–186 |issn=0002-1482 |jstor=3740696}} The essential tools used in pre-[[Bronze Age|bronze age]] gardening were non-metal (primarily stone, bone, wood, or copper) knives, axes, adzes, [[foot plough]]s, sickles, hoes, baskets, pottery, digging sticks, animal-driven ploughs, animals, and fire for clearing land.{{Cite journal |last1=Snir |first1=Ainit |last2=Nadel |first2=Dani |last3=Groman-Yaroslavski |first3=Iris |last4=Melamed |first4=Yoel |last5=Sternberg |first5=Marcelo |last6=Bar-Yosef |first6=Ofer |last7=Weiss |first7=Ehud |date=2015-07-22 |title=The Origin of Cultivation and Proto-Weeds, Long Before Neolithic Farming |journal=PLOS ONE |language=en |volume=10 |issue=7 |pages=e0131422 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0131422 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=4511808 |pmid=26200895|bibcode=2015PLoSO..1031422S }}{{Cite journal |last=Zhao |first=Zhijun |date=October 2011 |title=New Archaeobotanic Data for the Study of the Origins of Agriculture in China |url=https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/10.1086/659308 |journal=Current Anthropology |language=en |volume=52 |issue=S4 |pages=S295–S306 |doi=10.1086/659308 |issn=0011-3204}}{{Cite journal |last1=López-Bultó |first1=Oriol |last2=Piqué |first2=Raquel |last3=Antolín |first3=Ferran |last4=Antón Barceló |first4=Joan |last5=Palomo |first5=Antoni |last6=Clemente |first6=Ignacio |date=2020 |title=Digging sticks and agriculture development at the ancient Neolithic site of la Draga (Banyoles, Spain) |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S2352409X19305516 |journal=Journal of Archaeological Science |volume=30 |issue=102193 |doi=10.1016/j.jasrep.2020.102193 |bibcode=2020JArSR..30j2193L |via=Elsevier Science Direct}}{{Cite journal |last1=Lander |first1=Faye |last2=Russell |first2=Thembi |date=2018-06-14 |title=The archaeological evidence for the appearance of pastoralism and farming in southern Africa |journal=PLOS ONE |volume=13 |issue=6 |pages=e0198941 |doi=10.1371/journal.pone.0198941 |doi-access=free |issn=1932-6203 |pmc=6002040 |pmid=29902271|bibcode=2018PLoSO..1398941L }} Up until the [[Green Revolution|green revolution]] these simple tools, although continually improved upon, would continue to be the backbone of agricultural societies.{{Cite journal |last=F. Frolik |first=Elvin |date=1977 |title=The History of Agriculture in the United States Beginning With the Seventeenth Century |url=https://digitalcommons.unl.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1456&context=tnas |journal=Nebraska Academy of Sciences and Affiliated Societies |via=DigitalCommons@University of Nebraska - Lincoln}} [88] => [[File:7264 Canterbury Agricultural College farm.jpg|thumb|Harrowing a field on the Canterbury Agricultural College farm in 1948.]] [89] => The [[Industrial Revolution|industrial revolution]] created a large increase in availability and impact of agricultural tools. These tools include [[tractor]]s with modern implements, manure spreaders, [[cultivator]]s, mowers, earth-moving machines, hedge trimmers, strimmer's, wood-chippers, [[two-wheel tractor]]s, complex irrigation systems, [[plastic mulch]], plastic shelters, seeding trays, indoor [[grow light]]s, packaging, chemical [[fertilizer]]s, [[pesticide]]s, [[Genetically modified plant|genetically modified seeds]], and many more. [90] => [91] => == Plant Propagation == [92] => Plants may be [[Plant propagation|propagated]] through many different methods. These methods are classified as either sexual or asexual propagation.{{Cite book |last=Allard |first=Robert W. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=74hdQoEc8XsC&dq=plant+breeding&pg=PA1 |title=Principles of Plant Breeding |date=1999-05-10 |publisher=John Wiley & Sons |isbn=978-0-471-02309-8 |language=en}} [93] => [94] => === Asexual reproduction === [95] => [[Asexual reproduction]] occurs when plants produce [[Cloning|clonal offspring]]. This method of reproduction is often more simplistic and provides rapid population growth. Cloning may result in highly vulnerable plant populations if they do not also reproduce sexually in order to create genetic diversity thus allowing for certain levels of [[natural selection]] and [[Heterosis|hybrid vigor]].{{Cite web |title=13. Propagation {{!}} NC State Extension Publications |url=https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/extension-gardener-handbook/13-propagation |access-date=2024-03-21 |website=content.ces.ncsu.edu |language=en-US}} There are various methods of asexual plant propagation taken advantage of by gardeners. These include [[Vegetative reproduction|vegetative propagation]] which involves the growth of new plants from vegetative parts of the parent plant, such as roots, stems, and leaves.{{Citation |last=Pierik |first=R. L. M. |title=Vegetative propagation |date=1997 |work=In Vitro Culture of Higher Plants |pages=183–230 |editor-last=Pierik |editor-first=R. L. M. |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-011-5750-6_19 |access-date=2024-03-22 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-94-011-5750-6_19 |doi-broken-date=22 March 2024 |isbn=978-94-011-5750-6}} Certain plants such as strawberries and raspberries produce [[stolon]]s or [[rhizome]]s which are stems which grow horizontally above or below ground, developing new plants at nodes. Another common method of asexual reproduction in garden plants is [[Fragmentation (reproduction)|fragmentation]] which involves a separation from the parent plant.{{Cite journal |last1=Ceccherelli |first1=Giulia |last2=Cinelli |first2=Francesco |date=1999-06-11 |title=The role of vegetative fragmentation in dispersal of the invasive alga Caulerpa taxifolia in the Mediterranean |url=https://www.int-res.com/abstracts/meps/v182/p299-303/ |journal=Marine Ecology Progress Series |language=en |volume=182 |pages=299–303 |doi=10.3354/meps182299 |bibcode=1999MEPS..182..299C |issn=0171-8630}} This is common for shrubs, and trees such as willows which may shed their branches which is termed [[cladoptosis]]. Placing the shed limb into water or soil produces [[budding]] and causes roots to form.{{Cite book |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=sAzxAAAAMAAJ&dq=vegetative+propagation+of+willow&pg=PA129 |title=General Technical Report SRS |date=1999 |publisher=The Station |language=en}} [96] => [[File:Corm_stolons5680.jpg|thumb|[[Stolon|Stolons]] growing from nodes from a [[corm]] of ''[[Crocosmia]]'']] [97] => Perhaps the most commonly-known method of asexual reproduction in gardening and farming is [[grafting]]. A human may chose to graft an excellent fruit producing cultivar on a selected [[rootstock]] cultivar of the same species.{{Cite journal |last1=Lee |first1=Jung-Myung |last2=Kubota |first2=C. |last3=Tsao |first3=S. J. |last4=Bie |first4=Z. |last5=Echevarria |first5=P. Hoyos |last6=Morra |first6=L. |last7=Oda |first7=M. |date=2010-12-08 |title=Current status of vegetable grafting: Diffusion, grafting techniques, automation |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0304423810003699 |journal=Scientia Horticulturae |series=Special Issue on Vegetable Grafting |volume=127 |issue=2 |pages=93–105 |doi=10.1016/j.scienta.2010.08.003 |issn=0304-4238}} This involves cutting each plant and connecting the cuttings by mechanical means until they [[Inosculation|inosculate]] or fuse together. Grafting is done for many purposes. Firstly, the scion (portion of the plant above the graft site) can undergo artificial selection for specific desirable traits such as flavor while the rootstock can undergo selection for traits such as disease resistance or cold tolerance.{{Cite journal |last=Goldschmidt |first=Eliezer E. |date=2014 |title=Plant grafting: new mechanisms, evolutionary implications |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=5 |page=727 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2014.00727 |doi-access=free |pmid=25566298 |pmc=4269114 |issn=1664-462X}} This effectively allows for much more efficiency in the artificial selection process as certain traits such as fruit taste can be ignored altogether in the rootstock allowing for a focused selection with less [[backcrossing]] to a plant that had good tasting fruit. Secondly, grafting allows for plants that require cross pollination for fruit generation, such as apples, to all grow together as one tree.{{Cite book |last1=Lewis |first1=W. J. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=3UXixYFl5O4C&q=plant+multi+grafting&pg=PP6 |title=Grafting and Budding: A Practical Guide for Fruit and Nut Plants and Ornamentals |last2=Alexander |first2=DMcE |date=2008-08-11 |publisher=Landlinks Press |isbn=978-0-643-09899-2 |language=en}} Thirdly, this allows for quick reproduction where one [[mother plant]] can produce many semi-developed clones each year.{{Cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Angela R. |last2=Perkins-Veazie |first2=Penelope |last3=Hassell |first3=Richard |last4=Levi |first4=Amnon |last5=King |first5=Stephen R. |last6=Zhang |first6=Xingping |date=2008-10-01 |title=Grafting Effects on Vegetable Quality |url=https://journals.ashs.org/hortsci/view/journals/hortsci/43/6/article-p1670.xml |journal=HortScience |language=en-US |volume=43 |issue=6 |pages=1670–1672 |doi=10.21273/HORTSCI.43.6.1670 |issn=0018-5345|doi-access=free }}{{Cite journal |last1=Davis |first1=Angela R. |last2=Perkins-Veazie |first2=Penelope |last3=Sakata |first3=Yoshiteru |last4=López-Galarza |first4=Salvador |last5=Maroto |first5=Jose Vicente |last6=Lee |first6=Sang-Gyu |last7=Huh |first7=Yun-Chan |last8=Sun |first8=Zhanyong |last9=Miguel |first9=Alfredo |last10=King |first10=Stephen R. |last11=Cohen |first11=Roni |last12=Lee |first12=Jung-Myung |date=2008-05-20 |title=Cucurbit Grafting |url=http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/07352680802053940 |journal=Critical Reviews in Plant Sciences |language=en |volume=27 |issue=1 |pages=50–74 |doi=10.1080/07352680802053940 |bibcode=2008CRvPS..27...50D |issn=0735-2689}} [98] => [99] => === Sexual reproduction === [100] => [[Sexual reproduction]] occurs through the [[pollination]] of a [[ovule]]. This pollination must occur between female and male parts of a single flower or between flowers. A plant may undergo [[Self-pollination|self pollination]] as a sexual means of reproduction where the genes of the mother plant will not perfectly match those of the progeny. Progeny from self pollination will however have less genetic diversity than plants from cross pollination which may result in [[inbreeding depression]].{{Cite journal |last1=Charlesworth |first1=Deborah |last2=Willis |first2=John H. |date=November 2009 |title=The genetics of inbreeding depression |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/nrg2664 |journal=Nature Reviews Genetics |language=en |volume=10 |issue=11 |pages=783–796 |doi=10.1038/nrg2664 |pmid=19834483 |issn=1471-0064}} Pollen is typically carried by wind, insects, or animals to complete pollination. Some greenhouses may have to manually pollinate their plants to produce fruit and seeds due to a lack of these conditions. Sexual reproduction can only be done by members of the same [[species]] and this produces varying levels of [[genetic diversity]] in the plants offspring. This genetic diversity is responsible for the survival of every plant as we know them today.{{Cite journal |last1=Booy |first1=G. |last2=Hendriks |first2=R. J. J. |last3=Smulders |first3=M. J. M. |last4=Groenendael |first4=J. M. Van |last5=Vosman |first5=B. |date=July 2000 |title=Genetic Diversity and the Survival of Populations |url=http://www.thieme-connect.de/DOI/DOI?10.1055/s-2000-5958 |journal=Plant Biology |language=en |volume=2 |issue=4 |pages=379–395 |doi=10.1055/s-2000-5958 |bibcode=2000PlBio...2..379B |issn=1435-8603}} The diversity allows for disease resistance, adaptations to changing climate, changes in soil, changes in pollination methods, changes in animal grazing pressure, changes in weed pressure, and any other variations that arise in their growing conditions. [[Plant breeding|Crossing plants]], or hybridizing, results in hybrid vigor and will increase the genetic diversity.{{Cite journal |last1=Birchler |first1=James A. |last2=Yao |first2=Hong |last3=Chudalayandi |first3=Sivanandan |date=2006-08-29 |title=Unraveling the genetic basis of hybrid vigor |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=103 |issue=35 |pages=12957–12958 |doi=10.1073/pnas.0605627103 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=1559732 |pmid=16938847|bibcode=2006PNAS..10312957B }} [101] => [[File:Time_course_imaging_of_two_maize_inbreds_LH198_and_PHG47_and_their_F1_hybrid.gif|thumb|270x270px|Time course imaging of two maize inbreds (LH198 and PHG47) and the F1 hybrid (LH198/PHG47) generated by crossing the two together.]] [102] => Many commercially grown plants are [[F1 hybrid]]s which ensures certain desirable traits. A common alternative to growing hybrid plants is to grow [[Heirloom plant|heirloom]] or [[Open pollination|open pollinated plants]] which, unlike F1 hybrids, will produce viable seed with progeny similar to its parent.{{Cite web |title=Heirloom plant {{!}} Definition, Examples, Importance, & Facts {{!}} Britannica |url=https://www.britannica.com/topic/heirloom-plant |access-date=2024-03-22 |website=www.britannica.com |language=en}} Many modern gardeners will save seeds from heirloom varieties but not hybrids due to the certainty of desirable traits heirloom seeds provide. Historically a lack of plant breeding knowledge would have led to more hybridization and the creation of new genetically diverse [[landrace]]s.{{Cite journal |last1=Barnaud |first1=A. |last2=Trigueros |first2=G. |last3=McKey |first3=D. |last4=Joly |first4=H. I. |date=November 2008 |title=High outcrossing rates in fields with mixed sorghum landraces: how are landraces maintained? |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy200877 |journal=Heredity |language=en |volume=101 |issue=5 |pages=445–452 |doi=10.1038/hdy.2008.77 |pmid=18685567 |issn=1365-2540}} Each plant varies in its likelihood of [[outcrossing]].{{Cite journal |last1=Ritland |first1=Kermit |last2=Jain |first2=Subodh |date=August 1981 |title=A model for the estimation of outcrossing rate and gene frequencies using n independent loci |url=https://www.nature.com/articles/hdy198157 |journal=Heredity |language=en |volume=47 |issue=1 |pages=35–52 |doi=10.1038/hdy.1981.57 |issn=1365-2540}} Highly outcrossing plants such as spinach are more likely to create landraces.{{Cite journal |last=Jain |first=S. K. |date=January 1979 |title=Estimation of Outcrossing Rates: Some Alternative Procedures 1 |url=https://acsess.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.2135/cropsci1979.0011183X001900010006x |journal=Crop Science |language=en |volume=19 |issue=1 |pages=23–26 |doi=10.2135/cropsci1979.0011183X001900010006x |issn=0011-183X}}{{Citation |last=Shigeta |first=Masayoshi |title=Creating Landrace Diversity: The Case of the Ari People and Ensete (Ensete ventricosum) in Ethiopia |date=1996 |work=Redefining Nature |pages=233–268 |url=https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.4324/9781003135746-11/creating-landrace-diversity-case-ari-people-ensete-ensete-ventricosum-ethiopia-masayoshi-shigeta |access-date=2024-03-22 |publisher=Routledge |doi=10.4324/9781003135746-11 |isbn=978-1-003-13574-6}} Many landraces and heirloom varieties along with their genetics are being lost due to the decrease in seed saving by modern farmers.{{Cite book |last1=Hawkes |first1=J. G. |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=7gL1CAAAQBAJ&dq=loss+of+plant+genetics&pg=PR11 |title=The Ex Situ Conservation of Plant Genetic Resources |last2=Maxted |first2=Nigel |last3=Ford-Lloyd |first3=B. V. |date=2012-12-06 |publisher=Springer Science & Business Media |isbn=978-94-011-4136-9 |language=en}} This leads plant [[geneticist]]s to search for desirable genetics in wild ancestral varieties of commonly grown plants.{{Cite journal |last1=Khan |first1=Mohd. Kamran |last2=Islam |first2=Tofazzal |last3=Gezgin |first3=Sait |last4=Di Gioia |first4=Francesco |date=2023 |title=Editorial: Wild plant genetic resources: a hope for tomorrow |journal=Frontiers in Plant Science |volume=14 |doi=10.3389/fpls.2023.1217547 |doi-access=free |pmid=37324690 |pmc=10264807 |issn=1664-462X}} Plants have been [[Selective breeding|artificially selected]] and bred since at least 7800 BCE. {{Cite web |last=SITNFlash |date=2015-08-09 |title=From Corgis to Corn: A Brief Look at the Long History of GMO Technology |url=https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/from-corgis-to-corn-a-brief-look-at-the-long-history-of-gmo-technology/ |access-date=2024-03-20 |website=Science in the News |language=en-US}} Despite the decrease in farmer seed saving, many landraces are also being created through artificial selection and [[Genetic engineering|genetic modification]].{{Cite web |last=SITNFlash |date=2015-08-09 |title=From Corgis to Corn: A Brief Look at the Long History of GMO Technology |url=https://sitn.hms.harvard.edu/flash/2015/from-corgis-to-corn-a-brief-look-at-the-long-history-of-gmo-technology/ |access-date=2024-03-21 |website=Science in the News |language=en-US}} Gardeners remain vital in the preservation of diverse genetics whether they maintain a family heirloom variety bred to fit conditions from the distant past, or they breed new landraces with traits matching their modern climate and growing condition.{{Cite book |last=Nazarea |first=Virginia Dimasuay |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=j3IxSgc4cOsC&dq=the+role+of+gardeners+in+preserving+genetics&pg=PR9 |title=Heirloom Seeds and Their Keepers: Marginality and Memory in the Conservation of Biological Diversity |date=May 2005 |publisher=University of Arizona Press |isbn=978-0-8165-2435-8 |language=en}} [103] => [104] => Certain seeds may not sprout without certain environmental conditions. These seeds either require [[Scarification (botany)|scarification]] or [[Stratification (seeds)|stratification]].{{Cite journal |last1=Valtueña |first1=F. J. |last2=Ortega-Olivencia |first2=A. |last3=Rodríguez-Riaño |first3=T. |date=2008-10-01 |title=Germination and seed bank biology in some Iberian populations of Anagyris foetida L. (Leguminosae) |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/s00606-008-0067-2 |journal=Plant Systematics and Evolution |language=en |volume=275 |issue=3 |pages=231–243 |doi=10.1007/s00606-008-0067-2 |bibcode=2008PSyEv.275..231V |issn=1615-6110}} Gardeners may grow frustrated if they lack this crucial knowledge before attempting to propagate certain plants such as [[Garlic|hard neck garlic]] (asexual reproduction), which requires a cold dormant period to sprout, or [[Amelanchier alnifolia|saskatoon berries]] which have improved germination after being digested by bears through a process called [[Seed dispersal|endozoochory]]. {{Cite journal |last1=Nowak |first1=Josh |last2=Crone |first2=Elizabeth E. |date=2012 |title=It is Good to be Eaten by a Bear: Effects of Ingestion on Seed Germination |url=https://www.jstor.org/stable/41412532 |journal=The American Midland Naturalist |volume=167 |issue=1 |pages=205–209 |doi=10.1674/0003-0031-167.1.205 |jstor=41412532 |issn=0003-0031}} [105] => [106] => === Transplanting === [107] => [[File:Cashew_grafted_seedlings.jpg|thumb|Cashew (''Anacardium occidentale'') grafted seedlings ready for transplanting at the Agroplan Mudas nursery, in Pacajus, Ceará, Brazil.]] [108] => Many gardeners, especially those who live in colder climates, will start seeds indoors prior to transplanting the young plant outside.{{Cite book |last=Ashworth |first=Suzanne |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=Wb-KAgAAQBAJ&dq=seed+starting&pg=PA13 |title=Seed to Seed: Seed Saving and Growing Techniques for Vegetable Gardeners |date=2002 |publisher=Chelsea Green Publishing |isbn=978-1-882424-58-0 |language=en}} This provides many benefits such as elongating the growing season, ensuring adequate quantities and quality of light, ensuring seedlings have adequate nutrients in the seed starting mix, ensuring seeds stay at correct humidity, heat, and moisture level for germination, and saving space in the garden.{{Cite book |last1=Bubel |first1=Nancy |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=vp9GDwAAQBAJ&dq=indoor+seed+starting&pg=PP1 |title=The New Seed-Starters Handbook |last2=Nick |first2=Jean |date=2018-01-30 |publisher=Rodale |isbn=978-1-63565-104-1 |language=en}}{{Cite journal |last1=Li |first1=Thomas S. C. |last2=Bedford |first2=K. E. |last3=Sholberg |first3=P. L. |date=2000-01-01 |title=Improved Germination of American Ginseng Seeds Under Controlled Environments |url=https://journals.ashs.org/horttech/view/journals/horttech/10/1/article-p131.xml |journal=HortTechnology |language=en-US |volume=10 |issue=1 |pages=131–135 |doi=10.21273/HORTTECH.10.1.131 |issn=1943-7714}} Many crops will not be harvestable unless they are started inside so if a gardener wants to plant these crops in their garden without starting the plants themselves, they will need to purchase transplants which are commonly available at [[Garden centre|garden centers]], [[Plant nursery|plant nurseries]], and [[big-box store]]s. It is crucial that transplanting is done correctly. This generally implies providing the plants with enough soil so they do not become root-bound (roots wrapping in circles around transplant container), providing a hardening-off period (slow exposure to sun, wind, and cold), providing sufficient light, water, and nutrients, and choosing the correct plants to start indoors as some plants do not do well with the transplanting process.{{Cite journal |last1=Liu |first1=Wei |last2=Tian |first2=Shijie |last3=Wang |first3=Qingyu |last4=Jiang |first4=Huanyu |date=August 2023 |title=Key Technologies of Plug Tray Seedling Transplanters in Protected Agriculture: A Review |journal=Agriculture |language=en |volume=13 |issue=8 |pages=1488 |doi=10.3390/agriculture13081488 |doi-access=free |issn=2077-0472}} [109] => [110] => There are varying methods of starting your seeds. The most prevalent method would be to start seeds in transplant (plug) trays or in planters/pots. Another method is starting seeds in [[soil block]]s which may reduce transplant shock and stop root-binding due to their ability to air prune the roots.{{Cite journal |last1=Dihingia |first1=Pramod Chandra |last2=Kumar |first2=G.V. Prasanna |last3=Sarma |first3=Pallab Kumar |last4=Neog |first4=Prasanta |date=2017-09-03 |title=Production of Soil Block Seedlings in Plug Trays for Mechanical Transplanting |url=https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/19315260.2017.1319889 |journal=International Journal of Vegetable Science |language=en |volume=23 |issue=5 |pages=471–485 |doi=10.1080/19315260.2017.1319889 |issn=1931-5260}} Some plants such as onions and various herbs may be efficiently started by scattering their seeds on top of soil in a large tray where the seedlings will later be teased apart from each other and replanted in the garden or pots.{{Cite journal |last1=Aboukhadrah |first1=S. H. |last2=El - Alsayed |first2=Abdul Wahed Abdul Hameed |last3=Sobhy |first3=Labib |last4=Abdelmasieh |first4=William |date=2017-08-01 |title=Response of Onion Yield and Quality To Different Planting Date, Methods and Density |url=https://agro.journals.ekb.eg/article_3712.html |journal=Egyptian Journal of Agronomy |volume=39 |issue=2 |pages=203–219 |doi=10.21608/agro.2017.1203.1065 |issn=0379-3575}} [111] => [112] => == Pests == [113] => Garden pests are generally [[plant]]s, [[fungi]], or [[animal]]s (frequently [[insect]]s) that engage in activity that the gardener considers undesirable. A pest may crowd out desirable plants, disturb soil, stunt the growth of young seedlings, steal or damage fruit, or otherwise kill plants, hamper their growth, damage their appearance, or reduce the quality of the edible or ornamental portions of the plant. [[Aphid]]s, [[spider mite]]s, [[slug]]s, [[snail]]s, [[ant]]s, [[bird]]s, and even [[cat]]s are commonly considered to be garden pests. [114] => [115] => Throughout history ecosystems that have undergone rapid changes are typically those which harbor the most pests.{{Cite journal |last=Civantos |first=Emilio |last2=Thuiller |first2=Wilfried |last3=Maiorano |first3=Luigi |last4=Guisan |first4=Antoine |last5=Araújo |first5=Miguel B. |date=2012-07-01 |title=Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Ecosystem Services in Europe: The Case of Pest Control by Vertebrates |url=https://academic.oup.com/bioscience/article-lookup/doi/10.1525/bio.2012.62.7.8 |journal=BioScience |language=en |volume=62 |issue=7 |pages=658–666 |doi=10.1525/bio.2012.62.7.8 |issn=1525-3244}} For example, a highly and rapidly altered landscape such as modern [[Rapeseed oil|canola]] fields in the Americas can be a breeding ground for pests of the [[Brassicaceae]] family. {{Citation |last1=Dosdall |first1=Lloyd M. |title=Key Pests and Parasitoids of Oilseed Rape or Canola in North America and the Importance of Parasitoids in Integrated Management |date=2010 |work=Biocontrol-Based Integrated Management of Oilseed Rape Pests |pages=167–213 |editor-last=Williams |editor-first=Ingrid H. |url=https://doi.org/10.1007/978-90-481-3983-5_6 |access-date=2024-03-29 |place=Dordrecht |publisher=Springer Netherlands |language=en |doi=10.1007/978-90-481-3983-5_6 |isbn=978-90-481-3983-5 |last2=Mason |first2=Peter G.}} A natural ecosystem will typically regulate pest levels through many biological means whether that be the natural introduction of a disease or an increase in the population of a predator species of animal.{{Cite journal |last1=Lewis |first1=W. J. |last2=van Lenteren |first2=J. C. |last3=Phatak |first3=Sharad C. |last4=Tumlinson |first4=J. H. |date=1997-11-11 |title=A total system approach to sustainable pest management |journal=Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences |language=en |volume=94 |issue=23 |pages=12243–12248 |doi=10.1073/pnas.94.23.12243 |doi-access=free |issn=0027-8424 |pmc=33780 |pmid=9356432|bibcode=1997PNAS...9412243L }} [116] => [[File:Tropaeolum_speciosum_Poeppig_and_Endl._(AM_AK294005-1).jpg|thumb|The flame flower (''[[Tropaeolum speciosum]]''), climbs over other plants to a sunlit position]] [117] => Because gardeners may have different goals, organisms considered "garden pests" vary from gardener to gardener. ''[[Tropaeolum speciosum]]'', for example, may be considered a desirable and ornamental garden plant, or it may be considered a pest if it [[seed]]s and starts to grow where it is not wanted. As another example, in [[lawn]]s, moss can become dominant and be impossible to eradicate. In some lawns, [[lichen]]s, especially very damp lawn lichens such as ''[[Peltigera]] lactucfolia'' and ''P. membranacea'', can become difficult to control and are considered pests. [118] => [119] => ===Pest control=== [120] => There are many ways by which unwanted pests are removed from a garden. The techniques vary depending on the pest, the gardener's goals, and the gardener's philosophy. For example, snails may be dealt with through the use of a chemical pesticide, an organic pesticide, hand-picking, barriers, or simply growing snail-resistant plants. [121] => [122] => On a large scale [[pest control]] is often done through the use of [[pesticide]]s and [[herbicide]]s, which may be either [[Organic agriculture|organic]] or artificially synthesized. Pesticides may affect the [[ecology]] of a garden due to their effects on the populations of both target and non-target species. For example, unintended exposure to some [[neonicotinoid]] pesticides has been proposed as a factor in the recent decline in [[honey bee]] populations.{{cite journal |last1=Henry |first1=M. |last2=Beguin |first2=M. |last3=Requier |first3=F. |last4=Rollin |first4=O. |last5=Odoux |first5=J.-F. |last6=Aupinel |first6=P. |last7=Aptel |first7=J. |last8=Tchamitchian |first8=S. |last9=Decourtye |first9=A. |year=2012 |title=A Common Pesticide Decreases Foraging Success and Survival in Honey Bees |url=https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00731655/file/51503_20120420060922456_1.pdf |url-status=live |journal=Science |volume=336 |issue=6079 |pages=348–350 |bibcode=2012Sci...336..348H |doi=10.1126/science.1215039 |pmid=22461498 |s2cid=41186355 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201108011236/https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00731655/file/51503_20120420060922456_1.pdf |archive-date=2020-11-08}} Pesticides and herbicides are also known to cause medical issues, typically to those in proximity during their application. {{Cite journal |last1=Athukorala |first1=Wasantha |last2=Lee |first2=Boon L. |last3=Wilson |first3=Clevo |last4=Fujii |first4=Hidemichi |last5=Managi |first5=Shunsuke |date=2023-03-01 |title=Measuring the impact of pesticide exposure on farmers' health and farm productivity |url=https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0313592622002156 |journal=Economic Analysis and Policy |volume=77 |pages=851–862 |doi=10.1016/j.eap.2022.12.007 |issn=0313-5926}} While farm workers are by far the most affected by the use of pesticides and herbicides, they are often under-informed or accept the consequences due to financial necessity. {{Cite web |url=https://academic.oup.com/jpubhealth/article/28/1/43/1553663?login=false |access-date=2024-03-17 |website=academic.oup.com}} [[Fungicide|Fungicides]] may be applied to the seed coat to reduce mortality of germinating seedlings.{{Cite journal |last1=Hoose |first1=Benjamin W. |last2=Geary |first2=Bradley D. |last3=Richardson |first3=William C. |last4=Petersen |first4=Steven L. |last5=Madsen |first5=Matthew D. |date=January 2022 |title=Improving dryland seedling recruitment using fungicide seed coatings |journal=Ecological Solutions and Evidence |language=en |volume=3 |issue=1 |doi=10.1002/2688-8319.12132 |bibcode=2022EcoSE...3E2132H |issn=2688-8319|doi-access=free }} The improper use of pesticides often leads to [[pesticide resistance]] which poses a risk in global food security.{{Cite book |last1=Council |first1=National Research |url=https://books.google.com/books?id=cayHXWAfI7QC&dq=pesticide+resistance&pg=PT10 |title=Pesticide Resistance: Strategies and Tactics for Management |last2=Agriculture |first2=Board on |last3=Populations |first3=Committee on Strategies for the Management of Pesticide Resistant Pest |date=1986-02-01 |publisher=National Academies Press |isbn=978-0-309-03627-6 |language=en}} With climate change affecting the distribution of pests, a global increase in pesticide usage has been observed which in turn has caused an increase of human health risks due to exposure.{{Cite journal |last1=Tudi |first1=Muyesaier |last2=Daniel Ruan |first2=Huada |last3=Wang |first3=Li |last4=Lyu |first4=Jia |last5=Sadler |first5=Ross |last6=Connell |first6=Des |last7=Chu |first7=Cordia |last8=Phung |first8=Dung Tri |date=2021-01-27 |title=Agriculture Development, Pesticide Application and Its Impact on the Environment |journal=International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health |language=en |volume=18 |issue=3 |pages=1112 |doi=10.3390/ijerph18031112 |doi-access=free |issn=1660-4601 |pmc=7908628 |pmid=33513796}} Creating new pesticides in order to manage resistant organisms is an immense expense and is often heavily criticized as an ineffective method of pest control.{{Cite journal |last1=Gould |first1=Fred |last2=Brown |first2=Zachary S. |last3=Kuzma |first3=Jennifer |date=2018-05-18 |title=Wicked evolution: Can we address the sociobiological dilemma of pesticide resistance? |url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aar3780 |journal=Science |language=en |volume=360 |issue=6390 |pages=728–732 |doi=10.1126/science.aar3780 |pmid=29773742 |issn=0036-8075}} [123] => [[File:Crop under cover - geograph.org.uk - 4705215.jpg|thumb|210x210px|Crop under row cover to protect plants from pest damage.]] [124] => Other means of control include the removal of infected plants, using [[fertilizer]]s and bio stimulants to improve the health and vigor of plants so they better resist attack, practicing [[crop rotation]] to prevent pest build-up, using foliar sprays, [[companion planting]], and practicing good garden hygiene, such as disinfecting tools and clearing debris and [[weed]]s which may harbor pests. {{Cite web |title=The Self-Sufficient Gardener Podcast--Episode 24 Companion Planting and Crop Rotation |url=http://theselfsufficientgardener.com/2010/08/11/episode-24-companion-planting-and-crop-rotation/ |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20100918114758/http://theselfsufficientgardener.com/2010/08/11/episode-24-companion-planting-and-crop-rotation/ |archive-date=18 September 2010 |access-date=2010-08-13 |df=dmy}} Another common method of pest control, used frequently in market gardening, is using insect netting or plastic greenhouse covers. {{Cite journal |last=Böckmann |first=Elias |date=2022-12-01 |title=Effects of insect net coverage in field vegetables on pests, diseases, natural enemies, and yield |journal=Journal of Plant Diseases and Protection |language=en |volume=129 |issue=6 |pages=1401–1415 |doi=10.1007/s41348-022-00644-1 |issn=1861-3837|doi-access=free }} Gardeners may rely on one type of pest in order to eliminate another. Some examples of this are cats which hunt mice and rats, wild birds, bats, chickens, and ducks which hunt insects and slugs, or thorny hedges to deter deer and other creatures. Using these organisms to help control pests is called [[biological pest control]]. There are also targeted measures of animal pest control such as a mole vibrator which can deter mole activity in a garden, or automated gun shots to scare off birds.{{cite web |title=Mole-ested |url=http://mdc.mo.gov/conmag/1998/04/mole-ested?page=0,2 |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20140529055911/http://mdc.mo.gov/conmag/1998/04/mole-ested?page=0,2 |archive-date=29 May 2014 |access-date=2014-05-28}} [125] => [[File:.22LR_ratshot.jpg|thumb|CCI .22LR snake shot loaded with #12 shot|302x302px]] [126] => [127] => ==== Garden guns ==== [128] => {{Main|Garden gun}} [129] => Garden guns are smooth-bore shotguns specifically made to fire [[.22 caliber]] [[snake shot]], and are commonly used by gardeners and farmers for pest control. Garden guns are short-range weapons that can do little harm past {{convert|15 to 20|yard}} and are relatively quiet when fired with snake shot, compared to a standard ammunition. These guns are especially effective inside of barns and sheds, as the snake shot will not shoot holes in the roof or walls, or more importantly injure livestock with a [[ricochet]]. They are also used for pest control at [[airport]]s, [[warehouse]]s, and [[Meat packing industry|stockyards]].{{cite web |last1=Eger |first1=Christopher |date=28 July 2013 |title=Marlin 25MG Garden Gun |url=http://www.marlinforum.com/Marlin-25MG-Garden-Gun.html |url-status=dead |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20160918005923/http://www.marlinforum.com/Marlin-25MG-Garden-Gun.html |archive-date=18 September 2016 |access-date=17 September 2016 |website=Marlin Firearms Forum |publisher=Outdoor Hub LLC |df=dmy-all}} [130] => [131] => ==Social aspects== [132] => People can express their political or social views in gardens, intentionally or not. The lawn vs. garden issue is played out in [[urban planning]] as the debate over the "[[land ethic]]" that is to determine urban [[land use]] and whether hyper [[hygiene|hygienist]] [[bylaw]]s (e.g. [[weed control]]) should apply, or whether land should generally be allowed to exist in its natural wild state. In a famous [[Canadians|Canadian]] [[Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms|Charter of Rights]] case, "Sandra Bell vs. City of Toronto", 1997, the right to cultivate all native species, even most varieties deemed noxious or allergenic, was upheld as part of the [[Freedom of speech|right of free expression]]. [133] => [134] => [[Community gardening]] comprises a wide variety of approaches to sharing land and gardens. [135] => [136] => [[File:Schultenhof Mettingen Bauerngarten 8.jpg|thumb|left|Garden at the Schultenhof in [[Mettingen]], [[North Rhine-Westphalia]], Germany]] [137] => [138] => People often surround their house and garden with a hedge. Common hedge plants are [[privet]], [[Crataegus|hawthorn]], [[beech]], [[Taxus|yew]], [[Leyland Cypress|leyland cypress]], [[Tsuga|hemlock]], [[Thuja occidentalis|arborvitae]], [[Berberis|barberry]], [[Buxus|box]], [[holly]], [[Nerium oleander|oleander]], [[forsythia]] and [[lavender]]. The idea of open gardens without hedges may be distasteful to those who enjoy privacy. [139] => The [[Slow Food]] movement has sought in some countries to add an edible [[School garden|school yard]] and garden classrooms to schools, e.g. in [[Fergus, Ontario]], where these were added to a public school to augment the kitchen classroom. [[Garden sharing]], where urban landowners allow gardeners to grow on their property in exchange for a share of the harvest, is associated with the desire to control the quality of one's food, and reconnect with soil and community.[https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2008/sep/04/ethicalliving.organics Meet the urban sharecroppers] {{Webarchive|url=https://web.archive.org/web/20120331062414/http://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2008/sep/04/ethicalliving.organics |date=31 March 2012 }} ''The Guardian'', 4 September 2008 [140] => [141] => In US and British usage, the production of ornamental plantings around buildings is called ''[[landscaping]]'', ''[[landscape maintenance]]'' or ''grounds keeping'', while international usage uses the term ''gardening'' for these same activities. [142] => [143] => Also gaining popularity is the concept of "Green Gardening" which involves growing plants using organic fertilizers and pesticides so that the gardening process – or the flowers and fruits produced thereby – doesn't adversely affect the environment or people's health in any manner. [144] => [145] => Gardening can be a very pleasant and relaxing activity with rewarding results.{{Cite journal |last1=Clatworthy |first1=Jane |last2=Hinds |first2=Joe |last3=M. Camic |first3=Paul |date=2013-01-01 |title=Gardening as a mental health intervention: a review |url=https://doi.org/10.1108/MHRJ-02-2013-0007 |journal=Mental Health Review Journal |volume=18 |issue=4 |pages=214–225 |doi=10.1108/MHRJ-02-2013-0007 |issn=1361-9322}} it allows for a connection with nature and creating a green space that presents a vision of beauty but also contributes to the eco system.{{Cite journal |last1=Soga |first1=Masashi |last2=Gaston |first2=Kevin J. |last3=Yamaura |first3=Yuichi |date=March 2017 |title=Gardening is beneficial for health: A meta-analysis |url=https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pmedr.2016.11.007 |journal=Preventive Medicine Reports |volume=5 |pages=92–99 |doi=10.1016/j.pmedr.2016.11.007 |issn=2211-3355 |pmc=5153451 |pmid=27981022}} A thriving and flourishing garden can be created, by understanding and adapting to the climate and environmental changes. [146] => [147] => plants and flowers grow in varying temperatures and weather conditions. Most plants thrive in temperatures between 18-24°C during the day and slightly cooler at night.{{Cite web |last=Kanuckel |first=Amber |date=2016-03-21 |title=Best Weather For Gardening Tasks |url=https://www.farmersalmanac.com/best-weather-for-gardening-tasks |access-date=2024-04-08 |website=Farmers' Almanac - Plan Your Day. Grow Your Life. |language=en-US}} This range allows for optimal photosynthesis and overall growth for many common plant species. Usually there is a variety of plants in a garden, therefore it is always best to learn about the best weather for your plants to have success with your planting. [148] => [149] => ===Laws and restrictions=== [150] => In some parts of the world, particularly the United States, gardening can be restricted by law or by rules and regulations imposed by a home-owner's association.{{cite web |last1=Rhoades |first1=Heather |title=Gardening Laws And Ordinances – Common Garden Laws |date=23 July 2021 |url=https://www.gardeningknowhow.com/special/urban/gardening-laws.htm}} In the United States, such rules may prohibit homeowners from growing vegetable gardens, prohibit [[xeriscaping]] or meadow gardens, or require garden plants to be chosen from a pre-approved list, to preserve the aesthetics of the neighborhood.{{cite web |last1=Barnes |first1=Joseph |title=The 5 Most Common HOA Landscaping/Gardening Policies (And Why They Matter To Your Community) |url=https://www.yellowstonelandscape.com/blog/most-common-hoa-landscaping-gardening-policies-why-matter-your-community |website=yellowstonelandscape.com |publisher=Yellowstone Landscape}}{{cite web |last1=Vanitzian |first1=Donie |title=Q&A: An HOA board does not have the authority to ban drought-tolerant landscaping |url=https://www.latimes.com/business/la-fi-associations-landscaping-plans-20160831-snap-story.html |website=[[Los Angeles Times]]|date=4 September 2016 }}{{cite web |last1=Linnekin |first1=Baylen |title=Local Laws Ban Front Yard Food Gardens in Cities Across the US |url=https://www.earthisland.org/journal/index.php/articles/entry/local_laws_ban_front_yard_food_gardens/ |website=earthisland.org |publisher=Earth Island Journal}} Numerous challenges to these laws, ordinances and regulations have emerged in recent years, with some resulting in legislation protecting a homeowner's right to cultivate native plants or grow vegetables.{{cite web |last1=Llorico |first1=Abby |title=Maryland couple's pushback on HOA rules changes landscape of state law |url=https://www.wusa9.com/article/tech/science/environment/maryland-couple-fights-hoa-rules-on-grass-lawns/65-d87be2e2-a109-4b7d-99fa-7497b91c7347 |website=wusa9.com|date=16 May 2023 }}{{cite web |last1=Kornei |first1=Katherine |title=Only Two States Have Passed 'Right to Garden' Laws. Will Others Follow? |url=https://civileats.com/2022/08/20/two-states-right-to-garden-laws-local-food-community-nutrition-security-illinois-florida/ |website=civileats.com|date=20 August 2022 }} Laws protecting a homeowner's right to grow food plants have been termed "right to garden" laws. [151] => [152] => == Benefits == [153] => Gardening is considered by many people to be a relaxing activity. There are also many studies about the positive effects on mental and physical health in relation to gardening.{{Cite journal|date=2017-03-01|title=Gardening is beneficial for health: A meta-analysis|journal=Preventive Medicine Reports|language=en|volume=5|pages=92–99|doi=10.1016/j.pmedr.2016.11.007|issn=2211-3355|doi-access=free|last1=Soga|first1=Masashi|last2=Gaston|first2=Kevin J.|last3=Yamaura|first3=Yuichi|pmid=27981022|pmc=5153451}} Specifically, gardening is thought to increase [[self-esteem]] and reduce [[Stress (biology)|stress]].{{Cite web|date=2020-05-18|title=8 Surprising Health Benefits of Gardening {{!}} UNC Health Talk|url=https://healthtalk.unchealthcare.org/health-benefits-of-gardening/|access-date=2021-02-20|website=healthtalk.unchealthcare.org|language=en-US|archive-date=15 January 2023|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115181050/https://healthtalk.unchealthcare.org/health-benefits-of-gardening/|url-status=live}} As writer and former teacher Sarah Biddle notes, one's garden may become a "tiny oasis to relax and recharge [one's] batteries."{{Cite web|last=Biddle|first=Sarah|date=2020-06-12|title=Gardens Simultaneously Calm and Reinvigorate|url=https://objectivestandard.org/blog/gardens-simultaneously-calm-and-reinvigorate|access-date=2021-02-20|website=Objective Standard Institute|language=en-US|archive-date=18 December 2020|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20201218174036/https://objectivestandard.org/blog/gardens-simultaneously-calm-and-reinvigorate|url-status=live}} Involving in gardening activities aid in creativity, observational skills, learning, planning and physical movement.{{cite web |title=Do you know better mental can be achieved by gardening? |url=https://aninews.in/news/lifestyle/others/do-you-know-better-mental-can-be-achieved-by-gardening20220713172010/ |website=ANI News |access-date=22 July 2022 |archive-date=22 July 2022 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220722011747/https://aninews.in/news/lifestyle/others/do-you-know-better-mental-can-be-achieved-by-gardening20220713172010/ |url-status=live }} [154] => [155] => Others consider gardening to be a good hedge against supply chain disruptions with increased worries that the public cannot always trust that the grocery store shelves will be fully stocked.{{Cite web|access-date=July 19, 2022|title=Gardening Is a Hedge Against Supply Chain Disruptions|date=16 July 2022 |url=https://reason.com/2022/07/16/grow-your-own/|archive-date=19 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719153309/https://reason.com/2022/07/16/grow-your-own/|url-status=live}} In April 2022, about 31% of grocery products were out of stock which is an 11% increase from November 2021.{{Cite web|date=April 13, 2022|title=Product shortages and soaring prices reveal fragility of U.S. supply chain|website=[[CBS News]]|url=https://www.cbsnews.com/news/product-shortages-inflation-supply-chain-2022/|access-date=19 July 2022|archive-date=19 July 2022|archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20220719154901/https://www.cbsnews.com/news/product-shortages-inflation-supply-chain-2022/|url-status=live}} [156] => [157] => Gardening can also support good numbers and a wide range of [[pollinator]]s, but worryingly [[bee]]s and other pollinators are in decline. Gardeners can make a difference to help reverse this trend.{{Cite web |title=How gardeners can help our declining bees and other pollinators / RHS Gardening |url=https://www.rhs.org.uk/wildlife/help-our-declining-bees-and-other-pollinators |access-date=2022-12-22 |website=www.rhs.org.uk |language=en-gb |archive-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115181116/https://www.rhs.org.uk/wildlife/help-our-declining-bees-and-other-pollinators |url-status=live }} The main thing that matters is that they get their share of [[nectar]] to fuel their busy lifestyles,{{Cite web |date=2022-11-16 |title=The best wildflowers for bees |url=https://icanlawn.com/the-best-wildflowers-for-bees/ |access-date=2022-12-22 |website=icanlawn.com Blog |language=en |archive-date=15 January 2023 |archive-url=https://web.archive.org/web/20230115181044/https://icanlawn.com/the-best-wildflowers-for-bees/ |url-status=live }} and this is where gardening can help them. [158] => [159] => A way to both positively impacts humans and pollinators can be implementing pollinator gardens. Including native flowers has shown to increase pollinators, and even protects bee populations against urbanization and landscapes that do not include flowers.{{Cite journal |last1=Persson |first1=Anna S. |last2=Hederström |first2=Veronica |last3=Ljungkvist |first3=Iris |last4=Nilsson |first4=Lovisa |last5=Kendall |first5=Liam |date=2023 |title=Citizen science initiatives increase pollinator activity in private gardens and green spaces |journal=Frontiers in Sustainable Cities |volume=4 |doi=10.3389/frsc.2022.1099100 |doi-access=free |issn=2624-9634}} Small patches in urban landscapes that are diverse in flowers have been noted to match or even exceed wild landscapes when it comes to bees pollinating.{{Cite journal |last1=Langellotto |first1=Gail Ann |last2=Melathopoulos |first2=Andony |last3=Messer |first3=Isabella |last4=Anderson |first4=Aaron |last5=McClintock |first5=Nathan |last6=Costner |first6=Lucas |date=June 2018 |title=Garden Pollinators and the Potential for Ecosystem Service Flow to Urban and Peri-Urban Agriculture |journal=Sustainability |language=en |volume=10 |issue=6 |pages=2047 |doi=10.3390/su10062047 |doi-access=free |issn=2071-1050}} Areas like golf courses, cemeteries, community gardens as well as residential gardens are all areas in urban settings that could benefit pollinator diversity by implementing native flowers to the landscape.{{Cite web |url=https://academic.oup.com/jipm/article/13/1/6/6546675 |access-date=2024-03-30 |website=academic.oup.com}} [160] => [161] => ==Ornaments and accessories== [162] => {{Main|Garden ornament}} [163] => [[File:Urn, Palm House.JPG|thumb|left|upright|A classical [[urn]] at Palm House, the [[Belfast Botanic Gardens]], [[Northern Ireland]], as [[garden ornament]]]] [164] => [165] => There is a wide range of [[garden ornament]]s and accessories available in the market for both the professional gardener and the amateur to exercise their creativity for example sculptures, lights or fountains. These are used to add decoration or functionality, and may be made from a wide range of materials such as copper, stone, wood, bamboo, [[stainless steel]], [[clay]], [[stained glass]], concrete, or iron. Examples include [[Trellis (architecture)|trellis]], [[garden furniture]], [[Garden gnome|gnomes]], [[Garden sculpture|statues]], [[outdoor fireplace]]s, [[fountain]]s, [[rain chain]]s, [[urns]], [[bird bath]]s and [[Bird feeder|feeders]], [[wind chime]]s, and garden lighting such as candle [[lanterns]] and [[oil lamps]]. The use of these items can be part of the expression of a gardener's gardening personality. [166] => [167] => ==As art== [168] => {{See also|Landscape architecture|Jupiter Artland}} [169] => [170] => Garden design is considered to be an art in most cultures, distinguished from gardening, which generally means ''garden maintenance''. Garden design can include different themes such as perennial, [[Butterfly gardening|butterfly]], [[Wildlife garden|wildlife]], [[Japanese garden|Japanese]], [[Water garden|water]], [[Tropical garden|tropical]], or [[Shade garden|shade]] gardens. [171] => [172] => In Japan, [[Samurai]] and [[Zen]] monks were often required to build decorative gardens or practice related skills like [[flower arrangement]] known as ''[[ikebana]]''. In 18th-century Europe, country estates were refashioned by landscape gardeners into formal gardens or landscaped park lands, such as at [[Palace of Versailles|Versailles]], France, or [[Stowe, Buckinghamshire|Stowe]], England. Today, [[landscape architect]]s and [[garden designer]]s continue to produce artistically creative designs for private garden spaces. In the US, professional landscape designers are certified by the Association of Professional Landscape Designers.{{cite web| url = http://www.apld.org/| title = APLD.org| access-date = 17 June 2009| archive-date = 19 December 2017| archive-url = https://web.archive.org/web/20171219081836/https://www.apld.org/| url-status = live}} [173] => [174] => ==See also== [175] => {{Div col|colwidth=22em}} [176] => * [[Arboretum]] [177] => * [[Bonsai]] [178] => * [[Cultigen]] [179] => * [[Eyecatcher (landscape)|Eyecatchers]] [180] => * [[Garden writing]] [181] => * [[Growbag]] [182] => * [[Introduced species]] [183] => * [[Impact gardening]] [184] => * [[List of gardening topics]] [185] => * [[List of horticulture and gardening books]] [186] => * [[List of professional gardeners]] [187] => * [[Master gardener program]] [188] => * [[No-dig gardening]] [189] => {{Div col end}} [190] => {{Portal bar|Gardening|Agriculture}} [191] => [192] => ==References== [193] => {{Reflist|30em}} [194] => [195] => ==External links== [196] => {{Wmog|gardening}} [197] => {{Commons category|Gardening}} [198] => * [http://www.garden.org National Gardening Association] (USA) [199] => * {{curlie|Home/Gardening}} [200] => [201] => {{Horticulture and Gardening}} [202] => {{Authority control}} [203] => [204] => [[Category:Gardening| ]] [] => )
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Gardening

Gardening is the practice of growing and cultivating plants as part of horticulture. People engage in gardening as a hobby, either as individuals or in community or allotment gardens.

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People engage in gardening as a hobby, either as individuals or in community or allotment gardens. Gardening is also considered a form of art and a therapeutic activity that provides numerous health benefits. The history of gardening dates back to ancient times, with evidence of early gardening practices found in Egyptian tomb paintings and writings from ancient Greece and Rome. Over the years, gardening has evolved and diversified, with different styles and techniques being developed in different regions. Gardening involves various tasks such as planting, weeding, watering, pruning, and harvesting. It can be done in different types of spaces, including backyard gardens, rooftop gardens, and indoor gardens. The choice of plants to grow depends on factors like climate, soil type, and personal preferences. Gardening has numerous benefits, including providing a source of fresh food, improving mental health, reducing stress, and enhancing physical fitness. It also plays a vital role in supporting biodiversity and conservation efforts by providing habitats for pollinators and other wildlife. In addition to traditional gardening, other forms of gardening have gained popularity in recent years, including container gardening, vertical gardening, and hydroponics. These methods allow for gardening in limited spaces and provide opportunities for urban dwellers to engage in the practice. The Wikipedia page on gardening covers various aspects of gardening, including its history, techniques, tools and equipment, types of gardens, and notable gardens around the world. It also provides information on specific gardening styles like organic gardening, permaculture, and landscape gardening. The page serves as a comprehensive resource for anyone interested in gardening, from beginners to experienced gardeners. Overall, gardening is a popular and rewarding hobby that offers numerous benefits for individuals and the environment. The Wikipedia page on gardening provides a wealth of information for those looking to learn more about this practice and engage in their own gardening endeavors.

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